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Di Martino E, Rayasam A, Vexler ZS. Brain Maturation as a Fundamental Factor in Immune-Neurovascular Interactions in Stroke. Transl Stroke Res 2024; 15:69-86. [PMID: 36705821 PMCID: PMC10796425 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-022-01111-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Injuries in the developing brain cause significant long-term neurological deficits. Emerging clinical and preclinical data have demonstrated that the pathophysiology of neonatal and childhood stroke share similar mechanisms that regulate brain damage, but also have distinct molecular signatures and cellular pathways. The focus of this review is on two different diseases-neonatal and childhood stroke-with emphasis on similarities and distinctions identified thus far in rodent models of these diseases. This includes the susceptibility of distinct cell types to brain injury with particular emphasis on the role of resident and peripheral immune populations in modulating stroke outcome. Furthermore, we discuss some of the most recent and relevant findings in relation to the immune-neurovascular crosstalk and how the influence of inflammatory mediators is dependent on specific brain maturation stages. Finally, we comment on the current state of treatments geared toward inducing neuroprotection and promoting brain repair after injury and highlight that future prophylactic and therapeutic strategies for stroke should be age-specific and consider gender differences in order to achieve optimal translational success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Di Martino
- Department of Neurology, University California San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA, 94158-0663, USA
| | - Aditya Rayasam
- Department of Neurology, University California San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA, 94158-0663, USA
| | - Zinaida S Vexler
- Department of Neurology, University California San Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA, 94158-0663, USA.
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Julien P, Zinni M, Bonnel N, El Kamouh M, Odorcyk F, Peters L, Gautier EF, Leduc M, Broussard C, Baud O. Synergistic effect of sildenafil combined with controlled hypothermia to alleviate microglial activation after neonatal hypoxia-ischemia in rats. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:31. [PMID: 38263116 PMCID: PMC10804557 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03022-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The only validated treatment to prevent brain damage associated with hypoxia-ischemia (HI) encephalopathy of the newborn is controlled hypothermia with limited benefits. Additional putative neuroprotective drug candidates include sildenafil citrate, a phosphodiesterase-type 5 inhibitor. The main objective of this preclinical study is to assess its ability to reduce HI-induced neuroinflammation, in particular through its potential effect on microglial activation. METHODS HI was induced in P10 Sprague-Dawley rats by unilateral carotid permanent artery occlusion and hypoxia (HI) and treated by either hypothermia (HT) alone, Sildenafil (Sild) alone or combined treatment (SildHT). Lesion size and glial activation were analyzed by immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR, and proteomic analyses performed at P13. RESULTS None of the treatments was associated with a significant early reduction in lesion size 72h after HI, despite significant changes in tissue loss distribution. Significant reductions in both Iba1 + (within the ipsilateral hemisphere) and GFAP + cells (within the ipsilateral hippocampus) were observed in SildHT group, but not in the other treatment groups. In microglia-sorted cells, pro-inflammatory markers, i.e. Il1b, Il6, Nos2, and CD86 were significantly downregulated in SildHT treatment group only. These changes were restricted to the ipsilateral hemisphere, were not evidenced in sorted astrocytes, and were not sex dependent. Proteomic analyses in sorted microglia refined the pro-inflammatory effect of HI and confirmed a biologically relevant impact of SildHT on specific molecular pathways including genes related to neutrophilic functions. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that Sildenafil combined with controlled hypothermia produces maximum effect in mitigating microglial activation induced by HI through complex proteomic regulation. The reduction of neuroinflammation induced by Sildenafil may represent an interesting therapeutic strategy for neonatal neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pansiot Julien
- Inserm UMR1141 NeuroDiderot, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Manuela Zinni
- Inserm UMR1141 NeuroDiderot, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Natacha Bonnel
- Inserm UMR1141 NeuroDiderot, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Marina El Kamouh
- Inserm UMR1141 NeuroDiderot, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Felipe Odorcyk
- Inserm UMR1141 NeuroDiderot, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Lea Peters
- Inserm UMR1141 NeuroDiderot, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Emilie-Fleur Gautier
- Institut Cochin, Proteom'IC Facility, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Marjorie Leduc
- Institut Cochin, Proteom'IC Facility, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Cédric Broussard
- Institut Cochin, Proteom'IC Facility, INSERM, CNRS, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Baud
- Inserm UMR1141 NeuroDiderot, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France.
- Laboratory of Child Growth and Development, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
- Division of Neonatology and Pediatric Intensive Care, Département de Pédiatrie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Genève, Laboratoire de Développement et Croissance, Children's University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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He Y, Ying J, Tang J, Zhou R, Qu H, Qu Y, Mu D. Neonatal Arterial Ischaemic Stroke: Advances in Pathologic Neural Death, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:2248-2266. [PMID: 35193484 PMCID: PMC9890291 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x20666220222144744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonatal arterial ischaemic stroke (NAIS) is caused by focal arterial occlusion and often leads to severe neurological sequelae. Neural deaths after NAIS mainly include necrosis, apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis. These neural deaths are mainly caused by upstream stimulations, including excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, inflammation, and death receptor pathways. The current clinical approaches to managing NAIS mainly focus on supportive treatments, including seizure control and anticoagulation. In recent years, research on the pathology, early diagnosis, and potential therapeutic targets of NAIS has progressed. In this review, we summarise the latest progress of research on the pathology, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of NAIS and highlight newly potential diagnostic and treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang He
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
| | - Junjie Ying
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
| | - Jun Tang
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
| | - Ruixi Zhou
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
| | - Haibo Qu
- Department of Radiology, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yi Qu
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
| | - Dezhi Mu
- Department of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children, Sichuan University, Ministry of Education, Chengdu, China
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Dietz RM, Dingman AL, Herson PS. Cerebral ischemia in the developing brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2022; 42:1777-1796. [PMID: 35765984 PMCID: PMC9536116 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x221111600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Brain ischemia affects all ages, from neonates to the elderly population, and is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity. Multiple preclinical rodent models involving different ages have been developed to investigate the effect of ischemia during different times of key brain maturation events. Traditional models of developmental brain ischemia have focused on rodents at postnatal day 7-10, though emerging models in juvenile rodents (postnatal days 17-25) indicate that there may be fundamental differences in neuronal injury and functional outcomes following focal or global cerebral ischemia at different developmental ages, as well as in adults. Here, we consider the timing of injury in terms of excitation/inhibition balance, oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, blood brain barrier integrity, and white matter injury. Finally, we review translational strategies to improve function after ischemic brain injury, including new ideas regarding neurorestoration, or neural repair strategies that restore plasticity, at delayed time points after ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Dietz
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
- Neuronal Injury Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Andra L Dingman
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
- Neuronal Injury Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Paco S Herson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH, USA
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The Alpha 7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Does Not Affect Neonatal Brain Injury. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10082023. [PMID: 36009570 PMCID: PMC9405910 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10082023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation plays a central role in the development of neonatal brain injury. The alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) can modulate inflammation and has shown promising results as a treatment target in rodent models of adult brain injury. However, little is known about the role of the α7nAChR in neonatal brain injury. Hypoxic-ischemic (HI) brain injury was induced in male and female C57BL/6 mice, α7nAChR knock-out (KO) mice and their littermate controls on postnatal day (PND) 9–10. C57BL/6 pups received i.p. injections of α7nAChR agonist PHA 568487 (8 mg/kg) or saline once daily, with the first dose given directly after HI. Caspase-3 activity and cytokine mRNA expression in the brain was analyzed 24 h after HI. Motor function was assessed 24 and 48 h after HI, and immunohistochemistry was used to assess tissue loss at 24 h and 7 days after HI and microglial activation 7 days after HI. Activation of α7nAChR with the agonist PHA 568487 significantly decreased CCL2/MCP-1, CCL5/RANTES and IL-6 gene expression in the injured brain hemisphere 24 h after HI compared with saline controls in male, but not female, pups. However, α7nAChR activation did not alter caspase-3 activity and TNFα, IL-1β and CD68 mRNA expression. Furthermore, agonist treatment did not affect motor function (24 or 48 h), neuronal tissue loss (24 h or 7 days) or microglia activation (7 days) after HI in either sex. Knock-out of α7nAChR did not influence neuronal tissue loss 7 days after HI. In conclusion, targeting the α7nAChR in neonatal brain injury shows some effect on dampening acute inflammatory responses in male pups. However, this does not lead to an effect on overall injury outcome.
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Xiong Y, Wintermark P. The Role of Sildenafil in Treating Brain Injuries in Adults and Neonates. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:879649. [PMID: 35620219 PMCID: PMC9127063 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.879649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Sildenafil is a recognized treatment for patients suffering from erectile dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension. However, new evidence suggests that it may have a neuroprotective and a neurorestorative role in the central nervous system of both adults and neonates. Phosphodiesterase type 5-the target of sildenafil-is distributed in many cells throughout the body, including neurons and glial cells. This study is a comprehensive review of the demonstrated effects of sildenafil on the brain with respect to its function, extent of injury, neurons, neuroinflammation, myelination, and cerebral vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xiong
- Department of Anesthesiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Pia Wintermark
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Montreal Children’s Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Pappas A, Shankaran S, McDonald SA, Carlo WA, Laptook AR, Tyson JE, Das A, Skogstrand K, Hougaard DM, Higgins RD. Blood Biomarkers and 6- to 7-Year Childhood Outcomes Following Neonatal Encephalopathy. Am J Perinatol 2022; 39:732-749. [PMID: 33038899 PMCID: PMC8765716 DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1717072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to profile the cytokine/chemokine response from day 0 to 7 in infants (≥36 weeks of gestational age) with neonatal encephalopathy (NE) and to explore the association with long-term outcomes. STUDY DESIGN This was a secondary study of the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Neonatal Research Network randomized controlled trial of whole body hypothermia for NE. Eligible infants with moderate-severe NE were randomized to cooling or normothermia. Blood spots were collected on days 0 to 1, 2 to 4, and 6 to 7. Twenty-four cytokines/chemokines were measured using a multiplex platform. Surviving infants underwent neurodevelopmental assessment at 6 to 7 years. Primary outcome was death or moderate-severe impairment defined by any of the following: intelligence quotient <70, moderate-severe cerebral palsy (CP), blindness, hearing impairment, or epilepsy. RESULTS Cytokine blood spots were collected from 109 participants. In total 99 of 109 (91%) were assessed at 6 to 7 years; 54 of 99 (55%) developed death/impairment. Neonates who died or were impaired had lower early regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES) and higher day 7 monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 levels than neonates who survived without impairment. Though TNF-α levels had no association with death/impairment, higher day 0 to 1 levels were observed among neonates who died/developed CP. On multiple regression analysis adjusted for center, treatment group, sex, race, and level of hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, higher RANTES was inversely associated with death/impairment (odds ratio (OR): 0.31, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.13-0.74), while day seven MCP-1 level was directly associated with death/impairment (OR: 3.70, 95% CI: 1.42-9.61). Targeted cytokine/chemokine levels demonstrated little variation with hypothermia treatment. CONCLUSION RANTES and MCP-1 levels in the first week of life may provide potential targets for future therapies among neonates with encephalopathy. KEY POINTS · Elevation of specific cytokines and chemokines in neonates with encephalopathy has been noted along with increased risk of neurodevelopmental impairment in infancy.. · Cytokine/chemokines at <7 days were assessed among neonates in a trial of hypothermia for HIE.. · Neonates who died or were impaired at 6 to 7 years following hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy had lower RANTES and higher MCP-1 levels than those who survived without impairment..
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Affiliation(s)
- Athina Pappas
- Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI
| | | | - Scott A. McDonald
- Social, Statistical and Environmental Sciences Unit, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC
| | - Waldemar A. Carlo
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham and Children’s Hospital of Alabama, Birmingham, AL
| | - Abbot R. Laptook
- Department of Pediatrics, Women & Infant’s Hospital, Brown University, Providence, RI
| | - Jon E. Tyson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX
| | - Abhik Das
- Social, Statistical and Environmental Sciences Unit, RTI International, Rockville, MD
| | - Kristin Skogstrand
- Department for Congenital Disorders, Center for Neonatal Screening, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen
| | - David M. Hougaard
- Department for Congenital Disorders, Center for Neonatal Screening, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen
| | - Rosemary D. Higgins
- Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia
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Peripheral immune cells and perinatal brain injury: a double-edged sword? Pediatr Res 2022; 91:392-403. [PMID: 34750522 PMCID: PMC8816729 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-021-01818-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Perinatal brain injury is the leading cause of neurological mortality and morbidity in childhood ranging from motor and cognitive impairment to behavioural and neuropsychiatric disorders. Various noxious stimuli, including perinatal inflammation, chronic and acute hypoxia, hyperoxia, stress and drug exposure contribute to the pathogenesis. Among a variety of pathological phenomena, the unique developing immune system plays an important role in the understanding of mechanisms of injury to the immature brain. Neuroinflammation following a perinatal insult largely contributes to evolution of damage to resident brain cells, but may also be beneficial for repair activities. The present review will focus on the role of peripheral immune cells and discuss processes involved in neuroinflammation under two frequent perinatal conditions, systemic infection/inflammation associated with encephalopathy of prematurity (EoP) and hypoxia/ischaemia in the context of neonatal encephalopathy (NE) and stroke at term. Different immune cell subsets in perinatal brain injury including their infiltration routes will be reviewed and critical aspects such as sex differences and maturational stage will be discussed. Interactions with existing regenerative therapies such as stem cells and also potentials to develop novel immunomodulatory targets are considered. IMPACT: Comprehensive summary of current knowledge on the role of different immune cell subsets in perinatal brain injury including discussion of critical aspects to be considered for development of immunomodulatory therapies.
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Lecuyer M, Pathipati P, Faustino J, Vexler ZS. Neonatal stroke enhances interaction of microglia-derived extracellular vesicles with microglial cells. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 157:105431. [PMID: 34153465 PMCID: PMC9068249 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglial cells support brain homeostasis under physiological conditions and modulate brain injury in a context-dependent and brain maturation-dependent manner. Microglial cells protect neonatal brain from acute stroke. While microglial signaling via direct cell-cell interaction and release of variety of molecules is intensely studied, less is known about microglial signaling via release and uptake of extracellular vesicles (EVs). We asked whether neonatal stroke alters release of microglial EVs (MEV) and MEV communication with activated microglia. We pulled down and plated microglia from ischemic-reperfused and contralateral cortex 24 h after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) in postnatal day 9 mice, isolated and characterized microglia-derived microvesicles (P3-MEV) and exosomes (P4-MEV), and determined uptake of fluorescently labeled P3-MEV and P4-MEV by plated microglia derived from ischemic-reperfused and contralateral cortex. We then examined how reducing EVs release in neonatal brain-by intra-cortical injection of CRISPR-Cas9-Smpd3/KO (Smpd3/KD) to downregulate Smpd3 gene to disrupt neutral sphingomyelinase-2 (N-SMase2)-impacts P3-MEV and P4-MEV release and stroke injury. Both size and protein composition differed between P3-MEV and P4-MEV. tMCAO further altered protein composition of P3-MEV and P4-MEV and significantly, up to 5-fold, increased uptake of both vesicle subtypes by microglia from ischemic-reperfused regions. Under physiological conditions neurons were the predominant cell type expressing N-SMase-2, an enzyme involved in lipid signaling and EVs release. After tMCAO N-SMase-2 expression was diminished in injured neurons but increased in activated microglia/macrophages, leading to overall reduced N-SMase-2 activity. Compared to intracerebral injection of control plasmid, CRISPR-Cas9-Smpd3/Ct, Smpd3/KD injection further reduced N-SMase-2 activity and significantly reduced injury. Smpd3 downregulation decreased MEV release from injured regions, reduced Smpd3/KD-P3-MEV uptake and abolished Smpd3/KD-P4-MEV uptake by microglia from ischemic-reperfused region. Cumulatively, these data demonstrate that microglial cells release both microvesicles and exosomes in naïve neonatal brain, that the state of microglial activation determines both properties of released EVs and their recognition/uptake by microglia in ischemic-reperfused and control regions, suggesting a modulatory role of MEV in neonatal stroke, and that sphingosine/N-SMase-2 signaling contributes both to EVs release and uptake (predominantly P4-MEV) after neonatal stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Joel Faustino
- Department of Neurology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Hammarlund ME, Darsalia V, Mjörnstedt F, Pattanaik B, Mallard C, Rocha-Ferreira E, Patrone C, Johansson M. The selective alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist AR-R17779 does not affect ischemia-reperfusion brain injury in mice. Biosci Rep 2021; 41:BSR20210736. [PMID: 34008839 PMCID: PMC8200656 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20210736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation plays a central role in stroke-induced brain injury. The alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) can modulate immune responses in both the periphery and the brain. The aims of the present study were to investigate α7nAChR expression in different brain regions and evaluate the potential effect of the selective α7nAChR agonist AR-R17779 on ischemia-reperfusion brain injury in mice. Droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) was used to evaluate the absolute expression of the gene encoding α7nAChR (Chrna7) in hippocampus, striatum, thalamus and cortex in adult, naïve mice. Mice subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) or sham surgery were treated with α7nAChR agonist AR-R17779 (12 mg/kg) or saline once daily for 5 days. Infarct size and microglial activation 7 days after tMCAO were analyzed using immunohistochemistry. Chrna7 expression was found in all analyzed brain regions in naïve mice with the highest expression in cortex and hippocampus. At sacrifice, white blood cell count was significantly decreased in AR-R17779 treated mice compared with saline controls in the sham groups, although, no effect was seen in the tMCAO groups. Brain injury and microglial activation were evident 7 days after tMCAO. However, no difference was found between mice treated with saline or AR-R17779. In conclusion, α7nAChR expression varies in different brain regions and, despite a decrease in white blood cells in sham mice receiving AR-R17779, this compound does not affect stroke-induced brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria E. Hammarlund
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Vladimer Darsalia
- Department of Clinical Science and Education, Södersjukhuset, Internal Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Filip Mjörnstedt
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Bagmi Pattanaik
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carina Mallard
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Eridan Rocha-Ferreira
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Cesare Patrone
- Department of Clinical Science and Education, Södersjukhuset, Internal Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maria E. Johansson
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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Dumbuya JS, Chen L, Wu JY, Wang B. The role of G-CSF neuroprotective effects in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE): current status. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:55. [PMID: 33612099 PMCID: PMC7897393 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is an important cause of permanent damage to central nervous system (CNS) that may result in neonatal death or manifest later as mental retardation, epilepsy, cerebral palsy, or developmental delay. The primary cause of this condition is systemic hypoxemia and/or reduced cerebral blood flow with long-lasting neurological disabilities and neurodevelopmental impairment in neonates. About 20 to 25% of infants with HIE die in the neonatal period, and 25-30% of survivors are left with permanent neurodevelopmental abnormalities. The mechanisms of hypoxia-ischemia (HI) include activation and/or stimulation of myriad of cascades such as increased excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor hyperexcitability, mitochondrial collapse, inflammation, cell swelling, impaired maturation, and loss of trophic support. Different therapeutic modalities have been implicated in managing neonatal HIE, though translation of most of these regimens into clinical practices is still limited. Therapeutic hypothermia, for instance, is the most widely used standard treatment in neonates with HIE as studies have shown that it can inhibit many steps in the excito-oxidative cascade including secondary energy failure, increases in brain lactic acid, glutamate, and nitric oxide concentration. Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) is a glycoprotein that has been implicated in stimulation of cell survival, proliferation, and function of neutrophil precursors and mature neutrophils. Extensive studies both in vivo and ex vivo have shown the neuroprotective effect of G-CSF in neurodegenerative diseases and neonatal brain damage via inhibition of apoptosis and inflammation. Yet, there are still few experimentation models of neonatal HIE and G-CSF's effectiveness, and extrapolation of adult stroke models is challenging because of the evolving brain. Here, we review current studies and/or researches of G-CSF's crucial role in regulating these cytokines and apoptotic mediators triggered following neonatal brain injury, as well as driving neurogenesis and angiogenesis post-HI insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Sieh Dumbuya
- Department of Pediatrics, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, People's Republic of China
| | - Lu Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, People's Republic of China
| | - Jang-Yen Wu
- Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510282, People's Republic of China.
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12
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Ginsberg Y, Gutzeit O, Hadad S, Divon MY, Khatib N, Fainaru O, Weiner Z, Beloosesky R. Maternal Progesterone Treatment Reduces Maternal Inflammation-Induced Fetal Brain Injury in a Mouse Model of Preterm Birth. Reprod Sci 2021; 28:166-176. [PMID: 32833191 DOI: 10.1007/s43032-020-00272-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Maternal natural vaginal progesterone (nVP) administration has been shown to reduce the risk of preterm birth (PTB). The largest randomized trial of nVP for PTB (OPPTIMUM) noted a sonographic reduction in neonatal brain injury following nVP treatment. We investigated the neuroinflammatory protective effect of maternal nVP in a mouse model for maternal inflammation. Pregnant mice (n = 24) were randomized to nVP (1 mg/day) or vehicle from days 13-16 of gestation. At days 15 and 16, lipopolysaccharide (30 μg) or saline were administered. Mice were sacrificed 4 h following the last injection. Fetal brains and placentas were collected. Levels of NF-κB, nNOS, IL-6, and TNFα were determined by Western blot. Maternal lipopolysaccharide significantly increased fetal brain levels of IL-6 (0.33 ± 0.02 vs. 0.11 ± 0.01 u), TNFα (0.3 ± 0.02 vs. 0.10 ± 0.01 u), NF-κB (0.32 ± 0.01 vs. 0.17 ± 0.01 u), and nNOS (0.24 ± 0.04 vs. 0.08 ± 0.01 u), and reduced the total glutathione levels (0.014 ± 0.001 vs. 0.026 ± 0.001 pmol/μl; p < 0.01) compared with control. Maternal nVP significantly reduced fetal brain levels of IL-6 (0.14 ± 0.01 vs. 0.33 ± 0.02 u), TNFα (0.2 ± 0.06 vs. 0.3 ± 0.02 u), NF-κB (0.16 ± 0.01 vs 0.32 ± 0.01 u), and nNOS (0.14 ± 0.01 vs 0.24 ± 0.04 u), and prevented the reduction of fetal brain total glutathione levels (0.022 ± 0.001 vs. 0.014 ± 0.001 pmol/μl; p < 0.01) to levels similar to controls. A similar pattern was demonstrated in the placenta. Maternal nVP for PTB may protect the fetal brain from inflammation-induced brain injury by inhibiting specific inflammatory and oxidative pathways in both brain and placenta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuval Ginsberg
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Rambam Health Care Campus, 8 Ha'alya St., 38302, Haifa, Israel.
| | - Ola Gutzeit
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Rambam Health Care Campus, 8 Ha'alya St., 38302, Haifa, Israel
| | - Salim Hadad
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Rambam Health Care Campus, 8 Ha'alya St., 38302, Haifa, Israel
| | - Michael Y Divon
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Lenox Hill Hospital, Northwell Health, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Nizar Khatib
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Rambam Health Care Campus, 8 Ha'alya St., 38302, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ofer Fainaru
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Rambam Health Care Campus, 8 Ha'alya St., 38302, Haifa, Israel
| | - Zeev Weiner
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Rambam Health Care Campus, 8 Ha'alya St., 38302, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ron Beloosesky
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,Rambam Health Care Campus, 8 Ha'alya St., 38302, Haifa, Israel
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Zhang W, Zhu L, An C, Wang R, Yang L, Yu W, Li P, Gao Y. The blood brain barrier in cerebral ischemic injury – Disruption and repair. BRAIN HEMORRHAGES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hest.2019.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
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14
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Saito M, Saito M, Das BC. Involvement of AMP-activated protein kinase in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the adult and developing brain. Int J Dev Neurosci 2019; 77:48-59. [PMID: 30707928 PMCID: PMC6663660 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2019.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglial activation followed by neuroinflammation is a defense mechanism of the brain to eliminate harmful endogenous and exogenous materials including pathogens and damaged tissues, while excessive or chronic neuroinflammation may cause or exacerbate neurodegeneration observed in brain injuries and neurodegenerative diseases. Depending on conditions/environments during activation, microglia acquire distinct phenotypes, such as pro-inflammatory, anti-inflammatory, and disease-associated phenotypes, and show their ability to phagocytose various objects and produce pro-and anti-inflammatory mediators. Prevention of excessive inflammation by regulating the microglia's pro/anti-inflammatory balance is important for alleviating progression of brain injuries and diseases. Among many factors involved in the regulation of microglial phenotypes, cellular energy status plays an important role. Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which serves as a master sensor and regulator of energy balance, is considered a candidate molecule. Accumulating evidence from adult rodent studies indicates that AMPK activation promotes anti-inflammatory responses in microglia exposed to danger signals or various stressors mainly through inhibition of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling and activation of the nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor-2 (Nrf2) pathway. However, AMPK activation in neurons exposed to stressors/insults may exacerbate neuronal damage if AMPK activation is excessive or prolonged. While AMPK affects microglial activation states and neuronal cell survival rates in both the adult and the developing brain, studies in the developing brain are still scarce, even though activated AMPK is highly expressed especially in the neonatal brain. More in depth studies in the developing brain are important, because neuroinflammation/neurodegeneration occurred during development can result in long-lasting brain damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariko Saito
- Division of Neurochemistry, Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research 140 Old Orangeburg, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center 550 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Mitsuo Saito
- Division of Analytical Psychopharmacology, Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research 140 Old Orangeburg, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA
| | - Bhaskar C. Das
- Departments of Medicine and Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai 1468 Madison Avenue, Annenberg 19-201, New York, NY 10029, USA
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15
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Krystofova J, Pathipati P, Russ J, Sheldon A, Ferriero D. The Arginase Pathway in Neonatal Brain Hypoxia-Ischemia. Dev Neurosci 2019; 40:437-450. [PMID: 30995639 PMCID: PMC6784534 DOI: 10.1159/000496467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain damage after hypoxia-ischemia (HI) occurs in an age-dependent manner. Neuroprotective strategies assumed to be effective in adults might have deleterious effects in the immature brain. In order to create effective therapies, the complex pathophysiology of HI in the developing brain requires exploring new mechanisms. Critical determinants of neuronal survival after HI are the extent of vascular dysfunction, inflammation, and oxidative stress, followed later by tissue repair. The key enzyme of these processes in the human body is arginase (ARG) that acts via the bioavailability of nitric oxide, and the synthesis of polyamines and proline. ARG is expressed throughout the brain in different cells. However, little is known about the effect of ARG in pathophysiological states of the brain, especially hypoxia-ischemia. Here, we summarize the role of ARG during neurodevelopment as well as in various brain pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Krystofova
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA,
| | - Praneeti Pathipati
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Jeffrey Russ
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Ann Sheldon
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Donna Ferriero
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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16
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Rodent Models of Developmental Ischemic Stroke for Translational Research: Strengths and Weaknesses. Neural Plast 2019; 2019:5089321. [PMID: 31093271 PMCID: PMC6476045 DOI: 10.1155/2019/5089321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia can occur at any stage in life, but clinical consequences greatly differ depending on the developmental stage of the affected brain structures. Timing of the lesion occurrence seems to be critical, as it strongly interferes with neuronal circuit development and determines the way spontaneous plasticity takes place. Translational stroke research requires the use of animal models as they represent a reliable tool to understand the pathogenic mechanisms underlying the generation, progression, and pathological consequences of a stroke. Moreover, in vivo experiments are instrumental to investigate new therapeutic strategies and the best temporal window of intervention. Differently from adults, very few models of the human developmental stroke have been characterized, and most of them have been established in rodents. The models currently used provide a better understanding of the molecular factors involved in the effects of ischemia; however, they still hold many limitations due to matching developmental stages across different species and the complexity of the human disorder that hardly can be described by segregated variables. In this review, we summarize the key factors contributing to neonatal brain vulnerability to ischemic strokes and we provide an overview of the advantages and limitations of the currently available models to recapitulate different aspects of the human developmental stroke.
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17
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Mohamed SK, Ahmed AAE, El Morsy EM, Nofal S. The protective effect of zeranol in cerebral ischemia reperfusion via p-CREB overexpression. Life Sci 2019; 217:212-221. [PMID: 30550883 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Cerebral ischemia reperfusion (I/R) is a neurovascular disease leading to cerebral damage. It was found that postmenopausal women are liable to more dangerous effects than men at same age in stroke. The objective of this study is to investigate the neuroprotective effect of zeranol against cerebral ischemia reperfusion in ovariectomized rats. MAIN METHODS 36 female wistar rats divided in to 3 groups: sham group, I/R group (where I/R was induced 7 weeks after ovariectomy), zeranol group (0.5 mg/kg every 3 days for 5 weeks before I/R). Cerebral ischemia reperfusion (I/R) was performed by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion then de-ligated to restore blood flow. After 24 h of reperfusion, rats performed cylinder test to evaluate behavioral dysfunction followed by decapitation. Brain tissues were collected for biochemical measures such as oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde, antioxidant markers reduced glutathione, inflammatory markers (interleukin-1 beta, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and inducible nitric oxide synthase), matrix metalloproteinase-9, adenosine triphosphate, brain derived neurotrophic factor, glucose transporter-3, phosphorylated c-AMP response element binding protein and finally nissl staining for histopathological examination. KEY FINDINGS The zeranol administered group showed a reversal of neuronal damage caused by ischemia evidenced by the decrease in MDA, IL-1β, TNF-α, and MMP-9 levels, increase GSH, and ATP levels, decrease expression of iNOS in both regions cortex and hippocampus, increase protein level of p-CREB, GLUT-3 and BDNF, increase number of intact neuron cells in both regions and attenuated histological changes in both cortex and hippocampus regions. SIGNIFICANCE Zeranol has neuroprotective potential against cerebral ischemia reperfusion in ovariectomized rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimaa K Mohamed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Ein Helwan, Cairo 11795, Egypt
| | - Amany A E Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Ein Helwan, Cairo 11795, Egypt
| | - Engy M El Morsy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Ein Helwan, Cairo 11795, Egypt
| | - Shahira Nofal
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Helwan University, Ein Helwan, Cairo 11795, Egypt.
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18
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Lin R, Cai J, Kenyon L, Iozzo R, Rosenwasser R, Iacovitti L. Systemic Factors Trigger Vasculature Cells to Drive Notch Signaling and Neurogenesis in Neural Stem Cells in the Adult Brain. Stem Cells 2018; 37:395-406. [PMID: 30431198 PMCID: PMC7028145 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
It is well documented that adult neural stem cells (NSCs) residing in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the subgranular zone (SGZ) are induced to proliferate and differentiate into new neurons after injury such as stroke and hypoxia. However, the role of injury‐related cues in driving this process and the means by which they communicate with NSCs remains largely unknown. Recently, the coupling of neurogenesis and angiogenesis and the extensive close contact between vascular cells and other niche cells, known as the neurovascular unit (NVU), has attracted interest. Further facilitating communication between blood and NSCs is a permeable blood‐brain‐barrier (BBB) present in most niches, making vascular cells a potential conduit between systemic signals, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and NSCs in the niche, which could play an important role in regulating neurogenesis. We show that the leaky BBB in stem cell niches of the intact and stroke brain can respond to circulating VEGF165 to drive induction of the Notch ligand DLL4 (one of the most important cues in angiogenesis) in endothelial cells (ECs), pericytes, and further induce significant proliferation and neurogenesis of stem cells. Stem Cells2019;37:395–406
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruihe Lin
- Department of Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,The Joseph and Marie Field Cerebrovascular Research Laboratory, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Vickie & Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jingli Cai
- Department of Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,The Joseph and Marie Field Cerebrovascular Research Laboratory, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Vickie & Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Lawrence Kenyon
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, & Cell Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Renato Iozzo
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy, & Cell Biology, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Robert Rosenwasser
- The Joseph and Marie Field Cerebrovascular Research Laboratory, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Vickie & Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Neurological Surgery, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Lorraine Iacovitti
- Department of Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,The Joseph and Marie Field Cerebrovascular Research Laboratory, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Vickie & Jack Farber Institute for Neuroscience, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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19
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Nasser M, Ballout N, Mantash S, Bejjani F, Najdi F, Ramadan N, Soueid J, Zibara K, Kobeissy F. Transplantation of Embryonic Neural Stem Cells and Differentiated Cells in a Controlled Cortical Impact (CCI) Model of Adult Mouse Somatosensory Cortex. Front Neurol 2018; 9:895. [PMID: 30405520 PMCID: PMC6208009 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death worldwide. Depending on the severity of the injury, TBI can reflect a broad range of consequences such as speech impairment, memory disturbances, and premature death. In this study, embryonic neural stem cells (ENSC) were isolated from E14 mouse embryos and cultured to produce neurospheres which were induced to generate differentiated cells (DC). As a cell replacement treatment option, we aimed to transplant ENSC or DC into the adult injured C57BL/6 mouse cortex controlled cortical impact (CCI) model, 7 days post-trauma, in comparison to saline injection (control). The effect of grafted cells on neuroinflammation and neurogenesis was investigated at 1 and 4 weeks post-transplantation. Results showed that microglia were activated following mild CCI, but not enhanced after engraftment of ENSC or DC. Indeed, ipsilateral lesioned somatosensory area expressed high levels of Iba-1+ microglia within the different groups after 1 and 4 weeks. On the other hand, treatment with ENSC or DC demonstrated a significant reduction in astrogliosis. The levels of GFAP expressing astrocytes started decreasing early (1 week) in the ENSC group and then were similarly low at 4 weeks in both ENSC and DC. Moreover, neurogenesis was significantly enhanced in ENSC and DC groups. Indeed, a significant increase in the number of DCX expressing progenitor cells was observed at 1 week in the ENSC group, and in DC and ENSC groups at 4 weeks. Furthermore, the number of mature neuronal cells (NeuN+) significantly increased in DC group at 4 weeks whereas they decreased in ENSC group at 1 week. Therefore, injection of ENSC or DC post-CCI caused decreased astrogliosis and suggested an increased neurogenesis via inducing neural progenitor proliferation and expression rather than neuronal maturation. Thus, ENSC may play a role in replacing lost cells and brain repair following TBI by improving neurogenesis and reducing neuroinflammation, reflecting an optimal environment for transplanted and newly born cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Nasser
- Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences-I, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon.,ER045, PRASE, DSST, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | | | - Sarah Mantash
- ER045, PRASE, DSST, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | | | - Farah Najdi
- ER045, PRASE, DSST, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Naify Ramadan
- ER045, PRASE, DSST, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Jihane Soueid
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Kazem Zibara
- Biology Department, Faculty of Sciences-I, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon.,ER045, PRASE, DSST, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Firas Kobeissy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
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20
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Faustino-Mendes T, Machado-Pereira M, Castelo-Branco M, Ferreira R. The Ischemic Immature Brain: Views on Current Experimental Models. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:277. [PMID: 30210301 PMCID: PMC6123378 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Machado-Pereira
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.,Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Miguel Castelo-Branco
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.,Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.,Hospital Center of Cova da Beira, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Raquel Ferreira
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.,Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
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21
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Machado-Pereira M, Santos T, Ferreira L, Bernardino L, Ferreira R. Intravenous administration of retinoic acid-loaded polymeric nanoparticles prevents ischemic injury in the immature brain. Neurosci Lett 2018. [PMID: 29518539 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2018.02.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Perinatal stroke is often difficult to diagnose and an established treatment has not yet been validated, except for symptomatic measures. Herein, we propose to test the neuroprotective potential of the intravenous injection of retinoic acid-loaded nanoparticles (RA-NP) upon ischemic injury to the immature brain. The role of RA-NP on endothelial cells and organotypic slice cultures exposed to oxygen and glucose deprivation was assessed by evaluating markers pertaining to survival, proliferation, oxidative stress (NO, ROS), neuronal damage (enolase), vascular oxidation (p47phox) and microglia activation (CD68). Data showed that RA-NP (3 μg/ml) increased endothelial proliferation and survival, and normalized NO and ROS levels. The intravenous administration of RA-NP (10 μg/g) prevented ischemic injury in the hippocampus of 2-day-old mice by inhibiting cell death and normalizing markers of neurovascular function and inflammation. In sum, systemic administration of RA-NP protected neurovascular integrity and the inflammatory milieu from ischemia in the immature brain, highlighting its therapeutic value for perinatal stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Machado-Pereira
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Rua Marquês d'Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Tiago Santos
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Rua Marquês d'Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Lino Ferreira
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra (IIIUC), Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Liliana Bernardino
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Rua Marquês d'Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Raquel Ferreira
- Health Sciences Research Centre (CICS-UBI), University of Beira Interior, Rua Marquês d'Ávila e Bolama, 6201-001, Covilhã, Portugal.
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22
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Dietz RM, Wright CJ. Oxidative stress diseases unique to the perinatal period: A window into the developing innate immune response. Am J Reprod Immunol 2017; 79:e12787. [PMID: 29194835 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system has evolved to play an integral role in the normally developing lung and brain. However, in response to oxidative stress, innate immunity, mediated by specific cellular and molecular programs and signaling, contributes to pathology in these same organ systems. Despite opposing drivers of oxidative stress, namely hyperoxia in neonatal lung injury and hypoxia/ischemia in neonatal brain injury, similar pathways-including toll-like receptors, NFκB and MAPK cascades-have been implicated in tissue damage. In this review, we consider recent insights into the innate immune response to oxidative stress in both neonatal and adult models to better understand hyperoxic lung injury and hypoxic-ischemic brain injury across development and aging. These insights support the development of targeted immunotherapeutic strategies to address the challenge of harnessing the innate immune system in oxidative stress diseases of the neonate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M Dietz
- Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine and Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Clyde J Wright
- Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine and Children's Hospital Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
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23
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Goreisan Inhibits Upregulation of Aquaporin 4 and Formation of Cerebral Edema in the Rat Model of Juvenile Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2017; 2017:3209219. [PMID: 29234383 PMCID: PMC5664190 DOI: 10.1155/2017/3209219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 07/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Secondary cerebral edema regulation is of prognostic significance in hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE), and aquaporin 4 (AQP4) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of cerebral edema. The traditional Japanese herbal medicine Goreisan relieves brain edema in adults; however, its effect and pharmacological mechanism in children are unknown. We investigated the effects of Goreisan on HIE-associated brain edema and AQP4 expression in a juvenile rat model, established by combined occlusion of middle cerebral and common carotid arteries. Magnetic resonance imaging showed that the lesion areas were significantly smaller in the Goreisan- (2 g/kg) treated group than in the nontreated (saline) group at 24 and 48 h postoperatively. AQP4 mRNA levels in the lesion and nonlesion sides were significantly suppressed in the Goreisan group compared with the nontreated group 36 h postoperatively. Western blotting revealed that levels of AQP4 protein were significantly decreased in the Goreisan group compared with the nontreated group in the lesion side 72 h postoperatively, but not at 12 or 36 h. After 14 days, the Goreisan group had a significantly better survival rate. These findings suggest that Goreisan suppresses brain edema in HIE and improves survival in juvenile rats, possibly via regulation of AQP4 expression and function.
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24
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Min Y, Li H, Xu K, Huang Y, Xiao J, Wang W, Li L, Yang T, Huang L, Yang L, Jiang H, Wang Q, Zhao M, Hua H, Mei R, Li F. Minocycline-Suppression of Early Peripheral Inflammation Reduces Hypoxia-Induced Neonatal Brain Injury. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:511. [PMID: 28955196 PMCID: PMC5600962 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
While extensive studies report that neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI) induces long-term cognitive impairment via inflammatory responses in the brain, little is known about the role of early peripheral inflammation response in HI injury. Here we used a neonatal hypoxia rodent model by subjecting postnatal day 0 (P0d) rat pups to systemic hypoxia (3.5 h), a condition that is commonly seen in clinic neonates, Then, an initial dose of minocycline (45 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) 2 h after the hypoxia exposure ended, followed by half dosage (22.5 mg/kg) minocycline treatment for next 6 consecutive days daily. Saline was injected as vehicle control. To examine how early peripheral inflammation responded to hypoxia and whether this peripheral inflammation response was associated to cognitive deficits. We found that neonatal hypoxia significantly increased leukocytes not only in blood, but also increased the monocytes in central nervous system (CNS), indicated by presence of C-C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2+)/CD11b+CD45+ positive cells and CCR2 protein expression level. The early onset of peripheral inflammation response was followed by a late onset of brain inflammation that was demonstrated by level of cytokine IL-1β and ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1(Iba-1; activated microglial cell marker). Interrupted blood-brain barrier (BBB), hypomyelination and learning and memory deficits were seen after hypoxia. Interestingly, the cognitive function was highly correlated with hypoxia-induced leukocyte response. Notably, administration of minocycline even after the onset of hypoxia significantly suppressed leukocyte-mediated inflammation as well as brain inflammation, demonstrating neuroprotection in systemic hypoxia-induced brain damage. Our data provided new insights that systemic hypoxia induces cognitive dysfunction, which involves the leukocyte-mediated peripheral inflammation response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingjun Min
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Hongchun Li
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Kaiyu Xu
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Yilong Huang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Jie Xiao
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Weizhou Wang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Longjun Li
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Ting Yang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Lixuan Huang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Ling Yang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Min Zhao
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histoembryology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - HaiRong Hua
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
| | - Rong Mei
- Department of Neurology, Yunnan First People's HospitalKunming, China
| | - Fan Li
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical UniversityKunming, China
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Xiang J, Routhe LJ, Wilkinson DA, Hua Y, Moos T, Xi G, Keep RF. The choroid plexus as a site of damage in hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke and its role in responding to injury. Fluids Barriers CNS 2017; 14:8. [PMID: 28351417 PMCID: PMC5371201 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-017-0056-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
While the impact of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes on the blood–brain barrier has been extensively studied, the impact of these types of stroke on the choroid plexus, site of the blood-CSF barrier, has received much less attention. The purpose of this review is to examine evidence of choroid plexus injury in clinical and preclinical studies of intraventricular hemorrhage, subarachnoid hemorrhage, intracerebral hemorrhage and ischemic stroke. It then discusses evidence that the choroid plexuses are important in the response to brain injury, with potential roles in limiting damage. The overall aim of the review is to highlight deficiencies in our knowledge on the impact of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes on the choroid plexus, particularly with reference to intraventricular hemorrhage, and to suggest that a greater understanding of the response of the choroid plexus to stroke may open new avenues for brain protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianming Xiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 BSRB, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA
| | - Lisa J Routhe
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - D Andrew Wilkinson
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 BSRB, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA
| | - Ya Hua
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 BSRB, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA
| | - Torben Moos
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Guohua Xi
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 BSRB, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA
| | - Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 BSRB, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA. .,Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA.
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Chip S, Fernández-López D, Li F, Faustino J, Derugin N, Vexler ZS. Genetic deletion of galectin-3 enhances neuroinflammation, affects microglial activation and contributes to sub-chronic injury in experimental neonatal focal stroke. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 60:270-281. [PMID: 27836669 PMCID: PMC7909718 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathophysiology of neonatal stroke and adult stroke are distinct in many aspects, including the inflammatory response. We previously showed endogenously protective functions of microglial cells in acute neonatal stroke. We asked if galectin-3 (Gal3), a pleotropic molecule that mediates interactions between microglia/macrophages and the extracellular matrix (ECM), plays a role in early injury after transient middle cerebral occlusion (tMCAO) in postnatal day 9-10 mice. Compared to wild type (WT) pups, in Gal3 knockout pups injury was worse and cytokine/chemokine production altered, including further increase of MIP1α and MIP1β levels and reduced IL6 levels 72h after tMCAO. Lack of Gal3 did not affect morphological transformation or proliferation of microglia but markedly attenuated accumulation of CD11b+/CD45med-high cells after injury, as determined by multi-color flow cytometry. tMCAO increased expression of αV and β3 integrin subunits in CD11b+/CD45low microglial cells and cells of non-monocyte lineage (CD11b-/CD45-), but not in CD11b+/CD45med-high cells within injured regions of WT mice or Gal3-/- mice. αV upregulated in areas occupied and not occupied by CD68+ cells, most prominently in the ECM, lining blood vessels, with expanded αV coverage in Gal3-/- mice. Cumulatively, these data show that lack of Gal3 worsens subchronic injury after neonatal focal stroke, likely by altering the neuroinflammatory milieu, including an imbalance between pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules, effects on microglial activation, and deregulation of the composition of the ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Zinaida S. Vexler
- Corresponding author at: University California San Francisco, Department of Neurology, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA 94158-0663, USA. (Z.S. Vexler)
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Hanlon LA, Raghupathi R, Huh JW. Differential effects of minocycline on microglial activation and neurodegeneration following closed head injury in the neonate rat. Exp Neurol 2016; 290:1-14. [PMID: 28038986 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The role of microglia in the pathophysiology of injury to the developing brain has been extensively studied. In children under the age of 4 who have sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI), markers of microglial/macrophage activation were increased in the cerebrospinal fluid and were associated with worse neurologic outcome. Minocycline is an antibiotic that decreases microglial/macrophage activation following hypoxic-ischemia in neonatal rodents and TBI in adult rodents thereby reducing neurodegeneration and behavioral deficits. In study 1, 11-day-old rats received an impact to the intact skull and were treated for 3days with minocycline. Immediately following termination of minocycline administration, microglial reactivity was reduced in the cortex and hippocampus (p<0.001) and was accompanied by an increase in the number of fluoro-Jade B profiles (p<0.001) suggestive of a reduced clearance of degenerating cells; however, this effect was not sustained at 7days post-injury. Although microglial reactivity was reduced in the white matter tracts (p<0.001), minocycline treatment did not reduce axonal injury or degeneration. In the thalamus, minocycline treatment did not affect microglial reactivity, axonal injury and degeneration, and neurodegeneration. Injury-induced spatial learning and memory deficits were also not affected by minocycline. In study 2, to test whether extended dosing of minocycline may be necessary to reduce the ongoing pathologic alterations, a separate group of animals received minocycline for 9days. Immediately following termination of treatment, microglial reactivity and neurodegeneration in all regions examined were exacerbated in minocycline-treated brain-injured animals compared to brain-injured animals that received vehicle (p<0.001), an effect that was only sustained in the cortex and hippocampus up to 15days post-injury (p<0.001). Whereas injury-induced spatial learning deficits remained unaffected by minocycline treatment, memory deficits appeared to be significantly worse (p<0.05). Sex had minimal effects on either injury-induced alterations or the efficacy of minocycline treatment. Collectively, these data demonstrate the differential effects of minocycline in the immature brain following impact trauma and suggest that minocycline may not be an effective therapeutic strategy for TBI in the immature brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Hanlon
- Program in Neuroscience, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - R Raghupathi
- Program in Neuroscience, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Coatesville Veteran's Administration Medical Center, Coatesville, PA, United States
| | - J W Huh
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
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28
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Tuor UI, Qiao M, Sule M, Morgunov M, Foniok T. Magnetic resonance imaging of ischemic injury produced by varying severities of photothrombosis differs in neonatal and adult brain. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2016; 29:1700-1708. [PMID: 27731914 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.3626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Stroke is a major cause of disability in adults and children. Recently, we have developed an adult rat model of minor stroke containing a peri-infarct region with a modest T2 increase and mild ischemic damage. We hypothesized that a neonatal minor stroke with mild peri-ischemic changes could also be produced, but with potential ontogenic differences. Using our minor photothrombosis method, we produced a range of severities of ischemic lesions (mini, minor, moderate and severe) within magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) slices of adult and neonatal rats. In both age groups, the lesion region showed a marked increase in T2 and diffusion-weighted intensity and decrease in apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), corresponding to a cortical infarct detected using fluorojade and hematoxylin and eosin staining. Perilesional regions showed modest increases in T2 and ADC in adults, but not neonates, and this corresponded to scattered cell death, but not necessarily extravasation of plasma protein, i.e. blood-brain barrier disruption. Mini and minor insults in neonates generally showed homogeneous and rather modest changes in T2 and ADC. MR perfusion maps demonstrated a penumbral area of greater hypoperfusion in adults compared with neonates. Together, the results indicate that, in neonatal cortex, a similar severity of photothrombosis occurs throughout the area of photoactivation, whereas, in adult brain, spontaneous clot lysis and/or partial thrombosis occurs adjacent to permanently occluded vessels. Thus, by comparing differing severities of photothrombotic ischemia in neonates and adults, ontogenic differences were detectable using MRI, with mature brain having a greater penumbral region. Mild ischemic injury and scattered cell death in both neonates and adults could be identified by a modest increase in T2 and decrease in ADC. A better understanding of the effects of development on ischemic responses and associated MRI changes will provide a basis for the improved diagnosis of mild or minor ischemic insults relevant to pediatric and adult stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula I Tuor
- Physiology and Pharmacology and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
- Experimental Imaging Center, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Min Qiao
- Physiology and Pharmacology and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Manasi Sule
- Physiology and Pharmacology and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Melissa Morgunov
- Physiology and Pharmacology and Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Tadeusz Foniok
- Experimental Imaging Center, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
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Cho KH, Min K, Lee SH, Lee S, An SA, Kim M. Clinical Trial of Erythropoietin in Young Children With Cerebral Palsy. J Child Neurol 2016; 31:1227-34. [PMID: 27233796 DOI: 10.1177/0883073816650038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted to assess the safety and efficacy of recombinant human erythropoietin in young children with cerebral palsy aged between 6 months and 3 years. All participants received subcutaneous recombinant human erythropoietin and 8 weeks of rehabilitation therapy. Adverse events, changes of vital signs, and hematologic tests were monitored up to 8 weeks postinjection. Functional measures of development at 4 and 8 weeks postinjection were compared with baseline values, and improvements were compared with those of an age-matched historical control group. Nine participants completed the trial from June 2012 to February 2015. No adverse events were related to recombinant human erythropoietin. Erythropoiesis was noted, although within normal range. Functional improvements were observed in all participants (P < .05) and increases in motor function were higher in recombinant human erythropoietin group than the control group. Accordingly, recombinant human erythropoietin administration was safe without any significant adverse events and improved the functional outcomes in young children with cerebral palsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kye Hee Cho
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyunghoon Min
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Hoon Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - SunHee Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - SeongSoo A An
- Department of Bionanotechnology and Gachon Medical Research Institute, Gachon University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - MinYoung Kim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
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30
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Hua FZ, Ying J, Zhang J, Wang XF, Hu YH, Liang YP, Liu Q, Xu GH. Naringenin pre-treatment inhibits neuroapoptosis and ameliorates cognitive impairment in rats exposed to isoflurane anesthesia by regulating the PI3/Akt/PTEN signalling pathway and suppressing NF-κB-mediated inflammation. Int J Mol Med 2016; 38:1271-80. [DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2016.2715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Zhang J, Klufas D, Manalo K, Adjepong K, Davidson JO, Wassink G, Bennet L, Gunn AJ, Stopa EG, Liu K, Nishibori M, Stonestreet BS. HMGB1 Translocation After Ischemia in the Ovine Fetal Brain. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2016; 75:527-38. [PMID: 27151753 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlw030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation contributes to the evolution of hypoxic-ischemic (HI) brain injury. High-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) is a nuclear protein that is translocated from the nucleus and released after ischemia in adult rodents and thereby initiates inflammatory responses. However, there is very little information regarding the effects of HI on HMGB1 in immature brains. To investigate the effects of HI on HMGB1 in the term-equivalent fetal brain, ovine fetuses at 127 days gestation were studied after 30 minutes of carotid occlusion. Groups were sham-control and ischemia with 48 hours and ischemia with 72 hours of reperfusion. By immunohistochemistry, HMGB1 was found to be localized primarily in cell nuclei and partially in cytoplasmic compartments in the cerebral cortex of controls. Ischemia increased the area fraction of neuronal cells with cytoplasmic HMGB1 staining, and Western immunoblot revealed that cytosolic HMGB1 expression increased after ischemia (p < 0.05) and decreased in nuclei in ischemic versus the sham-control brains (p < 0.05). These data indicate that HMGB1 translocates from the nuclear to cytosolic compartments after ischemic brain injury in fetal sheep. This translocation may enable the action of HMGB1 as a proinflammatory cytokine that contributes to HI injury in the developing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyong Zhang
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Daniel Klufas
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Karina Manalo
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Kwame Adjepong
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Joanne O Davidson
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Guido Wassink
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Laura Bennet
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Alistair J Gunn
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Edward G Stopa
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Keyue Liu
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Masahiro Nishibori
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN)
| | - Barbara S Stonestreet
- From the Department of Pediatrics, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Providence, Rhode Island (JZ, DK, KM, KA, BSS); Department of Physiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand (JOD, GW, LB, AJG); Department of Pathology and Neurosurgery, The Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, Rhode Island (EGS); and Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan (KL, MN).
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32
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Flores JJ, Klebe D, Rolland WB, Lekic T, Krafft PR, Zhang JH. PPARγ-induced upregulation of CD36 enhances hematoma resolution and attenuates long-term neurological deficits after germinal matrix hemorrhage in neonatal rats. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 87:124-33. [PMID: 26739391 PMCID: PMC4724557 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 12/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Germinal matrix hemorrhage remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants in the United States with little progress made in its clinical management. Survivors are often afflicted with long-term neurological sequelae, including cerebral palsy, mental retardation, hydrocephalus, and psychiatric disorders. Blood clots disrupting normal cerebrospinal fluid circulation and absorption after germinal matrix hemorrhage are thought to be important contributors towards post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus development. We evaluated if upregulating CD36 scavenger receptor expression in microglia and macrophages through PPARγ stimulation, which was effective in experimental adult cerebral hemorrhage models and is being evaluated clinically, will enhance hematoma resolution and ameliorate long-term brain sequelae using a neonatal rat germinal matrix hemorrhage model. PPARγ stimulation (15d-PGJ2) increased short-term PPARγ and CD36 expression levels as well as enhanced hematoma resolution, which was reversed by a PPARγ antagonist (GW9662) and CD36 siRNA. PPARγ stimulation (15d-PGJ2) also reduced long-term white matter loss and post-hemorrhagic ventricular dilation as well as improved neurofunctional outcomes, which were reversed by a PPARγ antagonist (GW9662). PPARγ-induced upregulation of CD36 in macrophages and microglia is, therefore, critical for enhancing hematoma resolution and ameliorating long-term brain sequelae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry J Flores
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Damon Klebe
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - William B Rolland
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Tim Lekic
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Paul R Krafft
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA; Departments of Anesthesiology and Neurosurgery, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA.
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Prenatal Systemic Hypoxia-Ischemia and Oligodendroglia Loss in Cerebellum. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 949:333-345. [PMID: 27714697 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-40764-7_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxic-ischemic (HI) injury is an important cause of death and disabilities. Despite all improvements in neonatal care, the number of children who suffer some kind of injury during birth has remained stable in the last decade. A great number of studies have shown alterations in neural cells and many animal models have been proposed in the last 5 decades. Robinson et al. (2005) proposed an HI model in which the uterine arteries are temporarily clamped on the 18th gestation day. The findings were quite similar to the ones observed in postmortem studies. The white matter is clearly damaged, and a great amount of astrogliosis takes place both in the gray and white matters. Motor changes were also found but no data regarding the cerebellum, an important structure related to motor performance, was presented. Using this model, we have shown an increased level of iNOS at P0 and microgliosis and astrogliosis at P9, and astrogliosis at P23 (up to 4 weeks from the insult). NO is important in migration, maturation, and synaptic plasticity, but in exacerbated levels it may also contribute to cellular and tissue damage. We have also evaluated oligodendroglia development in the cerebellum. At P9 in HI animals, we found a decrease in the number of PDGFRα+ cells and an apparent delay in myelination, suggesting a failure in oligodendroglial progenitors migration/maturation and/or in the myelination process. These results point to an injury in cerebellar development that might help to explain the motor problems in HI.
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Suppression of microglia activation after hypoxia-ischemia results in age-dependent improvements in neurologic injury. J Neuroimmunol 2015; 291:18-27. [PMID: 26857490 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 12/05/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
We previously found increased microglial proliferation and pro-inflammatory cytokine release in infant mice compared to juvenile mice after hypoxia-ischemia (HI). The aim of the current study was to assess for differences in the effect of microglial suppression on HI-induced brain injury in infant and juvenile mice. HI was induced in neonatal (P9) and juvenile (P30) mice and minocycline or vehicle was administered at 2h and 24h post-HI. P9 minocycline-treated mice demonstrated early but transient improvements in neurologic injury, while P30 minocycline-treated mice demonstrated sustained improvements in cerebral atrophy and Morris Water Maze performance at 60days post-HI.
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35
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Jha MK, Lee WH, Suk K. Functional polarization of neuroglia: Implications in neuroinflammation and neurological disorders. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 103:1-16. [PMID: 26556658 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Recent neuroscience research has established the adult brain as a dynamic organ having a unique ability to undergo changes with time. Neuroglia, especially microglia and astrocytes, provide dynamicity to the brain. Activation of these glial cells is a major component of the neuroinflammatory responses underlying brain injury and neurodegeneration. Glial cells execute functional reaction programs in response to diverse microenvironmental signals manifested by neuropathological conditions. Activated microglia exist along a continuum of two functional states of polarization namely M1-type (classical/proinflammatory activation) and M2-type (alternative/anti-inflammatory activation) as in macrophages. The balance between classically and alternatively activated microglial phenotypes influences disease progression in the CNS. The classically activated state of microglia drives the neuroinflammatory response and mediates the detrimental effects on neurons, whereas in their alternative activation state, which is apparently a beneficial activation state, the microglia play a crucial role in tissue maintenance and repair. Likewise, in response to immune or inflammatory microenvironments astrocytes also adopt neurotoxic or neuroprotective phenotypes. Reactive astrocytes exhibit two distinctive functional phenotypes defined by pro- or anti-inflammatory gene expression profile. In this review, we have thoroughly covered recent advances in the understanding of the functional polarization of brain and peripheral glia and its implications in neuroinflammation and neurological disorders. The identifiable phenotypes adopted by neuroglia in response to specific insult or injury can be exploited as promising diagnostic markers of neuroinflammatory diseases. Furthermore, harnessing the beneficial effects of the polarized glia could undoubtedly pave the way for the formulation of novel glia-based therapeutic strategies for diverse neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mithilesh Kumar Jha
- Department of Pharmacology, Brain Science & Engineering Institute, BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Ha Lee
- School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoungho Suk
- Department of Pharmacology, Brain Science & Engineering Institute, BK21 Plus KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, Daegu, Republic of Korea.
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Microarray Profiling and Co-Expression Network Analysis of LncRNAs and mRNAs in Neonatal Rats Following Hypoxic-ischemic Brain Damage. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13850. [PMID: 26349411 PMCID: PMC4563552 DOI: 10.1038/srep13850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play critical roles in cellular homeostasis. However, little is known about their effect in developing rat brains with hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD). To explore the expression and function of lncRNA in HIBD, we analyzed the expression profiles of lncRNAs in hypoxic-ischemic (HI) brains and sham control using microarray analysis. The results showed a remarkable difference in lncRNA between HI and sham brains. A total of 322 lncRNAs were found to be differentially expressed in HI brains, compared to sham control. Among these, BC088414 was one of the most significantly urpregulated lncRNAs. In addition, 375 coding genes were differentially expressed between HI brains and sham control. Pathway and gene ontology analysis indicated that the upregulated coding genes mostly involved in wounding, inflammation and defense, whereas the downregulated transcripts were largely associated with neurogenesis and repair. Moreover, coding non-coding co-expression network analysis showed that the BC088414 lncRNA expression was correlated with apoptosis-related genes, including Casp6 and Adrb2. Silencing of lncRNA BC088414 in PC12 cells caused reduced mRNA level of Casp6 and Adrb2, decreased cell apoptosis and increased cell proliferation. These results suggested lncRNA might participate in the pathogenesis of HIBD via regulating coding genes.
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Li F, Faustino J, Woo MS, Derugin N, Vexler ZS. Lack of the scavenger receptor CD36 alters microglial phenotypes after neonatal stroke. J Neurochem 2015. [PMID: 26223273 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The stage of brain development at the time of stroke has a major impact on the pathophysiological mechanisms of ischemic damage, including the neuroinflammatory response. Microglial cells have been shown to contribute to acute and subchronic injury in adult stroke models, whereas in neonatal rodents we showed that microglial cells serve as endogenous neuroprotectants early following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion, limiting neuroinflammation and injury. In the neonate, microglial depletion or lack of the scavenger receptor CD36 exacerbates injury. In this study we asked if lack of CD36 affects microglial phenotypes after neonatal stroke. Using RT-PCR we characterized the patterns of gene expression in microglia isolated from injured regions following acute transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in postnatal day 10 mice and showed that expression of several pro-inflammatory genes, including Toll-like receptors, remains largely unaffected in activated microglia in injured regions. Using multiple biochemical assays we demonstrated that lack of CD36 alters several functions of microglia in acutely injured neonatal brain: it further enhances accumulation of the chemokine MCP-1, affects the number of CD11b(+) /CD45(+) cells, along with protein expression of its co-receptor, Toll-like receptor 2, but does not affect accumulation of superoxide in microglia or the cytokines TNFα and IL-1β in injured regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Li
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.,Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Joel Faustino
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Moon-Sook Woo
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Nikita Derugin
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Zinaida S Vexler
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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Umekawa T, Osman AM, Han W, Ikeda T, Blomgren K. Resident microglia, rather than blood-derived macrophages, contribute to the earlier and more pronounced inflammatory reaction in the immature compared with the adult hippocampus after hypoxia-ischemia. Glia 2015; 63:2220-30. [PMID: 26179283 PMCID: PMC5034822 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms of neuronal injury after hypoxia–ischemia (HI) are different in the immature and the adult brain, but microglia activation has not been compared. The purpose of this study was to phenotype resident microglia and blood‐derived macrophages in the hippocampus after HI in neonatal (postnatal day 9, P9) or adult (3 months of age, 3mo) mice. Unilateral brain injury after HI was induced in Cx3cr1GFP/+Ccr2RFP/+ male mice on P9 (n = 34) or at 3mo (n = 53) using the Vannucci model. Resident microglia (Cx3cr1‐GFP+) proliferated and were activated earlier after HI in the P9 (1–3 days) than that in the 3mo hippocampus, but remained longer in the adult brain (3–7 days). Blood‐derived macrophages (Ccr2‐RFP+) peaked 3 days after HI in both immature (P9) and adult (3mo) hippocampi but were twice as frequent in adult brains, 41% vs. 21% of all microglia/macrophages. CCL2 expression was three times higher in the P9 hippocampi, indicating that the proinflammatory response was more pronounced in the immature brain after HI. This corresponded well with the higher numbers of galectin‐3‐positive resident microglia in the P9 hippocampi, but did not correlate with CD16/32‐ or CD206‐positive resident microglia or blood‐derived macrophages. In conclusion, resident microglia, rather than infiltrating blood‐derived macrophages, proliferate and are activated earlier in the immature than in the adult brain, but remain increased longer in the adult brain. The inflammatory response is more pronounced in the immature brain, and this correlate well with galectin‐3 expression in resident microglia. GLIA 2015;63:2220–2230
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Umekawa
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Ahmed M Osman
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Wei Han
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tomoaki Ikeda
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan
| | - Klas Blomgren
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Kang M, Min K, Jang J, Kim SC, Kang MS, Jang SJ, Lee JY, Kim SH, Kim MK, An SA, Kim M. Involvement of Immune Responses in the Efficacy of Cord Blood Cell Therapy for Cerebral Palsy. Stem Cells Dev 2015; 24:2259-68. [PMID: 25977995 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2015.0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
This study evaluated the efficacy of umbilical cord blood (UCB) cell for patients with cerebral palsy (CP) in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial and also assessed factors and mechanisms related to the efficacy. Thirty-six children (ages 6 months to 20 years old) with CP were enrolled and treated with UCB or a placebo. Muscle strength and gross motor function were evaluated at baseline and 1, 3, and 6 months after treatment. Along with function measurements, each subject underwent (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography at baseline and 2 weeks after treatment. Cytokine and receptor levels were quantitated in serial blood samples. The UCB group showed greater improvements in muscle strength than the controls at 1 (0.94 vs. -0.35, respectively) and 3 months (2.71 vs. 0.65) after treatment (Ps<0.05). The UCB group also showed greater improvements in gross motor performance than the control group at 6 months (8.54 vs. 2.60) after treatment (P<0.01). Additionally, positron emission tomography scans revealed decreased periventricular inflammation in patients administered UCB, compared with those treated with a placebo. Correlating with enhanced gross motor function, elevations in plasma pentraxin 3 and interleukin-8 levels were observed for up to 12 days after treatment in the UCB group. Meanwhile, increases in blood cells expressing Toll-like receptor 4 were noted at 1 day after treatment in the UCB group, and they were correlated with increased muscle strength at 3 months post-treatment. In this trial, treatment with UCB alone improved motor outcomes and induced systemic immune reactions and anti-inflammatory changes in the brain. Generally, motor outcomes were positively correlated with the number of UCB cells administered: a higher number of cells resulted in better outcomes. Nevertheless, future trials are needed to confirm the long-term efficacy of UCB therapy, as the follow-up duration of the present trial was short.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mino Kang
- 1 Department of Bionanotechnology, Gachon Medical Research Institute, Gachon University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyunghoon Min
- 2 Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Joonyoung Jang
- 2 Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Chan Kim
- 1 Department of Bionanotechnology, Gachon Medical Research Institute, Gachon University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Myung Seo Kang
- 3 Department of Laboratory Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University and CHA Medical Center Cord Blood Bank , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Su Jin Jang
- 4 Department of Nuclear Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Young Lee
- 4 Department of Nuclear Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Heum Kim
- 5 Department of Radiology, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon Kyu Kim
- 6 Division of Hematology-Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - SeongSoo A An
- 1 Department of Bionanotechnology, Gachon Medical Research Institute, Gachon University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
| | - MinYoung Kim
- 2 Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, CHA Bundang Medical Center, CHA University , Seongnam, Republic of Korea
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Hagberg H, Mallard C, Ferriero DM, Vannucci SJ, Levison SW, Vexler ZS, Gressens P. The role of inflammation in perinatal brain injury. Nat Rev Neurol 2015; 11:192-208. [PMID: 25686754 PMCID: PMC4664161 DOI: 10.1038/nrneurol.2015.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 571] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation is increasingly recognized as being a critical contributor to both normal development and injury outcome in the immature brain. The focus of this Review is to highlight important differences in innate and adaptive immunity in immature versus adult brain, which support the notion that the consequences of inflammation will be entirely different depending on context and stage of CNS development. Perinatal brain injury can result from neonatal encephalopathy and perinatal arterial ischaemic stroke, usually at term, but also in preterm infants. Inflammation occurs before, during and after brain injury at term, and modulates vulnerability to and development of brain injury. Preterm birth, on the other hand, is often a result of exposure to inflammation at a very early developmental phase, which affects the brain not only during fetal life, but also over a protracted period of postnatal life in a neonatal intensive care setting, influencing critical phases of myelination and cortical plasticity. Neuroinflammation during the perinatal period can increase the risk of neurological and neuropsychiatric disease throughout childhood and adulthood, and is, therefore, of concern to the broader group of physicians who care for these individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Hagberg
- 1] Centre for the Developing Brain, Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, King's Health Partners, St Thomas' Hospital, London SE1 7EH, UK. [2] Perinatal Center, Institute of Physiology and Neurosciences and Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 435 43 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carina Mallard
- Perinatal Center, Institute of Physiology and Neurosciences and Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 435 43 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Donna M Ferriero
- Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Susan J Vannucci
- Department of Pediatrics/Newborn Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Steven W Levison
- Department of Neurology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, RBHS-New Jersey Medical School, Cancer Center, H-1226 205 South Orange Avenue, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Zinaida S Vexler
- Departments of Neurology and Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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Moretti R, Pansiot J, Bettati D, Strazielle N, Ghersi-Egea JF, Damante G, Fleiss B, Titomanlio L, Gressens P. Blood-brain barrier dysfunction in disorders of the developing brain. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:40. [PMID: 25741233 PMCID: PMC4330788 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Disorders of the developing brain represent a major health problem. The neurological manifestations of brain lesions can range from severe clinical deficits to more subtle neurological signs or behavioral problems and learning disabilities, which often become evident many years after the initial damage. These long-term sequelae are due at least in part to central nervous system immaturity at the time of the insult. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the brain and maintains homeostasis. BBB alterations are observed during both acute and chronic brain insults. After an insult, excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters are released, causing reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent changes in BBB permeability that allow immune cells to enter and stimulate an inflammatory response. The cytokines, chemokines and other molecules released as well as peripheral and local immune cells can activate an inflammatory cascade in the brain, leading to secondary neurodegeneration that can continue for months or even years and finally contribute to post-insult neuronal deficits. The role of the BBB in perinatal disorders is poorly understood. The inflammatory response, which can be either acute (e.g., perinatal stroke, traumatic brain injury) or chronic (e.g., perinatal infectious diseases) actively modulates the pathophysiological processes underlying brain injury. We present an overview of current knowledge about BBB dysfunction in the developing brain during acute and chronic insults, along with clinical and experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Moretti
- INSERM U1141, Robert Debre's Hospital Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141-PROTECT Paris, France ; PremUP Paris, France ; S. Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Università degli Studi di Udine Udine, Italy
| | - Julien Pansiot
- INSERM U1141, Robert Debre's Hospital Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141-PROTECT Paris, France ; PremUP Paris, France
| | - Donatella Bettati
- INSERM U1141, Robert Debre's Hospital Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141-PROTECT Paris, France ; PremUP Paris, France
| | - Nathalie Strazielle
- Lyon Neurosciences Research Center, INSERM U1028, CNRS UMR5292 - Lyon University Lyon, France ; Brain-i Lyon, France
| | | | - Giuseppe Damante
- S. Maria della Misericordia Hospital, Università degli Studi di Udine Udine, Italy
| | - Bobbi Fleiss
- INSERM U1141, Robert Debre's Hospital Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141-PROTECT Paris, France ; PremUP Paris, France ; Department of Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, Centre for the Developing Brain, St. Thomas' Hospital London, UK
| | - Luigi Titomanlio
- INSERM U1141, Robert Debre's Hospital Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141-PROTECT Paris, France ; PremUP Paris, France ; Pediatric Emergency Department, APHP, Robert Debré Hospital Paris, France
| | - Pierre Gressens
- INSERM U1141, Robert Debre's Hospital Paris, France ; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMRS 1141-PROTECT Paris, France ; PremUP Paris, France ; Department of Division of Imaging Sciences and Biomedical Engineering, Centre for the Developing Brain, St. Thomas' Hospital London, UK
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Short- and long-term consequences of perinatal asphyxia: looking for neuroprotective strategies. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 10:169-98. [PMID: 25287541 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1372-5_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Perinatal asphyxia constitutes a prototype of obstetric complications occurring when pulmonary oxygenation is delayed or interrupted. A primary insult is first produced by the length of the time without oxygenation, leading to hypoxia/ischemia and death if oxygenation is not promptly established. A second insult is produced by re-oxygenation, eliciting a cascade of biochemical events for restoring function, implying, however, improper homeostasis. The effects observed long after perinatal asphyxia can be explained by over-expression of sentinel proteins, such as poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), competing for oxidised nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD(+)) during re-oxygenation. Asphyxia also induces transcriptional activation of pro-inflammatory factors, including nuclear factor κB (NFκB) and its subunit p65, whose translocation to the nucleus is significantly increased in brain tissue from asphyxia-exposed animals, in tandem with PARP-1 overactivation, leading to the idea that sentinel protein inhibition constitutes a suitable therapeutic strategy. It is proposed that PARP-1 inhibition also down-regulates the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines.Nicotinamide is a suitable PARP-1 inhibitor, whose effects have been studied in an experimental model of global perinatal asphyxia in rats, inducing the insult by immersing rat foetuses into a water bath for various periods of time. Following asphyxia, the pups are delivered, immediately treated, or given to surrogate dams for nursing, pending further experiments. Systemic administration of nicotinamide 1 h after the insult inhibited PARP-1 overactivity in peripheral and brain tissue, preventing several of the long-term consequences elicited by perinatal asphyxia, supporting the idea that it constitutes a lead for exploring compounds with similar or better pharmacological profiles.
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Yuan X, Ghosh N, McFadden B, Tone B, Bellinger DL, Obenaus A, Ashwal S. Hypothermia modulates cytokine responses after neonatal rat hypoxic-ischemic injury and reduces brain damage. ASN Neuro 2014; 6:6/6/1759091414558418. [PMID: 25424430 PMCID: PMC4357606 DOI: 10.1177/1759091414558418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
While hypothermia (HT) is the standard-of-care for neonates with hypoxic ischemic injury (HII), the mechanisms underlying its neuroprotective effect are poorly understood. We examined ischemic core/penumbra and cytokine/chemokine evolution in a 10-day-old rat pup model of HII. Pups were treated for 24 hr after HII with HT (32℃; n = 18) or normothermia (NT, 35℃; n = 15). Outcomes included magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), neurobehavioral testing, and brain cytokine/chemokine profiling (0, 24, 48, and 72 hr post-HII). Lesion volumes (24 hr) were reduced in HT pups (total 74%, p < .05; penumbra 68%, p < .05; core 85%, p = .19). Lesion volumes rebounded at 72 hr (48 hr post-HT) with no significant differences between NT and HT pups. HT reduced interleukin-1β (IL-1β) at all time points (p < .05); monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) trended toward being decreased in HT pups (p = .09). The stem cell signaling molecule, stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) was not altered by HT. Our data demonstrate that HT reduces total and penumbral lesion volumes (at 24 and 48 hr), potentially by decreasing IL-1β without affecting SDF-1. Disassociation between the increasing trend in HII volumes from 48 to 72 hr post-HII when IL-1β levels remained low suggests that after rewarming, mechanisms unrelated to IL-1β expression are likely to contribute to this delayed increase in injury. Additional studies should be considered to determine what these mechanisms might be and also to explore whether extending the duration or degree of HT might ameliorate this delayed increase in injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangpeng Yuan
- Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University, CA, USA
| | - Nirmalya Ghosh
- Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University, CA, USA
| | - Brian McFadden
- Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University, CA, USA Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Fullerton, CA, USA
| | - Beatriz Tone
- Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University, CA, USA
| | - Denise L Bellinger
- Department of Pathology and Human Anatomy, Loma Linda University, CA, USA
| | - Andre Obenaus
- Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University, CA, USA Cell, Molecular, and Developmental Biology Graduate Program, Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Stephen Ashwal
- Department of Pediatrics, Loma Linda University, CA, USA
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Kratzer I, Chip S, Vexler ZS. Barrier mechanisms in neonatal stroke. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:359. [PMID: 25426016 PMCID: PMC4224076 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical data continue to reveal that the incidence of perinatal stroke is high, similar to that in the elderly. Perinatal stroke leads to significant morbidity and severe long-term neurological and cognitive deficits, including cerebral palsy. Experimental models of cerebral ischemia in neonatal rodents have shown that the pathophysiology of perinatal brain damage is multifactorial. Cerebral vasculature undergoes substantial structural and functional changes during early postnatal brain development. Thus, the state of the vasculature could affect susceptibility of the neonatal brain to cerebral ischemia. In this review, we discuss some of the most recent findings regarding the neurovascular responses of the immature brain to focal arterial stroke in relation to neuroinflammation. We also discuss a possible role of the neonatal blood-CSF barrier in modulating inflammation and the long-term effects of early neurovascular integrity after neonatal stroke on angiogenesis and neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Kratzer
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sophorn Chip
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Zinaida S Vexler
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
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Ozyürek H, Bayrak S, Pehlivanoğlu B, Atilla P, Balkancı ZD, Cakar N, Anlar B. Effect of transient maternal hypotension on apoptotic cell death in foetal rat brain. Balkan Med J 2014; 31:88-94. [PMID: 25207175 DOI: 10.5152/balkanmedj.2013.8313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intrauterine perfusion insufficiency induced by transient maternal hypotension has been reported to be associated with foetal brain malformations. However, the effects of maternal hypotension on apoptotic processes in the foetal brain have not been investigated experimentally during the intrauterine period. AIMS The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of transient maternal hypotension on apoptotic cell death in the intrauterine foetal brain. STUDY DESIGN Animal experimentation. METHODS Three-month-old female Wistar albino rats were allocated into four groups (n=5 each). The impact of hypoxic/ischemic injury induced by transient maternal hypotension on the 15th day of pregnancy (late gestation) in rats was investigated at 48 (H17 group) or 96 hours (H19 group) after the insult. Control groups underwent the same procedure except for induction of hypotension (C17 and H17 groups). Brain sections of one randomly selected foetus from each pregnant rat were histopathologically evaluated for hypoxic/ischemic injury in the metencephalon, diencephalon, and telencephalon by terminal transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labelling and active cysteine-dependent aspartate-directed protease-3 (caspase-3) positivity for cell death. RESULTS The number of terminal transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labelling (+) cells in all the areas examined was comparable in both hypotension and control groups. The H17 group had active caspase-3 (+) cells in the metencephalon and telencephalon, sparing diencephalon, whereas the C19 and H19 groups had active caspase-3 (+) cells in all three regions. The number of active caspase-3 (+) cells in the telencephalon in the H19 group was higher compared with the metencephalon and diencephalon and compared with H17 group (p<0.05). CONCLUSION Our results suggest that prenatal hypoxic/ischemic injury triggers apoptotic mechanisms. Therefore, blockade of apoptotic pathways, considering the time pattern of the insult, may constitute a potential neuroprotective approach for the detrimental effects of prenatal hypoperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamit Ozyürek
- Pediatric Neurology Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Sibel Bayrak
- Department of Physiology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Bilge Pehlivanoğlu
- Department of Physiology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Pergin Atilla
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | | | - Nur Cakar
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Banu Anlar
- Pediatric Neurology Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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Fernández-López D, Faustino J, Derugin N, Vexler ZS. Acute and chronic vascular responses to experimental focal arterial stroke in the neonate rat. Transl Stroke Res 2014; 4:179-88. [PMID: 23730350 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-012-0214-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The presence of active developmental angiogenesis and vascular outgrowth in the postnatal brain may differentially affect vascular responses to stroke in newborns and adults, but very little is known about the dynamics of vascular injury and re-growth after stroke during the neonatal period. In this study we used a clinically relevant animal model of ischemic arterial stroke in neonate rats, a transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in postnatal day 7 (P7), to characterize the effects of injury on vascular density and angiogenesis from acute through the chronic phase. A marked vessel degeneration and suppressed endothelial cell proliferation occur in the ischemic regions early after neonatal stroke. In contrast to what has been described in adult animals, endothelial cell proliferation and vascular density are not increased in the peri-ischemic regions during the first week after MCAO in neonates. By two weeks after injury, endothelial cell proliferation is increased in the cortical peri-ischemic region but these changes are not accompanied by an increased vascular density. Suppressed angiogenesis in injured postnatal brain that we report may limit recovery after neonatal stroke. Thus, enhancement of angiogenesis after neonatal stroke may be a promising strategy for the long-term recovery of the affected newborns.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Fernández-López
- Neonatal Brain Disorders Center. Department of Neurology. University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
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Ferrazzano P, Chanana V, Uluc K, Fidan E, Akture E, Kintner DB, Cengiz P, Sun D. Age-dependent microglial activation in immature brains after hypoxia- ischemia. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2014; 12:338-49. [PMID: 23469850 DOI: 10.2174/1871527311312030007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2012] [Revised: 09/13/2012] [Accepted: 09/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we tested whether the ongoing differentiation of microglia in the immature brain results in more robust microglial activation and pro-inflammatory responses than juvenile brains following hypoxia-ischemia (HI). Under normoxic conditions, microglial activation profiles were assessed in postnatal day 9 and postnatal day 30 mice (P9 and P30) by analyzing relative expression levels of CD45 in CD11b+/CD45+ microglia/macrophages. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that the hippocampi of P9 and P30 brains exhibited higher levels of CD45 expression in CD11b+/CD45+ cells than in the cortex and striatum. In response to HI, there was an early increase in number of CD11b+/CD45+ microglia/macrophages in the ipsilateral hippocampus of P9 mice. These cells transformed from a "ramified" to an "amoeboid" morphology in the CA1 region, which was accompanied by a loss of microtubule-associated protein 2 immunostaining in this brain region. The peak response of microglial activation in the ipsilateral hippocampus of P9 mice occurred on day 2 post-HI, which was in contrast to a delayed and persistent microglial activation in the cortex and striatum (peak on day 9 post-HI). P9 brains demonstrated a 2-3 fold greater increase in microglia counts than P30 brains in each region (hippocampus, cortex, and striatum) during day 1-17 post-HI. P9 brains also showed more robust expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1β) than P30 brains. Taken together, compared to P30 mice, P9 mice demonstrated differences in microglial activation and pro-inflammatory responses after HI, which may be important in brain damage and tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Ferrazzano
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin Medical School, 1500 Highland Ave., Madison, WI 53705, USA.
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Mechanisms of perinatal arterial ischemic stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2014; 34:921-32. [PMID: 24667913 PMCID: PMC4050239 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2014.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The incidence of perinatal stroke is high, similar to that in the elderly, and produces a significant morbidity and severe long-term neurologic and cognitive deficits, including cerebral palsy, epilepsy, neuropsychological impairments, and behavioral disorders. Emerging clinical data and data from experimental models of cerebral ischemia in neonatal rodents have shown that the pathophysiology of perinatal brain damage is multifactorial. These studies have revealed that, far from just being a smaller version of the adult brain, the neonatal brain is unique with a very particular and age-dependent responsiveness to hypoxia-ischemia and focal arterial stroke. In this review, we discuss fundamental clinical aspects of perinatal stroke as well as some of the most recent and relevant findings regarding the susceptibility of specific brain cell populations to injury, the dynamics and the mechanisms of neuronal cell death in injured neonates, the responses of neonatal blood-brain barrier to stroke in relation to systemic and local inflammation, and the long-term effects of stroke on angiogenesis and neurogenesis. Finally, we address translational strategies currently being considered for neonatal stroke as well as treatments that might effectively enhance repair later after injury.
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Transcriptome profiling of the newborn mouse brain after hypoxia-reoxygenation: hyperoxic reoxygenation induces inflammatory and energy failure responsive genes. Pediatr Res 2014; 75:517-26. [PMID: 24375083 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2013.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Supplemental oxygen used during resuscitation can be detrimental to the newborn brain. The aim was to determine how different oxygen therapies affect gene transcription in a hypoxia-reoxygenation model. METHODS C57BL/6 mice (n = 56), postnatal day 7, were randomized either to 120 min of hypoxia 8% O2 followed by 30 min of reoxygenation with 21, 40, 60, or 100% O2, or to normoxia followed by 30 min of 21 or 100% O2. Affymetrix 750k expression array was applied with RT-PCR used for validation. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry 3 d after hypoxia-reoxygenation compared groups reoxygenated with 21 or 100% O2 with normoxic controls (n = 22). RESULTS In total, ~81% of the gene expression changes were altered in response to reoxygenation with 60 or 100% O2 and constituted many inflammatory-responsive genes (i.e., C5ar2, Stat3, and Ccl12). Oxidative phosphorylation was downregulated after 60 or 100% O2. Iba1(+) cells were significantly increased in the striatum and hippocampal CA1 after both 21 and 100% O2. CONCLUSION In the present model, hypoxia-reoxygenation induces microglial accumulation in subregions of the brain. The transcriptional changes dominating after applying hyperoxic reoxygenation regimes include upregulating genes related to inflammatory responses and suppressing the oxidative phosphorylation pathway.
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Perinatal hypoxia-ischemia reduces α 7 nicotinic receptor expression and selective α 7 nicotinic receptor stimulation suppresses inflammation and promotes microglial Mox phenotype. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:718769. [PMID: 24757672 PMCID: PMC3976804 DOI: 10.1155/2014/718769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Revised: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation plays a central role in neonatal brain injury. During brain inflammation the resident macrophages of the brain, the microglia cells, are rapidly activated. In the periphery, α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α7R) present on macrophages can regulate inflammation by suppressing cytokine release. In the current study we investigated α7R expression in neonatal mice after hypoxia-ischemia (HI). We further examined possible anti-inflammatory role of α7R stimulation in vitro and microglia polarization after α7R agonist treatment. Real-time PCR analysis showed a 33% reduction in α7R expression 72 h after HI. Stimulation of primary microglial cells with LPS in combination with increasing doses of the selective α7R agonist AR-R 17779 significantly attenuated TNFα release and increased α7R transcript in microglial cells. Gene expression of M1 markers CD86 and iNOS, as well as M2 marker CD206 was not influenced by LPS and/or α7R agonist treatment. Further, Mox markers heme oxygenase (Hmox1) and sulforedoxin-1 (Srx1) were significantly increased, suggesting a polarization towards the Mox phenotype after α7R stimulation. Thus, our data suggest a role for the α7R also in the neonatal brain and support the anti-inflammatory role of α7R in microglia, suggesting that α7R stimulation could enhance the polarization towards a reparative Mox phenotype.
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