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Leonard-Duke J, Agro SMJ, Csordas DJ, Bruce AC, Eggertsen TG, Tavakol TN, Barker TH, Bonham CA, Saucerman JJ, Taite LJ, Peirce SM. Multiscale computational model predicts how environmental changes and drug treatments affect microvascular remodeling in fibrotic disease. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.15.585249. [PMID: 38559112 PMCID: PMC10979947 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.15.585249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Investigating the molecular, cellular, and tissue-level changes caused by disease, and the effects of pharmacological treatments across these biological scales, necessitates the use of multiscale computational modeling in combination with experimentation. Many diseases dynamically alter the tissue microenvironment in ways that trigger microvascular network remodeling, which leads to the expansion or regression of microvessel networks. When microvessels undergo remodeling in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), functional gas exchange is impaired due to loss of alveolar structures and lung function declines. Here, we integrated a multiscale computational model with independent experiments to investigate how combinations of biomechanical and biochemical cues in IPF alter cell fate decisions leading to microvascular remodeling. Our computational model predicted that extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffening reduced microvessel area, which was accompanied by physical uncoupling of endothelial cell (ECs) and pericytes, the cells that comprise microvessels. Nintedanib, an FDA-approved drug for treating IPF, was predicted to further potentiate microvessel regression by decreasing the percentage of quiescent pericytes while increasing the percentage of pericytes undergoing pericyte-myofibroblast transition (PMT) in high ECM stiffnesses. Importantly, the model suggested that YAP/TAZ inhibition may overcome the deleterious effects of nintedanib by promoting EC-pericyte coupling and maintaining microvessel homeostasis. Overall, our combination of computational and experimental modeling can explain how cell decisions affect tissue changes during disease and in response to treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Leonard-Duke
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Samuel M. J. Agro
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - David J. Csordas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Anthony C. Bruce
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Taylor G. Eggertsen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Tara N. Tavakol
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Thomas H. Barker
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Catherine A. Bonham
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Jeffery J. Saucerman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Lakeshia J. Taite
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Shayn M. Peirce
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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Cashion JM, Young KM, Sutherland BA. How does neurovascular unit dysfunction contribute to multiple sclerosis? Neurobiol Dis 2023; 178:106028. [PMID: 36736923 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2023.106028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) and the most common non-traumatic cause of neurological disability in young adults. Multiple sclerosis clinical care has improved considerably due to the development of disease-modifying therapies that effectively modulate the peripheral immune response and reduce relapse frequency. However, current treatments do not prevent neurodegeneration and disease progression, and efforts to prevent multiple sclerosis will be hampered so long as the cause of this disease remains unknown. Risk factors for multiple sclerosis development or severity include vitamin D deficiency, cigarette smoking and youth obesity, which also impact vascular health. People with multiple sclerosis frequently experience blood-brain barrier breakdown, microbleeds, reduced cerebral blood flow and diminished neurovascular reactivity, and it is possible that these vascular pathologies are tied to multiple sclerosis development. The neurovascular unit is a cellular network that controls neuroinflammation, maintains blood-brain barrier integrity, and tightly regulates cerebral blood flow, matching energy supply to neuronal demand. The neurovascular unit is composed of vessel-associated cells such as endothelial cells, pericytes and astrocytes, however neuronal and other glial cell types also comprise the neurovascular niche. Recent single-cell transcriptomics data, indicate that neurovascular cells, particular cells of the microvasculature, are compromised within multiple sclerosis lesions. Large-scale genetic and small-scale cell biology studies also suggest that neurovascular dysfunction could be a primary pathology contributing to multiple sclerosis development. Herein we revisit multiple sclerosis risk factors and multiple sclerosis pathophysiology and highlight the known and potential roles of neurovascular unit dysfunction in multiple sclerosis development and disease progression. We also evaluate the suitability of the neurovascular unit as a potential target for future disease modifying therapies for multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake M Cashion
- Tasmanian School of Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Kaylene M Young
- Menzies Institute for Medical Research, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7000, Australia
| | - Brad A Sutherland
- Tasmanian School of Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
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3
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The Role of Pericytes in Regulation of Innate and Adaptive Immunity. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020600. [PMID: 36831136 PMCID: PMC9953719 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Pericytes are perivascular multipotent cells wrapping microvascular capillaries, where they support vasculature functioning, participate in tissue regeneration, and regulate blood flow. However, recent evidence suggests that in addition to traditionally credited structural function, pericytes also manifest immune properties. In this review, we summarise recent data regarding pericytes' response to different pro-inflammatory stimuli and their involvement in innate immune responses through expression of pattern-recognition receptors. Moreover, pericytes express various adhesion molecules, thus regulating trafficking of immune cells across vessel walls. Additionally, the role of pericytes in modulation of adaptive immunity is discussed. Finally, recent reports have suggested that the interaction with cancer cells evokes immunosuppression function in pericytes, thus facilitating immune evasion and facilitating cancer proliferation and metastasis. However, such complex and multi-faceted cross-talks of pericytes with immune cells also suggest a number of potential pericyte-based therapeutic methods and techniques for cancer immunotherapy and treatment of autoimmune and auto-inflammatory disorders.
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4
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Joulia R, Guerrero-Fonseca IM, Girbl T, Coates JA, Stein M, Vázquez-Martínez L, Lynam E, Whiteford J, Schnoor M, Voehringer D, Roers A, Nourshargh S, Voisin MB. Neutrophil breaching of the blood vessel pericyte layer during diapedesis requires mast cell-derived IL-17A. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7029. [PMID: 36396641 PMCID: PMC9672103 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34695-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil diapedesis is an immediate step following infections and injury and is driven by complex interactions between leukocytes and various components of the blood vessel wall. Here, we show that perivascular mast cells (MC) are key regulators of neutrophil behaviour within the sub-endothelial space of inflamed venules. Using confocal intravital microscopy, we observe directed abluminal neutrophil motility along pericyte processes towards perivascular MCs, a response that created neutrophil extravasation hotspots. Conversely, MC-deficiency and pharmacological or genetic blockade of IL-17A leads to impaired neutrophil sub-endothelial migration and breaching of the pericyte layer. Mechanistically, identifying MCs as a significant cellular source of IL-17A, we establish that MC-derived IL-17A regulates the enrichment of key effector molecules ICAM-1 and CXCL1 in nearby pericytes. Collectively, we identify a novel MC-IL-17A-pericyte axis as modulator of the final steps of neutrophil diapedesis, with potential translational implications for inflammatory disorders driven by increased neutrophil diapedesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Régis Joulia
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
- NHLI, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Idaira María Guerrero-Fonseca
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
- Department of Molecular Biomedicine, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Tamara Girbl
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jonathon A Coates
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Monja Stein
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Laura Vázquez-Martínez
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Eleanor Lynam
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - James Whiteford
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Michael Schnoor
- Department of Molecular Biomedicine, CINVESTAV-IPN, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - David Voehringer
- Department of Infection Biology, University Hospital Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg (FAU), Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Axel Roers
- Institute for Immunology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sussan Nourshargh
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
- Centre for Inflammation and Therapeutic Innovation, Queen Mary University of London, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Mathieu-Benoit Voisin
- William Harvey Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK.
- Centre for Inflammation and Therapeutic Innovation, Queen Mary University of London, London, EC1M 6BQ, UK.
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5
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McCloskey MC, Zhang VZ, Ahmad SD, Walker S, Romanick SS, Awad HA, McGrath JL. Sourcing cells for in vitro models of human vascular barriers of inflammation. FRONTIERS IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY 2022; 4:979768. [PMID: 36483299 PMCID: PMC9724237 DOI: 10.3389/fmedt.2022.979768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The vascular system plays a critical role in the progression and resolution of inflammation. The contributions of the vascular endothelium to these processes, however, vary with tissue and disease state. Recently, tissue chip models have emerged as promising tools to understand human disease and for the development of personalized medicine approaches. Inclusion of a vascular component within these platforms is critical for properly evaluating most diseases, but many models to date use "generic" endothelial cells, which can preclude the identification of biomedically meaningful pathways and mechanisms. As the knowledge of vascular heterogeneity and immune cell trafficking throughout the body advances, tissue chip models should also advance to incorporate tissue-specific cells where possible. Here, we discuss the known heterogeneity of leukocyte trafficking in vascular beds of some commonly modeled tissues. We comment on the availability of different tissue-specific cell sources for endothelial cells and pericytes, with a focus on stem cell sources for the full realization of personalized medicine. We discuss sources available for the immune cells needed to model inflammatory processes and the findings of tissue chip models that have used the cells to studying transmigration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly C. McCloskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Victor Z. Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - S. Danial Ahmad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Samuel Walker
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Samantha S. Romanick
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Hani A. Awad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - James L. McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
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6
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Barkaway A, Attwell D, Korte N. Immune-vascular mural cell interactions: consequences for immune cell trafficking, cerebral blood flow, and the blood-brain barrier. NEUROPHOTONICS 2022; 9:031914. [PMID: 35581998 PMCID: PMC9107322 DOI: 10.1117/1.nph.9.3.031914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Brain barriers are crucial sites for cerebral energy supply, waste removal, immune cell migration, and solute exchange, all of which maintain an appropriate environment for neuronal activity. At the capillary level, where the largest area of brain-vascular interface occurs, pericytes adjust cerebral blood flow (CBF) by regulating capillary diameter and maintain the blood-brain barrier (BBB) by suppressing endothelial cell (EC) transcytosis and inducing tight junction expression between ECs. Pericytes also limit the infiltration of circulating leukocytes into the brain where resident microglia confine brain injury and provide the first line of defence against invading pathogens. Brain "waste" is cleared across the BBB into the blood, phagocytosed by microglia and astrocytes, or removed by the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through perivascular routes-a process driven by respiratory motion and the pulsation of the heart, arteriolar smooth muscle, and possibly pericytes. "Dirty" CSF exits the brain and is probably drained around olfactory nerve rootlets and via the dural meningeal lymphatic vessels and possibly the skull bone marrow. The brain is widely regarded as an immune-privileged organ because it is accessible to few antigen-primed leukocytes. Leukocytes enter the brain via the meninges, the BBB, and the blood-CSF barrier. Advances in genetic and imaging tools have revealed that neurological diseases significantly alter immune-brain barrier interactions in at least three ways: (1) the brain's immune-privileged status is compromised when pericytes are lost or lymphatic vessels are dysregulated; (2) immune cells release vasoactive molecules to regulate CBF, modulate arteriole stiffness, and can plug and eliminate capillaries which impairs CBF and possibly waste clearance; and (3) immune-vascular interactions can make the BBB leaky via multiple mechanisms, thus aggravating the influx of undesirable substances and cells. Here, we review developments in these three areas and briefly discuss potential therapeutic avenues for restoring brain barrier functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Barkaway
- University College London, Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Attwell
- University College London, Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nils Korte
- University College London, Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, London, United Kingdom
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7
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Apátiga-Pérez R, Soto-Rojas LO, Campa-Córdoba BB, Luna-Viramontes NI, Cuevas E, Villanueva-Fierro I, Ontiveros-Torres MA, Bravo-Muñoz M, Flores-Rodríguez P, Garcés-Ramirez L, de la Cruz F, Montiel-Sosa JF, Pacheco-Herrero M, Luna-Muñoz J. Neurovascular dysfunction and vascular amyloid accumulation as early events in Alzheimer's disease. Metab Brain Dis 2022; 37:39-50. [PMID: 34406560 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-021-00814-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is clinically characterized by a progressive loss of cognitive functions and short-term memory. AD patients present two distinctive neuropathological lesions: neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), constituted of beta-amyloid peptide (Aβ) and phosphorylated and truncated tau proteins. Aβ deposits around cerebral blood vessels (cerebral amyloid angiopathy, CAA) is a major contributor to vascular dysfunction in AD. Vascular amyloid deposits could be early events in AD due to dysfunction in the neurovascular unit (NVU) and the blood-brain barrier (BBB), deterioration of the gliovascular unit, and/or decrease of cerebral blood flow (CBF). These pathological events can lead to decreased Aβ clearance, facilitate a neuroinflammatory environment as well as synaptic dysfunction and, finally, lead to neurodegeneration. Here, we review the histopathological AD hallmarks and discuss the two-hit vascular hypothesis of AD, emphasizing the role of neurovascular dysfunction as an early factor that favors vascular Aβ aggregation and neurodegeneration. Addtionally, we emphasize that pericyte degeneration is a key and early element in AD that can trigger amyloid vascular accumulation and NVU/BBB dysfunction. Further research is required to better understand the early pathophysiological mechanisms associated with NVU alteration and CAA to generate early biomarkers and timely treatments for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Apátiga-Pérez
- National Dementia BioBank. Ciencias Biológicas. Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional 13 Autónoma de México, Estado de México, México
- Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, México
| | - Luis O Soto-Rojas
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - B Berenice Campa-Córdoba
- National Dementia BioBank. Ciencias Biológicas. Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional 13 Autónoma de México, Estado de México, México
- Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, México
| | - Nabil Itzi Luna-Viramontes
- National Dementia BioBank. Ciencias Biológicas. Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional 13 Autónoma de México, Estado de México, México
- Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, México
| | - Elvis Cuevas
- Division of Neurotoxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research/U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Linda Garcés-Ramirez
- Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, México
| | - Fidel de la Cruz
- Departamento de Fisiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, México
| | - José Francisco Montiel-Sosa
- National Dementia BioBank. Ciencias Biológicas. Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional 13 Autónoma de México, Estado de México, México
| | - Mar Pacheco-Herrero
- Neuroscience Research Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, Santiago de los Caballeros, Dominican Republic.
| | - José Luna-Muñoz
- National Dementia BioBank. Ciencias Biológicas. Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional 13 Autónoma de México, Estado de México, México.
- Banco Nacional de Cerebros-UNPHU, Universidad Nacional Pedro Henríquez Ureña, Santo Domingo, República Dominicana.
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8
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Honan AM, Chen Z. Stromal Cells Underlining the Paths From Autoimmunity, Inflammation to Cancer With Roles Beyond Structural and Nutritional Support. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:658984. [PMID: 34113615 PMCID: PMC8185233 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.658984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Stromal cells provide structural support and nutrients in secondary lymphoid organs and non-lymphoid tissues. However, accumulating evidence suggests that a complex relationship exists between stromal cells and immune cells. Interactions between immune cells and stromal cells have been shown to influence the pathology of both autoimmunity and cancer. This review examines the heterogeneity of stromal cells within the lymph node and non-lymphoid tissues during both homeostatic and inflammatory conditions, in particular autoimmunity and cancer, with the goal of better understanding the complex and apparently paradoxical relationship between these two classes of diseases. The review surveys potential novel mechanisms involving the interactions between stromal cells and immune cells which may contribute to the development, pathology and underlying connection between autoimmunity and cancer, including potential pathways from autoimmune inflammation to either “hot” or “cold” tumors. These interactions may provide some insights to explain the rising incidence of both autoimmunity and cancer in young women in industrialized countries and have the potential to be exploited in the development of new interventions for preventions and treatments of both autoimmune diseases and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Honan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Zhibin Chen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States.,Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
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9
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Hassanpour M, Aghamohamadzade N, Cheraghi O, Heidarzadeh M, Nouri M. Current status of cardiac regenerative medicine; An update on point of view to cell therapy application. J Cardiovasc Thorac Res 2021; 12:256-268. [PMID: 33510874 PMCID: PMC7828760 DOI: 10.34172/jcvtr.2020.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death globally. Because of the economic and social burden of acute myocardial infarction and its chronic consequences in surviving patients, understanding the pathophysiology of myocardial infarction injury is a major priority for cardiovascular research. MI is defined as cardiomyocytes death caused by an ischemic that resulted from the apoptosis, necrosis, necroptosis, and autophagy. The phases of normal repair following MI including inflammatory, proliferation, and maturation. Normal repair is slow and inefficient generally so that other treatments are required. Because of difficulties, outcomes, and backwashes of traditional therapies including coronary artery bypass grafting, balloon angioplasty, heart transplantation, and artificial heart operations, the novel strategy in the treatment of MI, cell therapy, was newly emerged. In cell therapy, a new population of cells has created that substitute with damaged cells. Different types of stem cell and progenitor cells have been shown to improve cardiac function through various mechanisms, including the formation of new myocytes, endothelial cells, and vascular smooth muscle cells. Bone marrow- and/or adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells, embryonic stem cells, autologous skeletal myoblasts, induced pluripotent stem cells, endothelial progenitor cells, cardiac progenitor cells and cardiac pericytes considered as a source for cell therapy. In this study, we focused on the point of view of the cell sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Hassanpour
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Institute, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Omid Cheraghi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biological Science, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mohammad Nouri
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Institute, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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10
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Harris SE, Matthews KS, Palaiologou E, Tashev SA, Lofthouse EM, Pearson-Farr J, Goggin P, Chatelet DS, Johnston DA, Jongen MS, Page AM, Cleal JK, Lewis RM. Pericytes on placental capillaries in terminal villi preferentially cover endothelial junctions in regions furthest away from the trophoblast. Placenta 2020; 104:1-7. [PMID: 33190063 PMCID: PMC7921774 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2020.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Pericytes are a common feature in the placental microvasculature but their roles are not well understood. Pericytes may provide physical or endocrine support for endothelium and in some tissues mediate vasoconstriction. Methods This study uses serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM) to generate three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of placental pericytes of the terminal villi and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to study pericyte endothelial cell interactions. The proportion of endothelial cell junctions covered by pericytes was determined. Results The detailed 3D models of placental pericytes show pericyte structure at a new level of detail. Placental pericytes have many fingers extending from the cell body which can span multiple capillary branches. The proportion of endothelial cell-cell junctions covered by pericytes was significantly higher than pericyte coverage of capillary endothelium as a whole (endothelium: 14%, junctions: 43%, p < 0.0001). However, the proportion of endothelial cell-cell junctions covered by pericytes in regions adjacent to trophoblast was reduced compared to regions >3 μm away from trophoblast (27% vs 62% respectively, p < 0.001). No junctional complexes were observed connecting pericytes and endothelial cells but there were regions of cell membrane with features suggestive of intercellular adhesions. Discussion These data suggest that the localisation of pericytes on the villous capillary is not random but organised in relation to both endothelial junctions and the location of adjacent trophoblast. This further suggests that pericyte coverage may favour capillary permeability in regions that are most important for exchange, but limit capillary permeability in other regions. Three-dimensional imaging highlights the structure of placental pericytes. Placental pericytes preferentially cover endothelial junctions. The proportion of covered junctions decreased in regions adjacent to trophoblasts. The localisation of placental pericytes suggests endothelial coverage is non-random. Junction coverage may alter capillary permeability in key regions of exchange.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley E Harris
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Kate Sh Matthews
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Eleni Palaiologou
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Stanimir A Tashev
- Biomedical Imaging Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Emma M Lofthouse
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | | | - Patricia Goggin
- Biomedical Imaging Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - David S Chatelet
- Biomedical Imaging Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - David A Johnston
- Biomedical Imaging Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Maaike Sa Jongen
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Anton M Page
- Biomedical Imaging Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Jane K Cleal
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK; Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, UK
| | - Rohan M Lewis
- Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK; Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, UK.
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11
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Zhang ZS, Zhou HN, He SS, Xue MY, Li T, Liu LM. Research advances in pericyte function and their roles in diseases. Chin J Traumatol 2020; 23:89-95. [PMID: 32192909 PMCID: PMC7156959 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjtee.2020.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pericyte, a kind of pluripotent cell, may regulate the irrigation flow and permeability of microcirculation. Pericytes are similar to the smooth muscle cells, which express several kinds of contractile proteins and have contractility. The dysfunction of pericytes is related to many microvascular diseases, including hypoxia, hypertension, diabetic retinopathy, fibrosis, inflammation, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and tumor formation. For a long time, their existence and function have been neglected. The distribution, structure, biomarker, related signaling pathways as well as the roles of pericytes on vascular diseases will be introduced in this review.
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12
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Defining the Optimal FVIII Transgene for Placental Cell-Based Gene Therapy to Treat Hemophilia A. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2020; 17:465-477. [PMID: 32258210 PMCID: PMC7109377 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2020.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The delivery of factor VIII (FVIII) through gene and/or cellular platforms has emerged as a promising hemophilia A treatment. Herein, we investigated the suitability of human placental cells (PLCs) as delivery vehicles for FVIII and determined an optimal FVIII transgene to produce/secrete therapeutic FVIII levels from these cells. Using three PLC cell banks we demonstrated that PLCs constitutively secreted low levels of FVIII, suggesting their suitability as a transgenic FVIII production platform. Furthermore, PLCs significantly increased FVIII secretion after transduction with a lentiviral vector (LV) encoding a myeloid codon-optimized bioengineered FVIII containing high-expression elements from porcine FVIII. Importantly, transduced PLCs did not upregulate cellular stress or innate immunity molecules, demonstrating that after transduction and FVIII production/secretion, PLCs retained low immunogenicity and cell stress. When LV encoding five different bioengineered FVIII transgenes were compared for transduction efficiency, FVIII production, and secretion, data showed that PLCs transduced with LV encoding hybrid human/porcine FVIII transgenes secreted substantially higher levels of FVIII than did LV encoding B domain-deleted human FVIII. In addition, data showed that in PLCs, myeloid codon optimization is needed to increase FVIII secretion to therapeutic levels. These studies have identified an optimal combination of FVIII transgene and cell source to achieve clinically meaningful levels of secreted FVIII.
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13
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Kosyakova N, Kao DD, Figetakis M, López-Giráldez F, Spindler S, Graham M, James KJ, Won Shin J, Liu X, Tietjen GT, Pober JS, Chang WG. Differential functional roles of fibroblasts and pericytes in the formation of tissue-engineered microvascular networks in vitro. NPJ Regen Med 2020; 5:1. [PMID: 31934351 PMCID: PMC6944695 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-019-0086-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Formation of a perfusable microvascular network (μVN) is critical for tissue engineering of solid organs. Stromal cells can support endothelial cell (EC) self-assembly into a μVN, but distinct stromal cell populations may play different roles in this process. Here we describe the differential effects that two widely used stromal cell populations, fibroblasts (FBs) and pericytes (PCs), have on μVN formation. We examined the effects of adding defined stromal cell populations on the self-assembly of ECs derived from human endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) into perfusable μVNs in fibrin gels cast within a microfluidic chamber. ECs alone failed to fully assemble a perfusable μVN. Human lung FBs stimulated the formation of EC-lined μVNs within microfluidic devices. RNA-seq analysis suggested that FBs produce high levels of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). Addition of recombinant HGF improved while the c-MET inhibitor, Capmatinib (INCB28060), reduced μVN formation within devices. Human placental PCs could not substitute for FBs, but in the presence of FBs, PCs closely associated with ECs, formed a common basement membrane, extended microfilaments intercellularly, and reduced microvessel diameters. Different stromal cell types provide different functions in microvessel assembly by ECs. FBs support μVN formation by providing paracrine growth factors whereas PCs directly interact with ECs to modify microvascular morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Kosyakova
- Department of Medicine, Section of Nephrology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
| | - Derek D. Kao
- Yale College of Undergraduate Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
| | - Maria Figetakis
- Department of Medicine, Section of Nephrology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
| | | | - Susann Spindler
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
| | - Morven Graham
- Yale Center for Cellular and Molecular Imaging, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510 USA
| | - Kevin J. James
- Department of Medicine, Section of Nephrology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
| | - Jee Won Shin
- Yale College of Undergraduate Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
| | - Xinran Liu
- Yale Center for Cellular and Molecular Imaging, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510 USA
| | - Gregory T. Tietjen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
| | - Jordan S. Pober
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519 USA
| | - William G. Chang
- Department of Medicine, Section of Nephrology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520 USA
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14
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James AW, Péault B. Perivascular Mesenchymal Progenitors for Bone Regeneration. J Orthop Res 2019; 37:1221-1228. [PMID: 30908717 PMCID: PMC6546547 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mesenchymal progenitor cells reside in all assayed vascularized tissues, and are broadly conceptualized to participate in homeostasis/renewal and repair. The application of mesenchymal progenitor cells has been studied for diverse orthopaedic conditions related to skeletal degeneration, regeneration, and tissue fabrication. One common niche for mesenchymal progenitors is the perivascular space, and in both mouse and human tissues, perivascular progenitor cells have been isolated and characterized. Of these "perivascular stem cells" or PSC, pericytes are the most commonly studied cells. Multiple studies have demonstrated the regenerative properties of PSC when applied to bone, including direct osteochondral differentiation, paracrine-induced osteogenesis and vasculogenesis, and immunomodulatory functions. The confluence of these effects have resulted in efficacious bone regeneration across several preclinical models. Yet, key topics of research in perivascular progenitors highlight our lack of knowledge regarding these cell populations. These ongoing areas of study include cellular diversity within the perivascular niche, tissue-specific properties of PSC, and factors that influence PSC-mediated regenerative potential. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 37:1221-1228, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron W. James
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA,UCLA and Orthopaedic Hospital Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and the Orthopaedic Hospital Research Center, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Bruno Péault
- UCLA and Orthopaedic Hospital Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and the Orthopaedic Hospital Research Center, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA,Center For Cardiovascular Science and MRC Center for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
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15
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Role and Molecular Mechanisms of Pericytes in Regulation of Leukocyte Diapedesis in Inflamed Tissues. Mediators Inflamm 2019; 2019:4123605. [PMID: 31205449 PMCID: PMC6530229 DOI: 10.1155/2019/4123605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukocyte recruitment is a hallmark of the inflammatory response. Migrating leukocytes breach the endothelium along with the vascular basement membrane and associated pericytes. While much is known about leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions, the mechanisms and role of pericytes in extravasation are poorly understood and the classical paradigm of leukocyte recruitment in the microvasculature seldom adequately discusses the involvement of pericytes. Emerging evidence shows that pericytes are essential players in the regulation of leukocyte extravasation in addition to their functions in blood vessel formation and blood-brain barrier maintenance. Junctions between venular endothelial cells are closely aligned with extracellular matrix protein low expression regions (LERs) in the basement membrane, which in turn are aligned with gaps between pericytes. This forms preferential paths for leukocyte extravasation. Breaching of the layer formed by pericytes and the basement membrane entails remodelling of LERs, leukocyte-pericyte adhesion, crawling of leukocytes on pericyte processes, and enlargement of gaps between pericytes to form channels for migrating leukocytes. Furthermore, inflamed arteriolar and capillary pericytes induce chemotactic migration of leukocytes that exit postcapillary venules, and through direct pericyte-leukocyte contact, they induce efficient interstitial migration to enhance the immunosurveillance capacity of leukocytes. Given their role as regulators of leukocyte extravasation, proper pericyte function is imperative in inflammatory disease contexts such as diabetic retinopathy and sepsis. This review summarizes research on the molecular mechanisms by which pericytes mediate leukocyte diapedesis in inflamed tissues.
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16
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Ampofo E, Berg JJ, Menger MD, Laschke MW. Maslinic acid alleviates ischemia/reperfusion-induced inflammation by downregulation of NFκB-mediated adhesion molecule expression. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6119. [PMID: 30992483 PMCID: PMC6467883 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42465-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced inflammation is associated with enhanced leukocyte rolling, adhesion and transmigration within the microcirculation. These steps are mediated by hypoxia-triggered signaling pathways, which upregulate adhesion molecule expression on endothelial cells and pericytes. We analyzed whether these cellular events are affected by maslinic acid (MA). Mitochondrial activity and viability of MA-exposed endothelial cells and pericytes were assessed by water-soluble tetrazolium (WST)-1 and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assays as well as Annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) stainings. Effects of MA on hypoxia and reoxygenation-induced expression of E-selectin, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 were determined by flow cytometry. The subcellular localization of the NFκB subunit p65 was analyzed by immunofluorescence and Western blot. I/R-induced leukocytic inflammation was studied in MA- and vehicle-treated mouse dorsal skinfold chambers by intravital fluorescence microscopy and immunohistochemistry. MA did not affect viability, but suppressed the mitochondrial activity of endothelial cells. Furthermore, MA reduced adhesion molecule expression on endothelial cells and pericytes due to an inhibitory action on NFκB signaling. Numbers of adherent and transmigrated leukocytes were lower in post-ischemic tissue of MA-treated mice when compared to vehicle-treated controls. In addition, MA affected reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, resulting in a diminished oxidative DNA damage. Hence, MA represents an attractive compound for the establishment of novel therapeutic approaches against I/R-induced inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Ampofo
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg/Saar, Germany.
| | - Julian J Berg
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Michael D Menger
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Matthias W Laschke
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421, Homburg/Saar, Germany
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17
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Alcendor DJ. Human Vascular Pericytes and Cytomegalovirus Pathobiology. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061456. [PMID: 30909422 PMCID: PMC6471229 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Pericytes are multipotent cells of the vascular system with cytoplasmic extensions proximal to endothelial cells that occur along the abluminal surface of the endothelium. The interactions between endothelial cells and pericytes are essential for proper microvascular formation, development, stabilization, and maintenance. Pericytes are essential for the regulation of paracellular flow between cells, transendothelial fluid transport, angiogenesis, and vascular immunosurveillance. They also influence the chemical composition of the surrounding microenvironment to protect endothelial cells from potential harm. Dysregulation or loss of pericyte function can result in microvascular instability and pathological consequences. Human pericytes have been shown to be targets for human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection and lytic replication that likely contribute to vascular inflammation. This review focuses on human vascular pericytes and their permissiveness for HCMV infection. It also discusses their implication in pathogenesis in the blood⁻brain barrier (BBB), the inner blood⁻retinal barrier (IBRB), the placenta⁻blood barrier, and the renal glomerulus as well as their potential role in subclinical vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald J Alcendor
- Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology, School of Medicine, Meharry Medical College, 1005 Dr. D.B. Todd Jr. Blvd., Hubbard Hospital, 5th Floor, Rm. 5025, Nashville, TN 37208, USA.
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18
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Barreto RSN, Romagnolli P, Cereta AD, Coimbra-Campos LMC, Birbrair A, Miglino MA. Pericytes in the Placenta: Role in Placental Development and Homeostasis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1122:125-151. [PMID: 30937867 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-11093-2_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The placenta is the most variable organ, in terms of structure, among the species. Besides it, all placental types have the same function: production of viable offspring, independent of pregnancy length, litter number, or invasion level. The angiogenesis is a central mechanism for placental functionality, due to proper maternal-fetal communication and exchanges. Much is known about the vasculature structure, but little is known about vasculature development and cellular interactions. Pericytes are perivascular cells that were described to control vasculature stability and permeability. Nowadays there are several new functions discovered, such as lymphocyte modulation and activation, macrophage-like phagocytic properties, tissue regenerative and repair processes, and also the ability to modulate stem cells, majorly the hematopoietic. In parallel, placental tissues are known to be a particularly immune microenvironment and a rich stem cell niche. The pericyte function plethora could be similar in the placental microenvironment and could have a central role in placental development and homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo S N Barreto
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, Butantã, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Patricia Romagnolli
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, Butantã, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andressa Daronco Cereta
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, Butantã, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leda M C Coimbra-Campos
- Department of Pathology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Alexander Birbrair
- Department of Radiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.,Department of Pathology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Maria Angelica Miglino
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, University of São Paulo, Butantã, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
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19
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Cathery W, Faulkner A, Maselli D, Madeddu P. Concise Review: The Regenerative Journey of Pericytes Toward Clinical Translation. Stem Cells 2018; 36:1295-1310. [PMID: 29732653 PMCID: PMC6175115 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the single leading cause of death worldwide. Advances in treatment and management have significantly improved patient outcomes. On the other hand, although mortality rates have decreased, more people are left with sequelae that require additional treatment and hospitalization. Moreover, patients with severe nonrevascularizable CAD remain with only the option of heart transplantation, which is limited by the shortage of suitable donors. In recent years, cell-based regenerative therapy has emerged as a possible alternative treatment, with several regenerative medicinal products already in the clinical phase of development and others emerging as competitive preclinical solutions. Recent evidence indicates that pericytes, the mural cells of blood microvessels, represent a promising therapeutic candidate. Pericytes are abundant in the human body, play an active role in angiogenesis, vessel stabilization and blood flow regulation, and possess the capacity to differentiate into multiple cells of the mesenchymal lineage. Moreover, early studies suggest a robustness to hypoxic insult, making them uniquely equipped to withstand the ischemic microenvironment. This review summarizes the rationale behind pericyte-based cell therapy and the progress that has been made toward its clinical application. We present the different sources of pericytes and the case for harvesting them from tissue leftovers of cardiovascular surgery. We also discuss the healing potential of pericytes in preclinical animal models of myocardial ischemia (MI) and current practices to upgrade the production protocol for translation to the clinic. Standardization of these procedures is of utmost importance, as lack of uniformity in cell manufacturing may influence clinical outcome. Stem Cells 2018;36:1295-1310.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Cathery
- Experimental Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol Heart Institute, Bristol Royal Infirmary, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Ashton Faulkner
- Experimental Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol Heart Institute, Bristol Royal Infirmary, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Davide Maselli
- School of Bioscience and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom & IRCCS Multimedica, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Madeddu
- Experimental Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol Heart Institute, Bristol Royal Infirmary, Bristol, United Kingdom
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20
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Liu R, Merola J, Manes TD, Qin L, Tietjen GT, López-Giráldez F, Broecker V, Fang C, Xie C, Chen PM, Kirkiles-Smith NC, Jane-Wit D, Pober JS. Interferon-γ converts human microvascular pericytes into negative regulators of alloimmunity through induction of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1. JCI Insight 2018. [PMID: 29515027 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.97881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Early acute rejection of human allografts is mediated by circulating alloreactive host effector memory T cells (TEM). TEM infiltration typically occurs across graft postcapillary venules and involves sequential interactions with graft-derived endothelial cells (ECs) and pericytes (PCs). While the role of ECs in allograft rejection has been extensively studied, contributions of PCs to this process are largely unknown. This study aimed to characterize the effects and mechanisms of interactions between human PCs and allogeneic TEM. We report that unstimulated PCs, like ECs, can directly present alloantigen to TEM, but while IFN-γ-activated ECs (γ-ECs) show increased ability to stimulate alloreactive T cells, IFN-γ-activated PCs (γ-PCs) instead suppress TEM proliferation but not cytokine production or signaling. RNA sequencing analysis of PCs, γ-PCs, ECs, and γ-ECs reveal induction of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) in γ-PCs to significantly higher levels than in γ-ECs that correlates with tryptophan depletion in vitro. Consistently, shRNA knockdown of IDO1 markedly reduces γ-PC-mediated immunoregulatory effects. Furthermore, human PCs express IDO1 in a skin allograft rejection humanized mouse model and in human renal allografts with acute T cell-mediated rejection. We conclude that immunosuppressive properties of human PCs are not intrinsic but instead result from IFN-γ-induced IDO1-mediated tryptophan depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan Merola
- Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | | | - Lingfeng Qin
- Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Gregory T Tietjen
- Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | | | - Verena Broecker
- Department of Histopathology, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge University Hospitals, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Caodi Fang
- Section of Cardiovascular Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | | | | | | | - Dan Jane-Wit
- Section of Cardiovascular Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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21
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Meyers CA, Xu J, Zhang L, Asatrian G, Ding C, Yan N, Broderick K, Sacks J, Goyal R, Zhang X, Ting K, Péault B, Soo C, James AW. Early Immunomodulatory Effects of Implanted Human Perivascular Stromal Cells During Bone Formation. Tissue Eng Part A 2018; 24:448-457. [PMID: 28683667 PMCID: PMC5833257 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2017.0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Human perivascular stem/stromal cells (PSC) are a multipotent mesodermal progenitor cell population defined by their perivascular residence. PSC are most commonly derived from subcutaneous adipose tissue, and recent studies have demonstrated the high potential for clinical translation of this fluorescence-activated cell sorting-derived cell population for bone tissue engineering. Specifically, purified PSC induce greater bone formation than unpurified stroma taken from the same patient sample. In this study, we examined the differences in early innate immune response to human PSC or unpurified stroma (stromal vascular fraction [SVF]) during the in vivo process of bone formation. Briefly, SVF or PSC from the same patient sample were implanted intramuscularly in the hindlimb of severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice using an osteoinductive demineralized bone matrix carrier. Histological examination of early inflammatory infiltrates was examined by hematoxylin and eosin and immunohistochemical staining (Ly-6G, F4/80). Results showed significantly greater neutrophilic and macrophage infiltrates within and around SVF in comparison to PSC-laden implants. Differences in early postoperative inflammation among SVF-laden implants were associated with reduced osteogenic differentiation and bone formation. Similar findings were recapitulated with PSC implantation in immunocompetent mice. Exaggerated postoperative inflammation was associated with increased IL-1α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, and TNF-α gene expression among SVF samples, and conversely increased IL-6 and IL-10 expression among PSC samples. These data document a robust immunomodulatory effect of implanted PSC, and an inverse correlation between host inflammatory cell infiltration and stromal progenitor cell-mediated ossification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn A. Meyers
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jiajia Xu
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Stomatology, China Medical University, Shenyang, PR China
| | - Greg Asatrian
- Section of Orthodontics, Division of Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Catherine Ding
- Section of Orthodontics, Division of Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Noah Yan
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Kristen Broderick
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Justin Sacks
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Raghav Goyal
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Xinli Zhang
- Section of Orthodontics, Division of Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Kang Ting
- Section of Orthodontics, Division of Growth and Development, School of Dentistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Bruno Péault
- Center for Cardiovascular Science and MRC Center for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UCLA Orthopedic Hospital Department of Orthopedic Surgery and the Orthopedic Hospital Research Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Chia Soo
- UCLA Orthopedic Hospital Department of Orthopedic Surgery and the Orthopedic Hospital Research Center, Los Angeles, California
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Aaron W. James
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
- UCLA Orthopedic Hospital Department of Orthopedic Surgery and the Orthopedic Hospital Research Center, Los Angeles, California
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22
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Cheung TS, Dazzi F. Mesenchymal-myeloid interaction in the regulation of immunity. Semin Immunol 2018; 35:59-68. [PMID: 29395680 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have demonstrated how different cell types of mesenchymal and myeloid origin can independently exhibit immunoregulatory activities. In response to inflammatory cues, they transcribe a molecular repertoire that restores the tissue microenvironment to what it was before the injury. There is accumulating evidence that stromal and myeloid-derived cells do not act independently but that the establishment of a cross-talk between them is a fundamental requirement. Stromal cells, prompted by inflammatory molecules, orchestrate and initiate myeloid cell recruitment and their functional reprogramming. Once instructed, myeloid cells effect the anti-inflammatory activity or, if alternatively required, enhance immune responses. The cross-talk plays a fundamental role in tissue homeostasis, not only to regulate inflammation, but also to promote tissue regeneration and cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tik Shing Cheung
- School of Cancer and Pharmacological Sciences and KHP Cancer Research UK Centre, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesco Dazzi
- School of Cancer and Pharmacological Sciences and KHP Cancer Research UK Centre, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
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23
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Abstract
The role of pericytes seems to extend beyond their known function in angiogenesis, fibrosis and wound healing, blood-brain barrier maintenance, and blood flow regulation. More and more data are currently accumulating indicating that pericytes, uniquely positioned at the interface between blood and parenchyma, secrete a large plethora of different molecules in response to microenvironmental changes. Their secretome is tissue-specific and stimulus-specific and includes pro- and anti-inflammatory factors, growth factors, and extracellular matrix as well as microvesicles suggesting the important role of pericytes in the regulation of immune response and immune evasion of tumors. However, the angiogenic and trophic secretome of pericytes indicates that their secretome plays a role in physiological homeostasis but possibly also in disease progression or could be exploited for regenerative processes in the future. This book chapter summarizes the current data on the secretory properties of pericytes from different tissues in response to certain pathological stimuli such as inflammatory stimuli, hypoxia, high glucose, and others and thereby aims to provide insights into the possible role of pericytes in these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abderahim Gaceb
- Translational Neurology Group, Department of Clinical Sciences and Wallenberg Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Neurology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Gesine Paul
- Translational Neurology Group, Department of Clinical Sciences and Wallenberg Center for Molecular Medicine, Department of Neurology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden. .,Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden.
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24
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Pober JS, Merola J, Liu R, Manes TD. Antigen Presentation by Vascular Cells. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1907. [PMID: 29312357 PMCID: PMC5744398 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Antigen presentation by cells of the vessel wall may initiate rapid and localized memory immune responses in peripheral tissues. Peptide antigens displayed on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules on the surface of endothelial cells (ECs) can be recognized by T cell receptors on circulating effector memory T cells (TEM), triggering both transendothelial migration and activation. The array of co-stimulatory receptors, adhesion molecules, and cytokines expressed by ECs serves to modulate T cell activation responses. While the effects of these interactions vary among species, vascular beds, and vascular segments within the same tissue, they are capable of triggering allograft rejection without direct involvement of professional antigen-presenting cells and may play a similar role in host defense against infections and in autoimmunity. Once across the endothelium, extravasating TEM then contact mural cells of the vessel wall, including pericytes or vascular smooth muscle cells, which may also present antigens and provide signals that further regulate T cell responses. Collectively, these interactions provide an unexplored opportunity in which targeting of vascular cells can be used to modulate immune responses. In organ transplantation, targeting ECs with siRNA to reduce expression of MHC molecules may additionally mitigate perioperative injuries by preformed alloantibodies, further reducing the risk of graft rejection. Similarly, genetic manipulation of vascular cells to minimize antigen-dependent responses can be used to increase perfusion of tissue engineered organs without triggering rejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan S Pober
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Jonathan Merola
- Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Rebecca Liu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Thomas D Manes
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
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Mazzeo A, Arroba AI, Beltramo E, Valverde AM, Porta M. Somatostatin protects human retinal pericytes from inflammation mediated by microglia. Exp Eye Res 2017; 164:46-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2017.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Schmitt BM, Laschke MW, Rössler OG, Huang W, Scheller A, Menger MD, Ampofo E. Nerve/glial antigen (NG) 2 is a crucial regulator of intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 expression. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2017; 1865:57-66. [PMID: 28964848 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2017.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The proteoglycan nerve/glial antigen (NG) 2 is expressed on multiple cell types and mediates cell proliferation and migration. However, little is known about its function in gene regulation. In this study, we demonstrate that in pericytes and glioblastoma cells intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, an essential protein for leukocyte adhesion and transmigration, underlies a NG2-dependent expression. As shown by flow cytometry, Western blot analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), silencing of NG2 in human placenta-derived pericytes increased the expression of ICAM-1. Pathway analyses revealed that this is mediated by extracellular-regulated-kinases (ERK) 1/2 signaling. Moreover, leukocyte adhesion to NG2 siRNA-treated pericytes was significantly enhanced when compared to scrambled (scr) siRNA-treated control cells. In vivo, we detected increased ICAM-1 protein levels in the retina of mice lacking NG2 expression. To exclude that this novel mechanism is pericyte-specific, we additionally analyzed the expression of ICAM-1 in dependency of NG2 in two glioblastoma cell lines. We found that A1207 and M059K cells exhibit an inverse expression pattern of NG2 and ICAM-1. Finally, downregulation of NG2 in A1207 cells significantly increased ICAM-1 expression. Taken together, these findings indicate that NG2 may represent a promising target for the modulation of ICAM-1-mediated immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate M Schmitt
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Matthias W Laschke
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Oliver G Rössler
- Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Wenhui Huang
- Department of Molecular Physiology, CIPMM (Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine), Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Anja Scheller
- Department of Molecular Physiology, CIPMM (Center for Integrative Physiology and Molecular Medicine), Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Michael D Menger
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Ampofo
- Institute for Clinical & Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany.
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Aronoff DM, Correa H, Rogers LM, Arav-Boger R, Alcendor DJ. Placental pericytes and cytomegalovirus infectivity: Implications for HCMV placental pathology and congenital disease. Am J Reprod Immunol 2017; 78:10.1111/aji.12728. [PMID: 28741727 PMCID: PMC5561471 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM Placental pericytes are essential for placental microvascular function, stability, and integrity. Mechanisms of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) pathogenesis incorporating placental pericytes are unknown. METHOD OF STUDY HCMV-infected placental tissue was stained by dual-labeled immunohistochemistry. Primary placental pericytes, cytotrophoblasts, and villous fibroblasts were exposed to HCMV; and infectivity was analyzed by microscopy and immunofluorescence. Cytokine expression was examined by Luminex assay. A HCMV-GFP recombinant virus was used to examine replication kinetics. RESULTS Immunohistochemistry showed HCMV in trophoblast and the villous core with T-cell and macrophage infiltration. Primary HCMV isolate from a patient (SBCMV)- infected pericytes showed dysregulation of proinflammatory and angiogenic cytokines when compared to control cells. A tri-cell model of the villous floor showed a unique expression profile. Finally, we show pericytes infected in vivo with HCMV in placental tissue from a congenitally infected child. CONCLUSION Placental pericytes support HCMV replication, inducing proinflammatory and angiogenic cytokines that likely contribute to viral dissemination, placenta inflammation, and dysregulation of placental angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Aronoff
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, School of Medicine, 1005 Dr. D.B. Todd Jr. Blvd., Nashville, Tennessee 37208, USA
| | - Hernan Correa
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Lisa M. Rogers
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA
| | - Ravit. Arav-Boger
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21287, USA
| | - Donald J. Alcendor
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for AIDS Health Disparities Research, Meharry Medical College, School of Medicine, 1005 Dr. D.B. Todd Jr. Blvd., Nashville, Tennessee 37208, USA
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Gökçinar-Yagci B, Çelebi-Saltik B. Comparison of different culture conditions for smooth muscle cell differentiation of human umbilical cord vein CD146+ perivascular cells. Cell Tissue Bank 2017; 18:501-511. [DOI: 10.1007/s10561-017-9656-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Rustenhoven J, Jansson D, Smyth LC, Dragunow M. Brain Pericytes As Mediators of Neuroinflammation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2017; 38:291-304. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Fabian KL, Storkus WJ. Immunotherapeutic Targeting of Tumor-Associated Blood Vessels. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1036:191-211. [PMID: 29275473 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-67577-0_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Pathological angiogenesis occurs during tumor progression and leads in the formation of an abnormal vasculature in the tumor microenvironment (TME). The tumor vasculature is disorganized, tortuous and leaky, resulting in high interstitial pressure and hypoxia in the TME, all of which are events that support tumor growth and survival. Given the sustaining role of the tumor vasculature, it has become an increasingly attractive target for the development of anti-cancer therapies. Antibodies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors and cancer vaccines that target pro-angiogenic factors, angiogenesis-associated receptors or tumor blood vessel-associated antigens continue to be developed and tested for therapeutic efficacy. Preferred anti-angiogenic protocols include those that "normalize" the tumor-associated vasculature which reduce hypoxia and improve tumor blood perfusion, resulting in tumor cell apoptosis, decreased immunosuppression, and enhanced effector immune cell infiltration/tumoricidal action within the TME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kellsye L Fabian
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Walter J Storkus
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Dermatology, University of Pittsburgh Cancer Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Navarro R, Compte M, Álvarez-Vallina L, Sanz L. Immune Regulation by Pericytes: Modulating Innate and Adaptive Immunity. Front Immunol 2016; 7:480. [PMID: 27867386 PMCID: PMC5095456 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Pericytes (PC) are mural cells that surround endothelial cells in small blood vessels. PC have traditionally been credited with structural functions, being essential for vessel maturation and stabilization. However, an accumulating body of evidence suggests that PC also display immune properties. They can respond to a series of pro-inflammatory stimuli and are able to sense different types of danger due to their expression of functional pattern-recognition receptors, contributing to the onset of innate immune responses. In this context, PC not only secrete a variety of chemokines but also overexpress adhesion molecules such as ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 involved in the control of immune cell trafficking across vessel walls. In addition to their role in innate immunity, PC are involved in adaptive immunity. It has been reported that interaction with PC anergizes T cells, which is attributed, at least in part, to the expression of PD-L1. As components of the tumor microenvironment, PC can also modulate the antitumor immune response. However, their role is complex, and further studies will be required to better understand the crosstalk of PC with immune cells in order to consider them as potential therapeutic targets. In any case, PC will be looked at with new eyes by immunologists from now on.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Navarro
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda , Madrid , Spain
| | - Marta Compte
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda , Madrid , Spain
| | - Luis Álvarez-Vallina
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain; Immunotherapy and Cell Engineering Laboratory, Department of Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Laura Sanz
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda , Madrid , Spain
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Liu R, Lauridsen HM, Amezquita RA, Pierce RW, Jane-Wit D, Fang C, Pellowe AS, Kirkiles-Smith NC, Gonzalez AL, Pober JS. IL-17 Promotes Neutrophil-Mediated Immunity by Activating Microvascular Pericytes and Not Endothelium. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2016; 197:2400-8. [PMID: 27534549 PMCID: PMC5010945 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A classical hallmark of acute inflammation is neutrophil infiltration of tissues, a multistep process that involves sequential cell-cell interactions of circulating leukocytes with IL-1- or TNF-activated microvascular endothelial cells (ECs) and pericytes (PCs) that form the wall of the postcapillary venules. The initial infiltrating cells accumulate perivascularly in close proximity to PCs. IL-17, a proinflammatory cytokine that acts on target cells via a heterodimeric receptor formed by IL-17RA and IL-17RC subunits, also promotes neutrophilic inflammation but its effects on vascular cells are less clear. We report that both cultured human ECs and PCs strongly express IL-17RC and, although neither cell type expresses much IL-17RA, PCs express significantly more than ECs. IL-17, alone or synergistically with TNF, significantly alters inflammatory gene expression in cultured human PCs but not ECs. RNA sequencing analysis identifies many IL-17-induced transcripts in PCs encoding proteins known to stimulate neutrophil-mediated immunity. Conditioned media from IL-17-activated PCs, but not ECs, induce pertussis toxin-sensitive neutrophil polarization, likely mediated by PC-secreted chemokines, and they also stimulate neutrophil production of proinflammatory molecules, including TNF, IL-1α, IL-1β, and IL-8. Furthermore, IL-17-activated PCs, but not ECs, can prolong neutrophil survival by producing G-CSF and GM-CSF, delaying the mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and caspase-9 activation. Importantly, neutrophils exhibit enhanced phagocytic capacity after activation by conditioned media from IL-17-treated PCs. We conclude that PCs, not ECs, are the major target of IL-17 within the microvessel wall and that IL-17-activated PCs can modulate neutrophil functions within the perivascular tissue space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Liu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Holly M Lauridsen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Robert A Amezquita
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, MD 20815
| | - Richard W Pierce
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520; and
| | - Dan Jane-Wit
- Division of Cardiology, Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT 06516
| | - Caodi Fang
- Division of Cardiology, Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT 06516
| | - Amanda S Pellowe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | | | | | - Jordan S Pober
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520;
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Gökçinar-Yagci B, Uçkan-Çetinkaya D, Çelebi-Saltik B. Pericytes: Properties, Functions and Applications in Tissue Engineering. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2016; 11:549-59. [PMID: 25865146 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-015-9590-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are one of the most studied adult stem cells and in recent years. They have become attractive agents/cell source for cellular therapy and regenerative medicine applications. During investigations about their origin, researchers hypothesized that perivascular regions are the common anatomical regions where MSCs come from and perivascular cells like pericytes (PCs) (Rouget cells, mural cells) are in vivo counterparts of MSCs. Beside capillaries and microvessels as their most common locations, PCs are also found in large vessels (arteries and veins). They can be isolated from several tissues and organs particularly from retina and brain. There are different approaches about their isolation, characterization and culture but there has been no common protocol yet because of the lack of defined PC-specific marker. They make special contact with endothelial cells in the basement membrane and have very important functions in several tissues and organs. They participate in vascular development, stabilization, maturation, and remodeling, blood pressure control, endothelial cell proliferation and differentiation, contractility of vascular smooth muscle cells, wound healing, vasculogenesis and angiogenesis, long-term maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow niche. Their multipotential differentiation capacity and participation in many events in the body make PCs preferred cells in tissue engineering applications including 3D blood-brain barrier models, skeletal muscle constructs, bone tissue engineering and tissue-engineered vascular grafts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beyza Gökçinar-Yagci
- Health Science Institute, Department of Stem Cell Sciences, Hacettepe University, 06100, Ankara, Turkey
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Ivanova EA, Bobryshev YV, Orekhov AN. Intimal pericytes as the second line of immune defence in atherosclerosis. World J Cardiol 2015; 7:583-93. [PMID: 26516412 PMCID: PMC4620069 DOI: 10.4330/wjc.v7.i10.583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammation plays an essential role in the development of atherosclerosis. The initiation and growth of atherosclerotic plaques is accompanied by recruitment of inflammatory and precursor cells from the bloodstream and their differentiation towards pro-inflammatory phenotypes. This process is orchestrated by the production of a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Human arterial intima consists of structurally distinct leaflets, with a proteoglycan-rich layer lying immediately below the endothelial lining. Recent studies reveal the important role of stellate pericyte-like cells (intimal pericytes) populating the proteoglycan-rich layer in the development of atherosclerosis. During the pathologic process, intimal pericytes may participate in the recruitment of inflammatory cells by producing signalling molecules and play a role in the antigen presentation. Intimal pericytes are also involved in lipid accumulation and the formation of foam cells. This review focuses on the role of pericyte-like cells in the development of atherosclerotic lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina A Ivanova
- Ekaterina A Ivanova, Department of Development and Regeneration, Biomedical Sciences Group, KU Leuve, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Yuri V Bobryshev
- Ekaterina A Ivanova, Department of Development and Regeneration, Biomedical Sciences Group, KU Leuve, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Alexander N Orekhov
- Ekaterina A Ivanova, Department of Development and Regeneration, Biomedical Sciences Group, KU Leuve, Leuven, Belgium
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Crossing the Vascular Wall: Common and Unique Mechanisms Exploited by Different Leukocyte Subsets during Extravasation. Mediators Inflamm 2015; 2015:946509. [PMID: 26568666 PMCID: PMC4629053 DOI: 10.1155/2015/946509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukocyte extravasation is one of the essential and first steps during the initiation of inflammation. Therefore, a better understanding of the key molecules that regulate this process may help to develop novel therapeutics for treatment of inflammation-based diseases such as atherosclerosis or rheumatoid arthritis. The endothelial adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 are known as the central mediators of leukocyte adhesion to and transmigration across the endothelium. Engagement of these molecules by their leukocyte integrin receptors initiates the activation of several signaling pathways within both leukocytes and endothelium. Several of such events have been described to occur during transendothelial migration of all leukocyte subsets, whereas other mechanisms are known only for a single leukocyte subset. Here, we summarize current knowledge on regulatory mechanisms of leukocyte extravasation from a leukocyte and endothelial point of view, respectively. Specifically, we will focus on highlighting common and unique mechanisms that specific leukocyte subsets exploit to succeed in crossing endothelial monolayers.
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Abrahimi P, Liu R, Pober JS. Blood Vessels in Allotransplantation. Am J Transplant 2015; 15:1748-54. [PMID: 25807965 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.13242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Human vascularized allografts are perfused through blood vessels composed of cells (endothelium, pericytes, and smooth muscle cells) that remain largely of graft origin and are thus subject to host alloimmune responses. Graft vessels must be healthy to maintain homeostatic functions including control of perfusion, maintenance of permselectivity, prevention of thrombosis, and participation in immune surveillance. Vascular cell injury can cause dysfunction that interferes with these processes. Graft vascular cells can be activated by mediators of innate and adaptive immunity to participate in graft inflammation contributing to both ischemia/reperfusion injury and allograft rejection. Different forms of rejection may affect graft vessels in different ways, ranging from thrombosis and neutrophilic inflammation in hyperacute rejection, to endothelialitis/intimal arteritis and fibrinoid necrosis in acute cell-mediated or antibody-mediated rejection, respectively, and to diffuse luminal stenosis in chronic rejection. While some current therapies targeting the host immune system do affect graft vascular cells, direct targeting of the graft vasculature may create new opportunities for preventing allograft injury and loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Abrahimi
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - R Liu
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - J S Pober
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
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Johansson A, Hamzah J, Ganss R. More than a scaffold: Stromal modulation of tumor immunity. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2015; 1865:3-13. [PMID: 26071879 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2015.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Current clinical success with anti-cancer immunotherapy provides exciting new treatment opportunities. While encouraging, more needs to be done to induce durable effects in a higher proportion of patients. Increasing anti-tumor effector T cell quantity or quality alone does not necessarily correlate with therapeutic outcome. Instead, the tumor microenvironment is a critical determinant of anti-cancer responsiveness to immunotherapy and can confer profound resistance. Yet, the tumor-promoting environment - due to its enormous plasticity - also delivers the best opportunities for adjuvant therapy aiming at recruiting, priming and sustaining anti-tumor cytotoxicity. While the tumor environment as an entity is increasingly well understood, current interventions are still broad and often systemic. In contrast, tumors grow in a highly compartmentalized environment which includes the vascular/perivascular niche, extracellular matrix components and in some tumors lymph node aggregates; all of these structures harbor and instruct subsets of immune cells. Targeting and re-programming specific compartments may provide better opportunities for adjuvant immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Johansson
- Vascular Biology and Stromal Targeting, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, The University of Western Australia, Centre for Medical Research, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Juliana Hamzah
- Targeted Drug Delivery, Imaging and Therapy, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, The University of Western Australia, Centre for Medical Research, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia
| | - Ruth Ganss
- Vascular Biology and Stromal Targeting, Harry Perkins Institute of Medical Research, The University of Western Australia, Centre for Medical Research, Nedlands, Western Australia 6009, Australia.
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Wedel J, Bruneau S, Kochupurakkal N, Boneschansker L, Briscoe DM. Chronic allograft rejection: a fresh look. Curr Opin Organ Transplant 2015; 20:13-20. [PMID: 25563987 PMCID: PMC4461362 DOI: 10.1097/mot.0000000000000155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW New developments suggest that the graft itself and molecules expressed within the graft microenvironment dictate the phenotype and evolution of chronic rejection. RECENT FINDINGS Once ischemia-reperfusion injury, cellular and humoral immune responses target the microvasculature, the associated local tissue hypoxia results in hypoxia-inducible factor 1α-dependent expression of pro-inflammatory and proangiogenic growth factors including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) as a physiological response to injury. Local expression of VEGF can promote the recruitment of alloimune T cells into the graft. mTOR/Akt signaling within endothelial cells regulates cytokine- and alloantibody-induced activation and proliferation and their proinflammatory phenotype. Inhibition of mTOR and/or Akt results in an anti-inflammatory phenotype and enables the expression of coinhibitory molecules that limit local T cell reactivation and promotes immunoregulation. Semaphorin family molecules may bind to neuropilin-1 on regulatory T cell subsets to stabilize functional responses. Ligation of neuropilin-1 on Tregs also inhibits Akt-induced responses suggesting common theme for enhancing local immunoregulation and long-term graft survival. SUMMARY Events within the graft initiated by mTOR/Akt-induced signaling promote the development of chronic rejection. Semaphorin-neuropilin biology represents a novel avenue for targeting this biology and warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Wedel
- Transplant Research Program, Pediatric Transplant Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston MA
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Sarah Bruneau
- Transplant Research Program, Pediatric Transplant Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston MA
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Nora Kochupurakkal
- Transplant Research Program, Pediatric Transplant Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston MA
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Leo Boneschansker
- Transplant Research Program, Pediatric Transplant Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston MA
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David M. Briscoe
- Transplant Research Program, Pediatric Transplant Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston MA
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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Davis GE, Norden PR, Bowers SLK. Molecular control of capillary morphogenesis and maturation by recognition and remodeling of the extracellular matrix: functional roles of endothelial cells and pericytes in health and disease. Connect Tissue Res 2015; 56:392-402. [PMID: 26305158 PMCID: PMC4765926 DOI: 10.3109/03008207.2015.1066781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
This review addresses fundamental mechanisms underlying how capillaries form in three-dimensional extracellular matrices and how endothelial cells (ECs) and pericytes co-assemble to form capillary networks. In addition to playing a critical role in supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues, recent work suggests that blood vessels supply important signals to facilitate tissue development. Here, we hypothesize that another major function of capillaries is to supply signals to suppress major disease mechanisms including inflammation, infection, thrombosis, hemorrhage, edema, ischemic injury, fibrosis, autoimmune disease and tumor growth/progression. Capillary dysfunction plays a key pathogenic role in many human diseases, and thus, this suppressing function may be attenuated and central toward the initiation and progression of disease. We describe how capillaries form through creation of EC-lined tube networks and vascular guidance tunnels in 3D extracellular matrices. Pericytes recruit to the abluminal EC tube surface within these tunnel spaces, and work together to assemble the vascular basement membrane matrix. These processes occur under serum-free conditions in 3D collagen or fibrin matrices and in response to five key growth factors which are stem cell factor, interleukin-3, stromal-derived factor-1α, fibroblast growth factor-2 and insulin. In addition, we identified a key role for EC-derived platelet-derived growth factor-BB and heparin-binding epidermal growth factor in pericyte recruitment and proliferation to promote EC-pericyte tube co-assembly and vascular basement membrane matrix deposition. A molecular understanding of capillary morphogenesis and maturation should lead to novel therapeutic strategies to repair capillary dysfunction in major human disease contexts including cancer and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- George E Davis
- a Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology , Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri School of Medicine , Columbia , MO , USA
| | - Pieter R Norden
- a Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology , Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri School of Medicine , Columbia , MO , USA
| | - Stephanie L K Bowers
- a Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology , Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri School of Medicine , Columbia , MO , USA
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Domev H, Milkov I, Itskovitz-Eldor J, Dar A. Immunoevasive pericytes from human pluripotent stem cells preferentially modulate induction of allogeneic regulatory T cells. Stem Cells Transl Med 2014; 3:1169-81. [PMID: 25205843 DOI: 10.5966/sctm.2014-0097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Isolated microvessel-residing pericytes and pericytes from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) exhibit mesenchymal stem cell-like characteristics and therapeutic properties. Despite growing interest in pericyte-based stem cell therapy, their immunogenicity and immunomodulatory effects on nonactivated T cells are still poorly defined, in particular those of vasculogenic hPSC pericytes. We found that tissue-embedded and unstimulated cultured hPSC- or tissue-derived pericytes constitutively expressed major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and the inhibitory programmed cell death-ligand 1/2 (PD-L1/2) molecules but not MHC class II or CD80/CD86 costimulatory molecules. Pretreatment with inflammatory mediators failed to induce an antigen-presenting cell-like phenotype in stimulated pericytes. CD146+ pericytes from hPSCs did not induce activation and proliferation of allogeneic resting T cells independent of interferon (IFN)-γ prestimulation, similarly to pericytes from human brain or placenta. Instead, pericytes mediated a significant increase in the frequency of allogeneic CD25highFoxP3+ regulatory T cells when cocultured with nonactivated peripheral blood T cells. Furthermore, when peripheral blood CD25high regulatory T cells (Tregs) were depleted from isolated CD3+ T cells, pericytes preferentially induced de novo formation of CD4+CD25highFoxP3+CD127-, suppressive regulatory T cells. Constitutive expression of PD-L1/2 and secretion of transforming growth factor-β by hPSC pericytes directly regulated generation of pericyte-induced Tregs. Pericytes cotransplanted into immunodeficient mice with allogeneic CD25- T cells maintained a nonimmunogenic phenotype and mediated the development of functional regulatory T cells. Together, these findings reveal a novel feature of pericyte-mediated immunomodulation distinguished from immunosuppression, shared by native tissue pericytes and hPSC pericytes, and support the notion that pericytes can be applied for allogeneic cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hagit Domev
- Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Irina Milkov
- Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Joseph Itskovitz-Eldor
- Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ayelet Dar
- Ruth and Bruce Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
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Murray IR, West CC, Hardy WR, James AW, Park TS, Nguyen A, Tawonsawatruk T, Lazzari L, Soo C, Péault B. Natural history of mesenchymal stem cells, from vessel walls to culture vessels. Cell Mol Life Sci 2014; 71:1353-74. [PMID: 24158496 PMCID: PMC11113613 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-013-1462-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2013] [Revised: 08/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) can regenerate tissues by direct differentiation or indirectly by stimulating angiogenesis, limiting inflammation, and recruiting tissue-specific progenitor cells. MSCs emerge and multiply in long-term cultures of total cells from the bone marrow or multiple other organs. Such a derivation in vitro is simple and convenient, hence popular, but has long precluded understanding of the native identity, tissue distribution, frequency, and natural role of MSCs, which have been defined and validated exclusively in terms of surface marker expression and developmental potential in culture into bone, cartilage, and fat. Such simple, widely accepted criteria uniformly typify MSCs, even though some differences in potential exist, depending on tissue sources. Combined immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and cell culture have allowed tracking the artifactual cultured mesenchymal stem/stromal cells back to perivascular anatomical regions. Presently, both pericytes enveloping microvessels and adventitial cells surrounding larger arteries and veins have been described as possible MSC forerunners. While such a vascular association would explain why MSCs have been isolated from virtually all tissues tested, the origin of the MSCs grown from umbilical cord blood remains unknown. In fact, most aspects of the biology of perivascular MSCs are still obscure, from the emergence of these cells in the embryo to the molecular control of their activity in adult tissues. Such dark areas have not compromised intents to use these cells in clinical settings though, in which purified perivascular cells already exhibit decisive advantages over conventional MSCs, including purity, thorough characterization and, principally, total independence from in vitro culture. A growing body of experimental data is currently paving the way to the medical usage of autologous sorted perivascular cells for indications in which MSCs have been previously contemplated or actually used, such as bone regeneration and cardiovascular tissue repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iain R. Murray
- MRC Center for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- BHF Center for Cardiovascular Science, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Orthopedic Hospital Research Center and Broad Stem Cell Center, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Christopher C. West
- MRC Center for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- BHF Center for Cardiovascular Science, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Winters R. Hardy
- Orthopedic Hospital Research Center and Broad Stem Cell Center, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
- Indiana Center for Vascular Biology and Medicine, Indianapolis, USA
| | - Aaron W. James
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Tea Soon Park
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Alan Nguyen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Tulyapruek Tawonsawatruk
- MRC Center for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- BHF Center for Cardiovascular Science, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Lorenza Lazzari
- Cell Factory, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Chia Soo
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Departments of Surgery and Orthopedic Surgery, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Bruno Péault
- MRC Center for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- BHF Center for Cardiovascular Science, Queens Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Orthopedic Hospital Research Center and Broad Stem Cell Center, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
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Guijarro-Muñoz I, Compte M, Álvarez-Cienfuegos A, Álvarez-Vallina L, Sanz L. Lipopolysaccharide activates Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated NF-κB signaling pathway and proinflammatory response in human pericytes. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:2457-68. [PMID: 24307174 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.521161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pericytes and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are ontogenically related, and in fact, no significant phenotypic differences could be observed by flow cytometry. Transcriptome analysis of human pericytes and MSCs revealed that 43 genes were up-regulated more than 10-fold in pericytes compared with MSCs. Identification of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) as one of the most abundant RNA species in pericytes with respect to MSCs and confirmation of TLR4 expression on the cell surface led us to obtain a comprehensive overview of the expression program of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated pericytes. Transcriptional profiling of LPS-treated cells revealed that 22 genes were up-regulated more than 5-fold. Of them, 10 genes encoded chemokines and cytokines (CXCL10, CCL20, IL8, CXCL1, IL6, CCL2, IL1B, CXCL2, IL1A, and CXCL6), and three genes encoded adhesion molecules (ICAM1, VCAM1, and SELE). LPS induced nuclear translocation of the transcription factor NF-κB in stimulated pericytes. Moreover, inhibition of NF-κB activation by SC-514 blocked LPS-induced up-regulation of a subset of chemokine genes, confirming the key role of NF-κB in LPS signaling in pericytes. At the protein level, we assessed the secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines IL-6, IL-8, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL3, and CCL2 not only after LPS treatment but also in HMGB1-stimulated pericytes. Up-regulation of the adhesion molecules ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 resulted in an increased adhesion of peripheral blood leukocytes to an LPS-treated pericyte monolayer. The role of pericytes in the inflammatory context has been scarcely addressed; according to these results, pericytes should be considered as active players in the inflammatory cascade with potential physiopathological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Guijarro-Muñoz
- From the Molecular Immunology Unit, Hospital Universitario Puerta de Hierro Majadahonda, 28222 Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
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Saparov A, Chen CW, Beckman SA, Wang Y, Huard J. The role of antioxidation and immunomodulation in postnatal multipotent stem cell-mediated cardiac repair. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:16258-79. [PMID: 23924945 PMCID: PMC3759910 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140816258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress and inflammation play major roles in the pathogenesis of coronary heart disease including myocardial infarction (MI). The pathological progression following MI is very complex and involves a number of cell populations including cells localized within the heart, as well as cells recruited from the circulation and other tissues that participate in inflammatory and reparative processes. These cells, with their secretory factors, have pleiotropic effects that depend on the stage of inflammation and regeneration. Excessive inflammation leads to enlargement of the infarction site, pathological remodeling and eventually, heart dysfunction. Stem cell therapy represents a unique and innovative approach to ameliorate oxidative stress and inflammation caused by ischemic heart disease. Consequently, it is crucial to understand the crosstalk between stem cells and other cells involved in post-MI cardiac tissue repair, especially immune cells, in order to harness the beneficial effects of the immune response following MI and further improve stem cell-mediated cardiac regeneration. This paper reviews the recent findings on the role of antioxidation and immunomodulation in postnatal multipotent stem cell-mediated cardiac repair following ischemic heart disease, particularly acute MI and focuses specifically on mesenchymal, muscle and blood-vessel-derived stem cells due to their antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arman Saparov
- Nazarbayev University Research and Innovation System, Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; E-Mails: (C.-W.C.); (S.A.B.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (A.S.); (J.H.); Tel.: +7-717-270-6140 (A.S.); +1-412-648-2798 (J.H.); Fax: +7-717-270-6054 (A.S.); +1-412-648-4066 (J.H.)
| | - Chien-Wen Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; E-Mails: (C.-W.C.); (S.A.B.)
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; E-Mail:
- Stem Cell Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Sarah A. Beckman
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; E-Mails: (C.-W.C.); (S.A.B.)
- Stem Cell Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Department of Molecular Cardiovascular Biology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Yadong Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; E-Mail:
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Johnny Huard
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA; E-Mails: (C.-W.C.); (S.A.B.)
- Stem Cell Research Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (A.S.); (J.H.); Tel.: +7-717-270-6140 (A.S.); +1-412-648-2798 (J.H.); Fax: +7-717-270-6054 (A.S.); +1-412-648-4066 (J.H.)
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Corselli M, Crisan M, Murray IR, West CC, Scholes J, Codrea F, Khan N, Péault B. Identification of perivascular mesenchymal stromal/stem cells by flow cytometry. Cytometry A 2013; 83:714-20. [DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.22313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mihaela Crisan
- Department of Cell Biology; Erasmus MC Stem Cell Institute; Rotterdam; The Netherlands
| | - Iain R. Murray
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science and Centre for Regenerative Medicine; University of Edinburgh; Edinburgh; United Kingdom
| | - Christopher C. West
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science and Centre for Regenerative Medicine; University of Edinburgh; Edinburgh; United Kingdom
| | - Jessica Scholes
- Eli and Edythe Broad Stem Cell Research Center; Flow Cytometry Core, University of California; Los Angeles; California
| | - Felicia Codrea
- Eli and Edythe Broad Stem Cell Research Center; Flow Cytometry Core, University of California; Los Angeles; California
| | - Nusrat Khan
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science and Centre for Regenerative Medicine; University of Edinburgh; Edinburgh; United Kingdom
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Bose A, Barik S, Banerjee S, Ghosh T, Mallick A, Bhattacharyya Majumdar S, Goswami KK, Bhuniya A, Banerjee S, Baral R, Storkus WJ, Dasgupta PS, Majumdar S. Tumor-derived vascular pericytes anergize Th cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 191:971-81. [PMID: 23785117 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Immune evasion within the tumor microenvironment supports malignant growth and is also a major obstacle for successful immunotherapy. Multiple cellular components and soluble factors coordinate to disrupt protective immune responses. Although stromal cells are well-known for their parenchymal supportive roles in cancer establishment and progression, we demonstrate for the first time, to our knowledge, that tumor-derived vascular pericytes negatively influence CD4(+) T cell activation and proliferation, and promote anergy in recall response to Ag by CD4(+)CD44(+) T cells via regulator of G protein signaling 5- and IL-6-dependent pathways. Our data support a new specific role for tumor-derived pericytes in the immune evasion paradigm within the tumor microenvironment and suggest the targeting of these cell populations in the context of successful immunotherapeutics for the treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anamika Bose
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Bose Institute, Kolkata 700054, India.
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Transendothelial migration enables subsequent transmigration of neutrophils through underlying pericytes. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60025. [PMID: 23555870 PMCID: PMC3608600 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 02/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
During acute inflammation, neutrophil recruitment into extravascular tissue requires neutrophil tethering and rolling on cytokine-activated endothelial cells (ECs), tight adhesion, crawling towards EC junctions and transendothelial migration (TEM). Following TEM, neutrophils must still traverse the subendothelial basement membrane and network of pericytes (PCs). Until recently, the contribution of the PC layer to neutrophil recruitment was largely ignored. Here we analyze human neutrophil interactions with interleukin (IL)-1β-activated human EC monolayers, PC monolayers and EC/PC bilayers in vitro. Compared to EC, PC support much lower levels of neutrophil binding (54.6% vs. 7.1%, respectively) and transmigration (63.7 vs. 8.8%, respectively) despite comparable levels of IL-8 (CXCL8) synthesis and display. Remarkably, EC/PC bilayers support intermediate levels of transmigration (37.7%). Neutrophil adhesion to both cell types is Mac-1-dependent and while ICAM-1 transduction of PCs increases neutrophil adhesion to (41.4%), it does not increase transmigration through PC monolayers. TEM, which increases neutrophil Mac-1 surface expression, concomitantly increases the ability of neutrophils to traverse PCs (19.2%). These data indicate that contributions from both PCs and ECs must be considered in evaluation of microvasculature function in acute inflammation.
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Voisin MB, Nourshargh S. Neutrophil transmigration: emergence of an adhesive cascade within venular walls. J Innate Immun 2013; 5:336-47. [PMID: 23466407 DOI: 10.1159/000346659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Recruitment of neutrophils from the blood circulation to sites of infection or injury is a key innate immune response against invading pathogens and tissue injury. However, if inappropriately triggered, excessive and/or prolonged, this host defence response can also lead to severe pathological disorders. The migration of all leucocytes out of the vasculature is classically described by the leucocyte adhesion cascade that depicts a well-characterised sequence of cellular and molecular events within the vascular lumen. Recent findings have now illustrated that beyond the vascular lumen, the breaching of the venular wall can also involve an analogous cascade of adhesive events. For neutrophils this involves a tightly regulated and sequential series of responses within venular walls, initiating with adhesive steps that guide neutrophils through endothelial cells lining the venular wall, followed by responses that mediate and regulate their migration through the pericyte sheath and the venular basement membrane. The present review aims to provide a brief summary of novel additions to the classical adhesion cascade within the vascular lumen and then to discuss the emergence of a second adhesion cascade for neutrophils within venular walls, the latter illustrating the intricacies and complexities of neutrophil transmigration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu-Benoit Voisin
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
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Lui PPY. Identity of tendon stem cells--how much do we know? J Cell Mol Med 2012; 17:55-64. [PMID: 23279609 PMCID: PMC3823136 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Tendon stem cells are multi-potent adult stem cells with broad differentiation plasticity that render them of great importance in cell-based therapies for the repair of tendons. We called them tendon-derived stem cells (TDSCs) to indicate the tissue origin from which the stem cells were isolated in vitro. Based on the work of other sources of MSCs and specific work on TDSCs, some properties of TDSCs have been characterized / implicated in vitro. Despite these findings, tendon stem cells remained controversial cells. This was because MSCs residing in different organs, although very similar, were not identical cells. There is evidence of differences in stem cell-related properties and functions related to tissue origins. Similar to other stem cells, tendon stem cells were identified and characterized in vitro. Their in vivo identities, niche (both anatomical locations and regulators) and roles in tendons were less understood. This review aims to summarize the current evidence of the possible anatomical locations and niche signals regulating the functions of tendon stem cells in vivo. The possible roles of tendon stem cells in tendon healing and non-healing are presented. Finally, the potential strategies for understanding the in vivo identity of tendon stem cells are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Po Yee Lui
- Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
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Proebstl D, Voisin MB, Woodfin A, Whiteford J, D’Acquisto F, Jones GE, Rowe D, Nourshargh S. Pericytes support neutrophil subendothelial cell crawling and breaching of venular walls in vivo. J Exp Med 2012; 209:1219-34. [PMID: 22615129 PMCID: PMC3371725 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20111622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 335] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil transmigration through venular walls that are composed of endothelial cells (ECs), pericytes, and the venular basement membrane is a key component of innate immunity. Through direct analysis of leukocyte-pericyte interactions in inflamed tissues using confocal intravital microscopy, we show how pericytes facilitate transmigration in vivo. After EC migration, neutrophils crawl along pericyte processes to gaps between adjacent pericytes in an ICAM-1-, Mac-1-, and LFA-1-dependent manner. These gaps were enlarged in inflamed tissues through pericyte shape change and were used as exit points by neutrophils in breaching the venular wall. The findings identify previously unknown roles for pericytes in neutrophil transmigration in vivo and add additional steps to the leukocyte adhesion cascade that supports leukocyte trafficking into sites of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Proebstl
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Mathieu-Benoît Voisin
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Abigail Woodfin
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - James Whiteford
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Fulvio D’Acquisto
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | - Gareth E. Jones
- Randall Division, King’s College London, Guy’s Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
| | - David Rowe
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030
| | - Sussan Nourshargh
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
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Richardson K, Weinberg A. Dynamics of regulatory T-cells during pregnancy: effect of HIV infection and correlations with other immune parameters. PLoS One 2011; 6:e28172. [PMID: 22140535 PMCID: PMC3226670 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Regulatory T cells (Treg) increase in the context of HIV infection and pregnancy. We studied Treg subpopulations in HIV-infected and uninfected women during pregnancy and their relationship with inflammation, activation and cell-mediated immunity (CMI). Design and Methods Blood obtained from 20 HIV-infected and 18 uninfected women during early and late gestation was used to measure Treg and activated T cells (Tact) by flow cytometry; plasma cytokines and inflammatory markers by ELISA and chemoluminescence; and CMI against varicella-zoster virus (VZV) by lymphocyte proliferation. Results and Conclusions Compared with uninfected women, HIV-infected participants had higher frequencies of Treg subpopulations in early pregnancy, including CD4+CD25+FoxP3+%, CD8+CD25+FoxP3+%, CD4+TGFβ+% and CD4+IL10+%. In contrast, Treg frequencies were lower during late pregnancy in HIV-infected compared with uninfected women, including CD8+TGFβ+%, CD4+CTLA4+% and CD8+CTLA4+%. VZV-CMI, which was lower in HIV-infected compared with uninfected pregnant women, was inversely correlated with CD4+FoxP3+%, CD8+FoxP3+% and CD8+TGFβ+% in HIV-infected, but not in uninfected pregnant women. β2-microglobulin, neopterin, IL1, IL4, IL8, IL10, IFNγ and TNFα plasma concentrations as well as Tact were higher in HIV-infected compared with uninfected women throughout pregnancy. In HIV-infected, but not in uninfected women, inflammatory, Th1, Th2 and regulatory cytokines increased with higher Treg%, suggesting that inflammation and regulation have a common pathophysiologic origin in the context of HIV infection. In HIV-infected and more commonly in uninfected pregnant women, higher Treg% correlated with lower Tact%. We conclude that Treg have different dynamics during pregnancy in HIV-infected and uninfected women. Higher levels of inflammatory cytokines and lower Treg% during late pregnancy in HIV-infected women may contribute to their increased incidence of maternal-fetal morbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Richardson
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Adriana Weinberg
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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