Reverse Cholesterol Transport Is Increased in Germ-Free Mice-Brief Report

Exploring the role of a novel postbiotic bile acid: Interplay with gut microbiota, modulation of the farnesoid X receptor, and prospects for clinical translation

The gut microbiota, mainly resides in the colon, possesses a remarkable ability to metabolize different substrates to create bioactive substances, including short-chain fatty acids, indole-3-propionic acid, and secondary bile acids. In the liver, bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol and then undergo modification by the gut microbiota. Beyond those reclaimed by the enterohepatic circulation, small percentage of bile acids escaped reabsorption, entering the systemic circulation to bind to several receptors, such as farnesoid X receptor (FXR), thereby exert their biological effects. Gut microbiota interplays with bile acids by affecting their synthesis and determining the production of secondary bile acids. Reciprocally, bile acids shape out the structure of gut microbiota. The interplay of bile acids and FXR is involved in the development of multisystemic conditions, encompassing metabolic diseases, hepatobiliary diseases, immune associated disorders. In the review, we aim to provide a thorough review of the intricate crosstalk between the gut microbiota and bile acids, the physiological roles of bile acids and FXR in mammals' health and disease, and the clinical translational considerations of gut microbiota-bile acids-FXR in the treatment of the diseases.

The Gut Microbiome Affects Atherosclerosis by Regulating Reverse Cholesterol Transport

The human system's secret organ, the gut microbiome, has received considerable attention. Emerging research has yielded substantial scientific evidence indicating that changes in gut microbial composition and microbial metabolites may contribute to the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. The burden of cardiovascular disease on healthcare systems is exacerbated by atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, which continues to be the leading cause of mortality globally. Reverse cholesterol transport is a powerful protective mechanism that effectively prevents excessive accumulation of cholesterol for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. It has been revealed how the gut microbiota modulates reverse cholesterol transport in patients with atherosclerotic risk. In this review, we highlight the complex interactions between microbes, their metabolites, and their potential impacts in reverse cholesterol transport. We also explore the feasibility of modulating gut microbes and metabolites to facilitate reverse cholesterol transport as a novel therapy for atherosclerosis.

The interplay between microbial metabolites and macrophages in cardiovascular diseases: A comprehensive review

The gut microbiome has emerged as a crucial player in developing and progressing cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Recent studies have highlighted the role of microbial metabolites in modulating immune cell function and their impact on CVD. Macrophages, which have a significant function in the pathogenesis of CVD, are very vulnerable to the effects of microbial metabolites. Microbial metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO), have been linked to atherosclerosis and the regulation of immune functions. Butyrate has been demonstrated to reduce monocyte migration and inhibit monocyte attachment to injured endothelial cells, potentially contributing to the attenuation of the inflammatory response and the progression of atherosclerosis. On the other hand, TMAO, another compound generated by gut bacteria, has been linked to atherosclerosis due to its impact on lipid metabolism and the accumulation of cholesterol in macrophages. Indole-3-propionic acid, a tryptophan metabolite produced solely by microbes, has been found to promote the development of atherosclerosis by stimulating macrophage reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) and raising the expression of ABCA1. This review comprehensively discusses how various microbiota-produced metabolites affect macrophage polarization, inflammation, and foam cell formation in CVD. We also highlight the mechanisms underlying these effects and the potential therapeutic applications of targeting microbial metabolites in treating CVD.

The gut microbiome and hypertension

A large body of evidence has emerged in the past decade supporting a role for the gut microbiome in the regulation of blood pressure. The field has moved from association to causation in the last 5 years, with studies that have used germ-free animals, antibiotic treatments and direct supplementation with microbial metabolites. The gut microbiome can regulate blood pressure through several mechanisms, including through gut dysbiosis-induced changes in microbiome-associated gene pathways in the host. Microbiota-derived metabolites are either beneficial (for example, short-chain fatty acids and indole-3-lactic acid) or detrimental (for example, trimethylamine N-oxide), and can activate several downstream signalling pathways via G protein-coupled receptors or through direct immune cell activation. Moreover, dysbiosis-associated breakdown of the gut epithelial barrier can elicit systemic inflammation and disrupt intestinal mechanotransduction. These alterations activate mechanisms that are traditionally associated with blood pressure regulation, such as the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, the autonomic nervous system, and the immune system. Several methodological and technological challenges remain in gut microbiome research, and the solutions involve minimizing confounding factors, establishing causality and acting globally to improve sample diversity. New clinical trials, precision microbiome medicine and computational methods such as Mendelian randomization have the potential to enable leveraging of the microbiome for translational applications to lower blood pressure.

Gut Microbiota-Derived TMAO: A Causal Factor Promoting Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease?

Trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) is the main diet-induced metabolite produced by the gut microbiota, and it is mainly eliminated through renal excretion. TMAO has been correlated with an increased risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and related complications, such as cardiovascular mortality or major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). Meta-analyses have postulated that high circulating TMAO levels are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality, but the link between TMAO and CVD remains not fully consistent. The results of prospective studies vary depending on the target population and the outcome studied, and the adjustment for renal function tends to decrease or reverse the significant association between TMAO and the outcome studied, strongly suggesting that the association is substantially mediated by renal function. Importantly, one Mendelian randomization study did not find a significant association between genetically predicted higher TMAO levels and cardiometabolic disease, but another found a positive causal relationship between TMAO levels and systolic blood pressure, which-at least in part-could explain the link with renal function. The mechanisms by which TMAO can increase this risk are not clearly elucidated, but current evidence indicates that TMAO induces cholesterol metabolism alterations, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and platelet activation. Overall, there is no fully conclusive evidence that TMAO is a causal factor of ASCVD, and, especially, whether TMAO induces or just is a marker of hypertension and renal dysfunction requires further study.

AUF-1 knockdown in mice undermines gut microbial butyrate-driven hypocholesterolemia through AUF-1-Dicer-1-mir-122 hierarchy

Introduction and objective

Cholesterol homeostasis is a culmination of cellular synthesis, efflux, and catabolism to important physiological entities where short chain fatty acid, butyrate embodied as a key player. This discourse probes the mechanistic molecular details of butyrate action in maintaining host-cholesterol balance.

Methods

Hepatic mir-122 being the most indispensable regulator of cholesterol metabolic enzymes, we studied upstream players of mir-122 biogenesis in the presence and absence of butyrate in Huh7 cells and mice model. We synthesized unique self-transfecting GMO (guanidinium-morpholino-oligo) linked PMO (Phosphorodiamidate-Morpholino Oligo)-based antisense cell-penetrating reagent to selectively knock down the key player in butyrate mediated cholesterol regulation.

Results

We showed that butyrate treatment caused upregulation of RNA-binding protein, AUF1 resulting in RNase-III nuclease, Dicer1 instability, and significant diminution of mir-122. We proved the importance of AUF1 and sequential downstream players in AUF1-knock-down mice. Injection of GMO-PMO of AUF1 in mouse caused near absence of AUF1 coupled with increased Dicer1 and mir-122, and reduced serum cholesterol regardless of butyrate treatment indicating that butyrate acts through AUF1.

Conclusion

The roster of intracellular players was as follows: AUF1-Dicer1-mir-122 for triggering butyrate driven hypocholesterolemia. To our knowledge this is the first report linking AUF-1 with cholesterol biogenesis.

Tissue-wide metabolomics reveals wide impact of gut microbiota on mice metabolite composition

The essential role of gut microbiota in health and disease is well recognized, but the biochemical details that underlie the beneficial impact remain largely undefined. To maintain its stability, microbiota participates in an interactive host-microbiota metabolic signaling, impacting metabolic phenotypes of the host. Dysbiosis of microbiota results in alteration of certain microbial and host metabolites. Identifying these markers could enhance early detection of certain diseases. We report LC-MS based non-targeted metabolic profiling that demonstrates a large effect of gut microbiota on mammalian tissue metabolites. It was hypothesized that gut microbiota influences the overall biochemistry of host metabolome and this effect is tissue-specific. Thirteen different tissues from germ-free (GF) and conventionally-raised (MPF) C57BL/6NTac mice were selected and their metabolic differences were analyzed. Our study demonstrated a large effect of microbiota on mammalian biochemistry at different tissues and resulted in statistically-significant modulation of metabolites from multiple metabolic pathways (p ≤ 0.05). Hundreds of molecular features were detected exclusively in one mouse group, with the majority of these being unique to specific tissue. A vast metabolic response of host to metabolites generated by the microbiota was observed, suggesting gut microbiota has a direct impact on host metabolism.

Gut Microbially Produced Indole-3-Propionic Acid Inhibits Atherosclerosis by Promoting Reverse Cholesterol Transport and Its Deficiency Is Causally Related to Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence has shown that disorders in the gut microbiota and derived metabolites affect the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). However, which and how specific gut microbial metabolites contribute to the progression of atherosclerosis and the clinical relevance of their alterations remain unclear.

METHODS

We performed integrated microbiome-metabolome analysis of 30 patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and 30 age- and sex-matched healthy controls to identify CAD-associated microbial metabolites, which were then assessed in an independent population of patients with ASCVD and controls (n=256). We further investigate the effect of CAD-associated microbial metabolites on atherosclerosis and the mechanisms of the action.

RESULTS

Indole-3-propionic acid (IPA), a solely microbially derived tryptophan metabolite, was the most downregulated metabolite in patients with CAD. Circulating IPA was then shown in an independent population to be associated with risk of prevalent ASCVD and correlated with the ASCVD severity. Dietary IPA supplementation alleviates atherosclerotic plaque development in ApoE^-/- mice. In murine- and human-derived macrophages, administration of IPA promoted cholesterol efflux from macrophages to ApoA-I through an undescribed miR-142-5p/ABCA1 (ATP-binding cassette transporter A1) signaling pathway. Further in vivo studies demonstrated that IPA facilitates macrophage reverse cholesterol transport, correlating with the regulation of miR-142-5p/ABCA1 pathway, whereas reduced IPA production contributed to the aberrant overexpression of miR-142-5p in macrophages and accelerated the progression of atherosclerosis. Moreover, the miR-142-5p/ABCA1/reverse cholesterol transport axis in macrophages were dysregulated in patients with CAD, and correlated with the changes in circulating IPA levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study identify a previously unknown link between specific gut microbiota-derived tryptophan metabolite and ASCVD. The microbial metabolite IPA/miR-142-5p/ABCA1 pathway may represent a promising therapeutic target for ASCVD.

Bile acids and salt-sensitive hypertension: a role of the gut-liver axis

Salt-sensitivity of blood pressure (SSBP) affects 50% of the hypertensive and 25% of the normotensive populations. Importantly, SSBP is associated with increased risk for mortality in both populations independent of blood pressure. Despite its deleterious effects, the pathogenesis of SSBP is not fully understood. Emerging evidence suggests a novel role of bile acids in salt-sensitive hypertension and that they may play a crucial role in regulating inflammation and fluid volume homeostasis. Mechanistic evidence implicates alterations in the gut microbiome, the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), the farnesoid X receptor, and the G protein-coupled bile acid receptor TGR5 in bile acid-mediated effects on cardiovascular function. The mechanistic interplay between excess dietary sodium-induced alterations in the gut microbiome and immune cell activation, bile acid signaling, and whether such interplay may contribute to the etiology of SSBP is still yet to be defined. The main goal of this review is to discuss the potential role of bile acids in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease with a focus on salt-sensitive hypertension.

Bile acids, gut microbiota and metabolic surgery

Metabolic surgery, or bariatric surgery, is currently the most effective approach for treating obesity and its complications. Vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG) and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) are the top two types of commonly performed metabolic surgery now. The precise mechanisms of how the surgeries work are still unclear, therefore much research has been conducted in this area. Gut hormones such as GLP-1 and PYY have been studied extensively in the context of metabolic surgery because they both participate in satiety and glucose homeostasis. Bile acids, whose functions cover intestinal lipid absorption and various aspects of metabolic regulation via the action of FXR, TGR5, and other bile acid receptors, have also been actively investigated as potential mediators of metabolic surgery. Additionally, gut microbiota and their metabolites have also been studied because they can affect metabolic health. The current review summarizes and compares the recent scientific progress made on identifying the mechanisms of RYGB and VSG. One of the long-term goals of metabolic/bariatric surgery research is to develop new pharmacotherapeutic options for the treatment of obesity and diabetes. Because obesity is a growing health concern worldwide, there is a dire need in developing novel non-invasive treatment options.

Hepatic Lipid Metabolism Disorder and Atherosclerosis

Lipid metabolism disorder plays a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. As the largest metabolic organ of the human body, liver has a key role in lipid metabolism by influencing fat production, fat decomposition, and the intake and secretion of serum lipoproteins. Numerous clinical and experimental studies have indicated that the dysfunction of hepatic lipid metabolism is closely tied to the onset of atherosclerosis. However, the identity and functional role of hepatic lipid metabolism responsible for these associations remain unknown. This review presented that cholesterol synthesis, cholesterol transport, and the metabolism of triglyceride, lipoproteins, and fatty acids are all associated with hepatic lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis. Moreover, we also discussed the roles of gut microbiota, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress in the pathological association between hepatic lipid metabolism and atherosclerosis. These significant evidences support strongly that hepatic lipid metabolism disorders may increase the risk of atherosclerosis.

Kidney injury-mediated disruption of intestinal lymphatics involves dicarbonyl-modified lipoproteins

Kidney disease affects intestinal structure and function. Although intestinal lymphatics are central in absorption and remodeling of dietary and synthesized lipids/lipoproteins, little is known about how kidney injury impacts the intestinal lymphatic network, or lipoproteins transported therein. To study this, we used puromycin aminoglycoside-treated rats and NEP25 transgenic mice to show that proteinuric injury expanded the intestinal lymphatic network, activated lymphatic endothelial cells and increased mesenteric lymph flow. The lymph was found to contain increased levels of cytokines, immune cells, and isolevuglandin (a highly reactive dicarbonyl) and to have a greater output of apolipoprotein AI. Plasma levels of cytokines and isolevuglandin were not changed. However, isolevuglandin was also increased in the ileum of proteinuric animals, and intestinal epithelial cells exposed to myeloperoxidase produced more isolevuglandin. Apolipoprotein AI modified by isolevuglandin directly increased lymphatic vessel contractions, activated lymphatic endothelial cells, and enhanced the secretion of the lymphangiogenic promoter vascular endothelial growth factor-C by macrophages. Inhibition of isolevuglandin synthesis by a carbonyl scavenger reduced intestinal isolevuglandin adduct level and lymphangiogenesis. Thus, our data reveal a novel mediator, isolevuglandin modified apolipoprotein AI, and uncover intestinal lymphatic network structure and activity as a new pathway in the crosstalk between kidney and intestine that may contribute to the adverse impact of kidney disease on other organs.

Impaired cholesterol efflux capacity in patients with Helicobacter pylori infection and its relation with inflammation

BACKGROUND

Gut microorganisms are associated with atherosclerosis and related cardiovascular disease. Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is associated with dyslipidemia and inflammation contributing to the progression of atherosclerosis.

OBJECTIVE

Several studies have reported reduced HDL-C levels in H. pylori infected patients, but HDL cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) as the most important function of HDL has not been evaluated yet.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted with 44 biopsy confirmed H. pylori patients and 43 controls. ABCA1-mediated, non-ABCA1 and total CEC were measured in ApoB-depleted serum and levels of ApoA-I, ApoB and hsCRP were estimated using ELISA technique.

RESULTS

Total and ABCA1 mediated-CEC were reduced in patients compared to controls, independent of age, sex, body mass index and HDL-C (p < 0.001), while non-ABCA1 CEC indicated no significant change between the groups. In addition, patients showed lower serum levels of ApoA-I but increased levels of hsCRP when compared to controls. Total CEC and ABCA1-mediated CEC positively correlated with ApoA-I and HDL-C, furthermore, ABCA1-mediated CEC as well as ApoA-I inversely correlated with hsCRP.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study indicate reduced CECs in H. pylori infected patients, especially ABCA1-mediated CEC which is associated with decreased ApoA-I and increased inflammation.

Long-Term β-galacto-oligosaccharides Supplementation Decreases the Development of Obesity and Insulin Resistance in Mice Fed a Western-Type Diet

SCOPE

The gut microbiota might critically modify metabolic disease development. Dietary fibers such as galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) presumably stimulate bacteria beneficial for metabolic health. This study assesses the impact of GOS on obesity, glucose, and lipid metabolism.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Following Western-type diet feeding (C57BL/6 mice) with or without β-GOS (7% w/w, 15 weeks), body composition, glucose and insulin tolerance, lipid profiles, fat kinetics and microbiota composition are analyzed. GOS reduces body weight gain (p < 0.01), accumulation of epididymal (p < 0.05), perirenal (p < 0.01) fat, and insulin resistance (p < 0.01). GOS-fed mice have lower plasma cholesterol (p < 0.05), mainly within low-density lipoproteins, lower intestinal fat absorption (p < 0.01), more fecal neutral sterol excretion (p < 0.05) and higher intestinal GLP-1 expression (p < 0.01). Fecal bile acid excretion is lower (p < 0.01) in GOS-fed mice with significant compositional differences, namely decreased cholic, α-muricholic, and deoxycholic acid excretion, whereas hyodeoxycholic acid increased. Substantial changes in microbiota composition, conceivably beneficial for metabolic health, occurred upon GOS feeding.

CONCLUSION

GOS supplementation to a Western-type diet improves body weight gain, dyslipidemia, and insulin sensitivity, supporting a therapeutic potential of GOS for individuals at risk of developing metabolic syndrome.

Unraveling Host-Gut Microbiota Dialogue and Its Impact on Cholesterol Levels

Disruption in cholesterol metabolism, particularly hypercholesterolemia, is a significant cause of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Large interindividual variations in plasma cholesterol levels are traditionally related to genetic factors, and the remaining portion of their variance is accredited to environmental factors. In recent years, the essential role played by intestinal microbiota in human health and diseases has emerged. The gut microbiota is currently viewed as a fundamental regulator of host metabolism and of innate and adaptive immunity. Its bacterial composition but also the synthesis of multiple molecules resulting from bacterial metabolism vary according to diet, antibiotics, drugs used, and exposure to pollutants and infectious agents. Microbiota modifications induced by recent changes in the human environment thus seem to be a major factor in the current epidemic of metabolic/inflammatory diseases (diabetes mellitus, liver diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, and dyslipidemia). Epidemiological and preclinical studies report associations between bacterial communities and cholesterolemia. However, such an association remains poorly investigated and characterized. The objectives of this review are to present the current knowledge on and potential mechanisms underlying the host-microbiota dialogue for a better understanding of the contribution of microbial communities to the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis.

The intestinal microbiota regulates host cholesterol homeostasis

BACKGROUND

Management of blood cholesterol is a major focus of efforts to prevent cardiovascular diseases. The objective of this study was to investigate how the gut microbiota affects host cholesterol homeostasis at the organism scale.

RESULTS

We depleted the intestinal microbiota of hypercholesterolemic female Apoe^-/- mice using broad-spectrum antibiotics. Measurement of plasma cholesterol levels as well as cholesterol synthesis and fluxes by complementary approaches showed that the intestinal microbiota strongly regulates plasma cholesterol level, hepatic cholesterol synthesis, and enterohepatic circulation. Moreover, transplant of the microbiota from humans harboring elevated plasma cholesterol levels to recipient mice induced a phenotype of high plasma cholesterol levels in association with a low hepatic cholesterol synthesis and high intestinal absorption pattern. Recipient mice phenotypes correlated with several specific bacterial phylotypes affiliated to Betaproteobacteria, Alistipes, Bacteroides, and Barnesiella taxa.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that the intestinal microbiota determines the circulating cholesterol level and may thus represent a novel therapeutic target in the management of dyslipidemia and cardiovascular diseases.

Proceedings of the Ninth HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) Workshop: Focus on Cardiovascular Disease

The HDL (high-density lipoprotein) Workshop was established in 2009 as a forum for candid discussions among academic basic scientists, clinical investigators, and industry researchers about the role of HDL in cardiovascular disease. This ninth HDL Workshop was held on May 16 to 17, 2019 in Boston, MA, and included outstanding oral presentations from established and emerging investigators. The Workshop featured 5 sessions with topics that tackled the role of HDL in the vasculature, its structural complexity, its role in health and disease states, and its interaction with the intestinal microbiome. The highlight of the program was awarding the Jack Oram Award to the distinguished professor emeritus G.S. Getz from the University of Chicago. The tenth HDL Workshop will be held on May 2020 in Chicago and will continue the focus on intellectually stimulating presentations by established and emerging investigators on novel roles of HDL in cardiovascular and noncardiovascular health and disease states.

Intestinal Bacteria Interplay With Bile and Cholesterol Metabolism: Implications on Host Physiology

Bile is a biological fluid synthesized in the liver, mainly constituted by bile acids and cholesterol, which functions as a biological detergent that emulsifies and solubilizes lipids, thereby playing an essential role in fat digestion. Besides, bile acids are important signaling molecules that regulate key functions at intestinal and systemic levels in the human body, affecting glucose and lipid metabolism, and immune homeostasis. Apart from this, due to their amphipathic nature, bile acids are toxic for bacterial cells and, thus, exert a strong selective pressure on the microbial populations inhabiting the human gut, decisively shaping the microbial profiles of our gut microbiota, which has been recognized as a metabolic organ playing a pivotal role in host health. Remarkably, bacteria in our gut also display a range of enzymatic activities capable of acting on bile acids and, to a lesser extent, cholesterol. These activities can have a direct impact on host physiology as they influence the composition of the intestinal and circulating bile acid pool in the host, affecting bile homeostasis. Given that bile acids are important signaling molecules in the human body, changes in the microbiota-residing bile biotransformation ability can significantly impact host physiology and health status. Elucidating ways to fine-tune microbiota-bile acids-host interplay are promising strategies to act on bile and cholesterol-related disorders. This manuscript summarizes the current knowledge on bile and cholesterol metabolism by intestinal bacteria, as well as its influence on host physiology, identifying knowledge gaps and opportunities to guide further advances in the field.

Pharmacological Activation of PXR and CAR Downregulates Distinct Bile Acid-Metabolizing Intestinal Bacteria and Alters Bile Acid Homeostasis

The gut microbiome regulates important host metabolic pathways including xenobiotic metabolism and intermediary metabolism, such as the conversion of primary bile acids (BAs) into secondary BAs. The nuclear receptors pregnane X receptor (PXR) and constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) are well-known regulators for xenobiotic biotransformation in liver. However, little is known regarding the potential effects of PXR and CAR on the composition and function of the gut microbiome. To test our hypothesis that activation of PXR and CAR regulates gut microbiota and secondary BA synthesis, 9-week-old male conventional and germ-free mice were orally gavaged with corn oil, PXR agonist PCN (75 mg/kg), or CAR agonist TCPOBOP (3 mg/kg) once daily for 4 days. PCN and TCPOBOP decreased two taxa in the Bifidobacterium genus, which corresponded with decreased gene abundance of the BA-deconjugating enzyme bile salt hydrolase. In liver and small intestinal content of germ-free mice, there was a TCPOBOP-mediated increase in total, primary, and conjugated BAs corresponding with increased Cyp7a1 mRNA. Bifidobacterium, Dorea, Peptociccaceae, Anaeroplasma, and Ruminococcus positively correlated with T-UDCA in LIC, but negatively correlated with T-CDCA in serum. In conclusion, PXR and CAR activation downregulates BA-metabolizing bacteria in the intestine and modulates BA homeostasis in a gut microbiota-dependent manner.

Absence of Intestinal Microbiota during Gestation and Lactation Does Not Alter the Metabolic Response to a Western-type Diet in Adulthood

SCOPE

Microbiota composition in early life is implied to affect the risk to develop obesity in adulthood. It is unclear whether this risk is due to long-lasting microbiome-induced changes in host metabolism. This study aims to identify whether the presence or total absence of early-life microbiota affects host metabolism in adulthood.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The effects of a germ-free (Former GF) versus conventional status during gestation and lactation on the metabolic status in adult offspring are compared. Upon conventionalization at weaning, all mice were metabolically challenged with a Western-type diet (WTD) at 10 weeks age. Between age 10 and 30 weeks, a former GF status does not notably affect overall body weight gain, cholesterol metabolism, glucose tolerance or insulin sensitivity at adult age. However, Former GF mice have lower bile flow and bile acid secretion in adulthood, but similar bile acid composition.

CONCLUSIONS

A germ-free status during gestation and lactation does not substantially affect key parameters of the metabolic status before 10 weeks of age on chow diet or in adulthood following a WTD challenge. These data imply that microbiota in early life does not critically affect adult metabolic plasticity.

Trimethylamine N-Oxide: A Link among Diet, Gut Microbiota, Gene Regulation of Liver and Intestine Cholesterol Homeostasis and HDL Function

Recent evidence, including massive gene-expression analysis and a wide-variety of other multi-omics approaches, demonstrates an interplay between gut microbiota and the regulation of plasma lipids. Gut microbial metabolism of choline and l-carnitine results in the formation of trimethylamine (TMA) and concomitant conversion into trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) by liver flavin monooxygenase 3 (FMO3). The plasma level of TMAO is determined by the genetic variation, diet and composition of gut microbiota. Multiple studies have demonstrated an association between TMAO plasma levels and the risk of atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease (CVD). We aimed to review the molecular pathways by which TMAO production and FMO3 exert their proatherogenic effects. TMAO may promote foam cell formation by upregulating macrophage scavenger receptors, deregulating enterohepatic cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and impairing macrophage reverse cholesterol transport (RCT). Furthermore, FMO3 may promote dyslipidemia by regulating multiple genes involved in hepatic lipogenesis and gluconeogenesis. FMO3 also impairs multiple aspects of cholesterol homeostasis, including transintestinal cholesterol export and macrophage-specific RCT. At least part of these FMO3-mediated effects on lipid metabolism and atherogenesis seem to be independent of the TMA/TMAO formation. Overall, these findings have the potential to open a new era for the therapeutic manipulation of the gut microbiota to improve CVD risk.

Effect of the prebiotic fiber inulin on cholesterol metabolism in wildtype mice

Dietary non-digestible carbohydrates are perceived to improve health via gut microbiota-dependent generation of products such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). In addition, SCFA are also precursors for lipid and cholesterol synthesis potentially resulting in unwanted effects on lipid metabolism. Inulin is a widely used model prebiotic dietary fiber. Inconsistent reports on the effects of inulin on cholesterol homeostasis have emerged in humans and preclinical models. To clarify this issue, the present study aimed to provide an in-depth characterization of the effects of short-chain (sc)- and long-chain (lc)- inulin on cholesterol synthesis, absorption and elimination in mice. Feeding wildtype C57BL/6J mice diets supplemented with 10% (w/w) of either sc- or lc-inulin for two weeks resulted in approximately 2.5-fold higher fecal SCFA levels (P < 0.01) compared with controls, but had no significant effects on plasma and liver lipids. Subtle shifts in fecal and plasma bile acid species were detected with beta-muricholic acid increasing significantly in plasma of the inulin fed groups (1.7-fold, P < 0.05). However, neither sc-inulin nor lc-inulin affected intestinal cholesterol absorption, mass fecal cholesterol excretion or trans-intestinal cholesterol excretion (TICE). Combined, our data demonstrate that sc- and lc-inulin have no adverse effects on cholesterol metabolism in mice despite increased generation of SCFA.

Microbiota and HDL metabolism

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Accumulating evidence has provided new insights regarding potentially effective therapeutic options targeting modulation of HDL metabolism, resulting in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. The gut microbiota has now been convincingly linked to host health, but its impact on host lipid metabolism, especially HDL metabolism, remains poorly understood. This review focuses on the recent progress in establishing associations between gut microbiota and host HDL metabolism. It also discusses causality and mechanisms, and how to translate the findings into clinical use.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent human and animal studies have demonstrated that the gut microbiota composition can explain a substantial proportion of the individual variation in host blood lipid profiles. In addition, signaling molecules produced by gut microbiota have been shown to have potent effects on reverse cholesterol transport, a crucial atheroprotective function of HDL, which could subsequently influence the development of atherosclerosis. Ultimately, selective manipulation of gut microbiota may serve as an ideal therapeutic approach for improving HDL function and cardiovascular risk, although further studies are needed for a better understanding of which specific bacteria, or alternatively, which bacterial metabolites, are appropriate targets.

SUMMARY

We are just beginning to understand how the gut microbiota, a newly recognized endocrine organ system, influences HDL metabolism and atherosclerotic diseases. From recent experimental and clinical perspectives, it can be targeted for therapeutic benefit with respect to HDL function and cardiovascular diseases.

Bile acids at the cross-roads of gut microbiome-host cardiometabolic interactions

While basic and clinical research over the last several decades has recognized a number of modifiable risk factors associated with cardiometabolic disease progression, additional and alternative biological perspectives may offer novel targets for prevention and treatment of this disease set. There is mounting preclinical and emerging clinical evidence indicating that the mass of metabolically diverse microorganisms which inhabit the human gastrointestinal tract may be implicated in initiation and modulation of cardiovascular and metabolic disease outcomes. The following review will discuss this gut microbiome-host metabolism axis and address newly proposed bile-mediated signaling pathways through which dysregulation of this homeostatic axis may influence host cardiovascular risk. With a central focus on the major nuclear and membrane-bound bile acid receptor ligands, we aim to review the putative impact of microbial bile acid modification on several major phenotypes of metabolic syndrome, from obesity to heart failure. Finally, attempting to synthesize several separate but complementary hypotheses, we will review current directions in preclinical and clinical investigation in this evolving field.