New Insight Into the Pathogenesis of Cerebral Small-Vessel Diseases

Central nervous system anomalies in 41 Chinese children incontinentia pigmenti

INTRODUCTION

Incontinentia pigmenti (IP) is a rare neuroectodermal dysplasia caused by a defect in the IKBKG gene. The pathogenesis of central nervous system injury is believed to be related to microvascular ischemia. Currently, few treatment strategies are available for the inflammatory phase.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This retrospective descriptive analysis included the clinical data of 41 children with IP collected from 2007 to 2021 in Xi'an, China, comprising clinical characteristics, imaging findings, blood cell analysis, skin histopathology, and genetic data.

RESULTS

Fourteen children (34%) aged 4 days to 5 months exhibited clinical signs and symptoms, including convulsions, delayed psychomotor development following neurological damage, and revealed significant MRI abnormalities, including ischemia, hypoxia, cerebral hypoperfusion, hemorrhage, encephalomalacia, and cerebral atrophy. Eight of the 24 patients (33%) presented with retinal vascular tortuosity and telangiectasis, accompanied by neovascularization and hemorrhage. Thirty-eight children (93%) had elevated eosinophils (mean: 3.63 ± 4.46 × 109), and 28 children (68%) had significantly elevated platelets (mean: 420.16 ± 179.43 × 109). Histopathology of skin revealed microvascular extravasation and vasodilation with perivascular and intravascular eosinophilic infiltration.

CONCLUSION

Brain injury in IP occurs during infancy until 5 months of age, which is also the acute dermatitis phase accompanied by eosinophilia and an increased platelet count. This study provides evidence of microvascular damage to the skin and fundus during the inflammatory phase. The mechanism of microvascular damage may be similar to that in the brain.

A case report of neonatal incontinentia pigmenti complicated by severe cerebrovascular lesions in one of the male monozygotic twins

Background

This article reports a case of neonatal incontinentia pigmenti onset in only one male monozygotic twin with characteristic skin lesions after birth followed by severe cerebrovascular lesions.

Case presentation

A male infant, the first of monozygotic twins, was born with multiple yellow pustules all over his body, repeated new herpes at different sites during the course of the disease, aggravated by fusion, warty crusts, and hyperpigmentation; biopsy pathology suggested eosinophilic spongiform edema of the skin. Peripheral blood eosinophils were significantly elevated, and brain magnetic resonance imaging revealed diffuse multiple cystic and lamellar abnormal signal areas in the left frontal and parietal lobes. On day 30, the infant showed neurological symptoms, such as poor response and apnea, and an emergency cranial computed tomography scan revealed abnormal changes in the left cerebral hemisphere and bilateral cerebellum. After admission, he was given a potassium permanganate bath and topical mupirocin for 1 month, and the skin abnormalities improved. He was treated with mechanical ventilation and vasoactive drugs for 2 days after the cerebrovascular accident, and died the same day after the parents chose hospice care. No deletion variants or point mutations were detected in subsequent genetic tests, and chromosomal copy number variation tests revealed different degrees of chimeric duplications and deletions in different regions of chromosomes Y and 3. The parents were healthy, and his twin brother had normal growth and development with no abnormalities at multiple follow-up visits.

Conclusion

Neonatal incontinentia pigmenti in only one male monozygotic twin is extremely rare and the genetic diagnosis is challenging. Awareness of the combined cerebrovascular lesions needs to be enhanced, and potential prevention and treatment methods need to be explored to improve the prognosis.

Monogenic Causes of Cerebrovascular Disease in Childhood: A Case Series

BACKGROUND

Despite an increase in the number of genes associated with pediatric stroke, imaging phenotypes in children have not been well reported. Guidelines are needed to facilitate the identification and treatment of patients with monogenic causes of cerebrovascular disorders.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of imaging and medical records of patients aged zero to 21 years with monogenic causes of vascular malformations, small or large vessel disease, transient ischemic attacks, and/or ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke. We classified patients according to their imaging phenotype and reviewed neurological and systemic features and management strategies. We reviewed the literature to identify genes associated with cerebrovascular disorders presenting in childhood.

RESULTS

We identified 18 patients with monogenic causes of cerebrovascular disorders and classified each patient as belonging to one or more of three cerebrovascular phenotypes according to predominant imaging characteristics: small vessel disease, large vessel disease, and/or vascular malformations. Preventative treatments included aspirin, N-acetylcysteine, tocilizumab, therapeutic low-molecular-weight heparin, and resection of vascular malformations.

CONCLUSIONS

Classifying pediatric patients with cerebrovascular disorders by imaging phenotype can aid in determining the next steps in genetic testing and treatment.

Measurements of cerebral microvascular blood flow, oxygenation, and morphology in a mouse model of whole-brain irradiation-induced cognitive impairment by two-photon microscopy and optical coherence tomography: evidence for microvascular injury in the cerebral white matter

Whole-brain irradiation (WBI, also known as whole-brain radiation therapy) is a mainstay treatment modality for patients with multiple brain metastases. It is also used as a prophylactic treatment for microscopic tumors that cannot be detected by magnetic resonance imaging. WBI induces a progressive cognitive decline in ~ 50% of the patients surviving over 6 months, significantly compromising the quality of life. There is increasing preclinical evidence that radiation-induced injury to the cerebral microvasculature and accelerated neurovascular senescence plays a central role in this side effect of WBI. To better understand this side effect, male C57BL/6 mice were first subjected to a clinically relevant protocol of fractionated WBI (5 Gy, two doses per week, for 4 weeks). Nine months post the WBI treatment, we applied two-photon microscopy and Doppler optical coherence tomography to measure capillary red-blood-cell (RBC) flux, capillary morphology, and microvascular oxygen partial pressure (PO2) in the cerebral somatosensory cortex in the awake, head-restrained, WPI-treated mice and their age-matched controls, through a cover-glass-sealed chronic cranial window. Thanks to the extended penetration depth with the fluorophore - Alexa680, measurements of capillary blood flow properties (e.g., RBC flux, speed, and linear density) in the cerebral subcortical white matter were enabled. We found that the WBI-treated mice exhibited a significantly decreased capillary RBC flux in the white matter. WBI also caused a significant reduction in capillary diameter, as well as a large (although insignificant) reduction in segment density at the deeper cortical layers (e.g., 600-700 μm), while the other morphological properties (e.g., segment length and tortuosity) were not obviously affected. In addition, we found that PO2 measured in the arterioles and venules, as well as the calculated oxygen saturation and oxygen extraction fraction, were not obviously affected by WBI. Lastly, WBI was associated with a significant increase in the erythrocyte-associated transients of PO2, while the changes of other cerebral capillary PO2 properties (e.g., capillary mean-PO2, RBC-PO2, and InterRBC-PO2) were not significant. Collectively, our findings support the notion that WBI results in persistent cerebral white matter microvascular impairment, which likely contributes to the WBI-induced brain injury and cognitive decline. Further studies are warranted to assess the WBI-induced changes in brain tissue oxygenation and malfunction of the white matter microvasculature as well.

High frequency of HTRA1 AND ABCC6 mutations in Japanese patients with adult-onset cerebral small vessel disease

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to clarify the frequency and clinical features of monogenic cerebral small vessel disease (mgCSVD) among patients with adult-onset severe CSVD in Japan.

METHODS

This study included patients with adult-onset severe CSVD with an age of onset ≤55 years (group 1) or >55 years and with a positive family history (group 2). After conducting conventional genetic tests for NOTCH3 and HTRA1, whole-exome sequencing was performed on undiagnosed patients. Patients were divided into two groups according to the results of the genetic tests: monogenic and undetermined. The clinical and imaging features were compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

Group 1 and group 2 included 75 and 31 patients, respectively. In total, 30 patients had NOTCH3 mutations, 11 patients had HTRA1 mutations, 6 patients had ABCC6 mutations, 1 patient had a TREX1 mutation, 1 patient had a COL4A1 mutation and 1 patient had a COL4A2 mutation. The total frequency of mutations in NOTCH3, HTRA1 and ABCC6 was 94.0% in patients with mgCSVD. In group 1, the frequency of a family history of first relatives, hypertension and multiple lacunar infarctions (LIs) differed significantly between the two groups (monogenic vs undetermined; family history of first relatives, 61.0% vs 25.0%, p=0.0015; hypertension, 34.1% vs 63.9%, p=0.0092; multiple LIs, 87.8% vs 63.9%, p=0.0134).

CONCLUSIONS

More than 90% of mgCSVDs were diagnosed by screening for NOTCH3, HTRA1 and ABCC6. The target sequences for these three genes may efficiently diagnose mgCSVD in Japanese patients.

Analysis of Factors Associated with Hemorrhagic Transformation in Acute Cerebellar Infarction

OBJECTIVES

Hemorrhagic transformation (HT) is a frequent and severe complication of ischemic stroke. This study aimed to evaluate the factors associated with the occurrence of HT in patients with acute cerebellar infarction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 190 patients, 141 male (74.2%) and 49 female (25.8%) with mean age 61.84 ± 12.16 years, who were admitted within 72 h of acute cerebellar infarction onset from January 2017 to March 2021 were retrospectively recruited. The multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the independent influent factors for HT and receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve was applied to calculate the predictive value of those factors for HT in patients with acute cerebellar infarction.

RESULTS

37 out of 190 recruited patients (19.47%) had HT within 14 days after acute cerebellar infarction onset. The incidence rates of HT occurring within 3 days, 3-7 days and 7-14 days were 13.5%, 40.5% and 45.9%, respectively. Results of the multivariable logistic regression analysis indicated that atrial fibrillation (AF) (OR 6.196, 95% CI 1.357-28.302, P = 0.019), infarct diameter (OR 5.813, 95% CI 2.932-11.526, P < 0.001), white matter hyperintensity (WMH) (OR 2.44, 95% CI 1.134-5.252, P = 0.023) were independent risk factors for HT in acute cerebellar infarction, while lymphocyte count (OR 0.319, 95% CI 0.142-0.716, P = 0.006) showed an independently protective effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Infarct diameter, AF and WMH are independent risk factors for HT in patients with acute cerebellar infarction, while the lymphocyte count is a protective factor.

Prevalence and Consequences of Cerebral Small Vessel Diseases: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on Community People Plotted Against 5-Year Age Strata

PURPOSE

To study the variation tendency of cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) imaging markers and total burden with aging and to research the relationship between aging, CSVD markers and cognitive function.

METHODS

Participants in local urban communities were recruited for neuropsychological and magnetic resonance imaging assessments. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Mini-mental State Examination (MMSE), Number Connection Test A (NCT-A) and Digital Symbol Test (DST) were adopted as neuropsychological scale. Age was stratified at 5-year intervals, and the variation tendency of imaging markers and variables of neuropsychological scales in different age groups was studied. We further studied the relationship between aging, image markers and neuropsychological scales by multi-linear regression.

RESULTS

Finally, a total of 401 stroke-free participants (age, 54.83±7.74y; 45.9% were male) were included in the present analysis. With the increase of age, the incidence of imaging markers of CSVD were increased with aging except cerebral microbleeds. The performance results of NCT-A and DST were significant difference in 6 age groups (P < 0.001). In addition, linear decline of the neuropsychological function reflected by NCT-A and DST variables was observed. Linear regression found that age was an independent factor affecting the neuropsychological function reflected by NCT-A and DST variables, and the standard correction coefficients among different age groups increased gradually with age. In addition, brain atrophy is an independent factor affecting neuropsychological variables (odds ratio: -2.929, 95% CI: [-5.094 to -0.765]). There was no correlation between the number of neuroimaging markers and neuropsychological variables after full adjustment.

CONCLUSION

There are many CVSD markers even in younger people, the incidence rate and CVSD marker numbers increase with age. Aging and CSVD may eventually affect cognitive function through brain atrophy.

A functional cerebral endothelium is necessary to protect against cognitive decline

A vascular insult occurring early in disease onset may initiate cognitive decline leading to dementia, while pharmacological and lifestyle interventions can prevent this progression. Mice with a selective, tamoxifen-inducible deletion of NF-κB essential modulator (Nemo) in brain endothelial cells were studied as a model of vascular cognitive impairment. Groups included Nemo^Fl controls and three Nemo^beKO groups: One untreated, and two treated with simvastatin or exercise. Social preference and nesting were impaired in Nemo^beKO mice and were not countered by treatments. Cerebrovascular function was compromised in Nemo^beKO groups regardless of treatment, with decreased changes in sensory-evoked cerebral blood flow and total hemoglobin levels, and impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation. Nemo^beKO mice had increased string vessel pathology, blood-brain barrier disruption, neuroinflammation, and reduced cortical somatostatin-containing interneurons. These alterations were reversed when endothelial function was recovered. Findings strongly suggest that damage to the cerebral endothelium can trigger pathologies associated with dementia and its functional integrity should be an effective target in future therapeutic efforts.

An ALE Meta-Analysis of Specific Functional MRI Studies on Subcortical Vascular Cognitive Impairment

Background: Subcortical vascular cognitive impairment (sVCI), caused by cerebral small vessel disease, accounts for the majority of vascular cognitive impairment, and is characterized by an insidious onset and impaired memory and executive function. If not recognized early, it inevitably develops into vascular dementia. Several quantitative studies have reported the consistent results of brain regions in sVCI patients that can be used to predict dementia conversion. The purpose of the study was to explore the exact abnormalities within the brain in sVCI patients by combining the coordinates reported in previous studies.

Methods: The PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science databases were thoroughly searched to obtain neuroimaging articles on the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation, regional homogeneity, and functional connectivity in sVCI patients. According to the activation likelihood estimation (ALE) algorithm, a meta-analysis based on coordinate and functional connectivity modeling was conducted.

Results: The quantitative meta-analysis included 20 functional imaging studies on sVCI patients. Alterations in specific brain regions were mainly concentrated in the frontal lobes including the middle frontal gyrus, superior frontal gyrus, medial frontal gyrus, and precentral gyrus; parietal lobes including the precuneus, angular gyrus, postcentral gyrus, and inferior parietal lobule; occipital lobes including the lingual gyrus and cuneus; temporal lobes including the fusiform gyrus and middle temporal gyrus; and the limbic system including the cingulate gyrus. These specific brain regions belonged to important networks known as the default mode network, the executive control network, and the visual network.

Conclusion: The present study determined specific abnormal brain regions in sVCI patients, and these brain regions with specific changes were found to belong to important brain functional networks. The findings objectively present the exact abnormalities within the brain, which help further understand the pathogenesis of sVCI and identify them as potential imaging biomarkers. The results may also provide a basis for new approaches to treatment.

A case of CADASIL caused by NOTCH3 c.512_605delinsA heterozygous mutation

BACKGROUND

Autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is a cerebrovascular disease closely related to the NOTCH3 gene. More than 200 mutations in this gene have been reported to be associated with this disease.

METHODS

The NOTCH3 gene from CADASIL patient was screened for mutations by whole-exome sequencing (WES). PCR amplification and direct Sanger sequencing were used to verify the suspicious gene mutation sites detected by WES.

RESULTS

We performed second-generation sequencing on a sample of the patient's genome and found a heterozygous deletion-insertion mutation c.512_605delinsA in exon 4 of NOTCH3, which resulted in amino acid changes p.G171_A202delinsE. This variation was confirmed by the direct Sanger sequencing. It may be rated as a CADASIL clinical variation.

CONCLUSION

Discovery of this mutation site provides an important theoretical basis for specific gene-based diagnosis and treatment of CADASIL.

The cognitive dysfunction related to Alzheimer disease or cerebral small vessel disease: What's the differences

ABSTRACT

Alzheimer disease (AD) and sporadic cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) are common cognitive disorders. Both AD and CSVD have mental symptoms including chronic progressive cognitive impairment, dysfunction, and behavioral abnormalities. However, the differences on the cognitive dysfunction of AD and CSVD remain unclear. It is necessary to elucidate the cognitive dysfunction differences of AD and CSVD, and to identify the potential risk factors.AD or sporadic CSVD patients treated in our hospital from December 1, 2018 to May 31, 2019 were included. And we selected healthy participants as controls. The mini-mental state examination and Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale were used for neuropsychological assessment, and related medical information were collected and compared.A total of 190 patients were included. The total mini-mental state examination scores in AD, CSVD group were significantly less than that of control group, there were significant differences in the domains of directional ability, attention and computing ability, delayed recall, and visual perception (all P < .05); the total Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale scores in AD, CSVD group were significantly less than that of control group. There were significant differences in the domains of visual space and execution, immediate remember, attention and computing ability, language, delayed recall, and directional ability (all P < .05); diabetes was a risk factor both for AD (hazard ratio = 1.63, 95% confidence interval: 1.35-1.97) and CSVD (hazard ratio = 1.15, 95% confidence interval: 1.08-1.27).The cognitive dysfunctions of AD are difference to that of CSVD patients, and diabetes is the risk factor both for AD and CSVD, future studies are needed to further identify the prevention and treatment of AD and CSVD.

Contribution of "Omic" Studies to the Understanding of Cadasil. A Systematic Review

CADASIL (Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy) is a small vessel disease caused by mutations in NOTCH3 that lead to an odd number of cysteines in the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeat domain, causing protein misfolding and aggregation. The main symptoms are migraines, psychiatric disorders, recurrent strokes, and dementia. Omic technologies allow the massive study of different molecules for understanding diseases in a non-biased manner or even for discovering targets and their possible treatments. We analyzed the progress in understanding CADASIL that has been made possible by omics sciences. For this purpose, we included studies that focused on CADASIL and used omics techniques, searching bibliographic resources, such as PubMed. We excluded studies with other phenotypes, such as migraine or leukodystrophies. A total of 18 articles were reviewed. Due to the high prevalence of NOTCH3 mutations considered pathogenic to date in genomic repositories, one can ask whether all of them produce CADASIL, different degrees of the disease, or whether they are just a risk factor for small vessel disease. Besides, proteomics and transcriptomics studies found that the molecules that are significantly altered in CADASIL are mainly related to cell adhesion, the cytoskeleton or extracellular matrix components, misfolding control, autophagia, angiogenesis, or the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signaling pathway. The omics studies performed on CADASIL have been useful for understanding the biological mechanisms and could be key factors for finding potential drug targets.

Genome-wide transcriptome study in skin biopsies reveals an association of E2F4 with cadasil and cognitive impairment

CADASIL is a small vessel disease caused by mutations in NOTCH3 that lead to an odd number of cysteines in the EGF-like repeat domain, causing protein misfolding and aggregation. The main symptoms are migraine, psychiatric disturbances, recurrent strokes and dementia, being executive function characteristically impaired. The molecular pathways altered by this receptor aggregation need to be studied further. A genome-wide transcriptome study (four cases paired with three healthy siblings) was carried out, in addition to a qRT-PCR for validation purposes (ten new cases and eight new controls). To study the expression profile by cell type of the significant mRNAs found, we performed an in situ hybridization (ISH) (nine cases and eight controls) and a research in the Single-nuclei Brain RNA-seq expression browser (SNBREB). Pathway analysis enrichment was carried out with Gene Ontology and Reactome. Neuropsychological tests were performed in five of the qRT-PCR cases. The two most significant differentially expressed mRNAs (BANP, p-value = 7.23 × 10-4 and PDCD6IP, p-value = 8.36 × 10-4) were selected for the validation study by qRT-PCR. Additionally, we selected two more mRNAs (CAMK2G, p-value = 4.52 × 10-3 and E2F4, p-value = 4.77 × 10-3) due to their association with ischemic neuronal death. E2F4 showed differential expression in the genome-wide transcriptome study and in the qRT-PCR (p = 1.23 × 10-3), and it was upregulated in CADASIL cases. Furthermore, higher E2F4 expression was associated with worse executive function (p = 2.04 × 10-2) and attention and information processing speed (IPS) (p = 8.73 × 10-2). In situ hibridization showed E2F4 expression in endothelial and vascular smooth vessel cells. In silico studies indicated that E2F4 is also expressed in brain endothelial cells. Among the most significant pathways analyzed, there was an enrichment of vascular development, cell adhesion and vesicular machinery terms and autophagy process. E2F4 is more highly expressed in the skin biopsy of CADASIL patients compared to controls, and its expression is present in endothelial cells and VSMCs. Further studies are needed to understand whether E2F4 could be useful as a biomarker, to monitor the disease or be used as a therapeutic target.

Importance of extracutaneous organ involvement in determining the clinical severity and prognosis of incontinentia pigmenti caused by mutations in the IKBKG gene

Incontinentia pigmenti (IP) is a rare X-linked skin disease caused by mutations in the IKBKG gene, which is required for activation of the nuclear factor-kappa B signalling pathway. Multiple systems can be affected with highly variable phenotypic expressivity. We aimed to clarify the clinical characteristics observed in molecularly confirmed Korean IP patients. The medical records of 25 females confirmed as IP by molecular genetic analysis were retrospectively reviewed. The phenotypic score of extracutaneous manifestations was calculated to assess the disease severity. The IKBKG gene partial deletion or intragenic mutations were investigated using long-range PCR, multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification and direct sequencing methods. Among the 25 individuals, 18 (72%) were sporadic cases. All patients showed typical skin manifestations at birth or during the neonatal period. Extracutaneous findings were noted in 17 (68%) patients; ocular manifestations (28%), neurological abnormalities (28%), hair abnormalities (20%), dental anomalies (12%), nail dystrophy (8%). The common exon 4-10 IKBKG deletion was observed in 20 (80%) patients. In addition, five intragenic sequence variants were identified, including three novel variants. The phenotype scores were highly variable, ranging from abnormal skin pigmentation only to one or more extracutaneous features, although no significant difference was observed for each clinical characteristic between the group with sequence variants and that with common large deletion. Our cohort with IP showed heterogeneity of extracutaneous manifestations and high incidence of sporadic cases. Long-term monitoring with multidisciplinary management is essential for evaluating the clinical status, providing adequate genetic counselling and understanding the genotype-phenotype correlation in IP.

Cerebral angiogenesis ameliorates pathological disorders in Nemo-deficient mice with small-vessel disease

Cerebral small-vessel diseases (SVDs) often follow a progressive course. Little is known about the function of angiogenesis, which potentially induces regression of SVDs. Here, we investigated angiogenesis in a mouse model of incontinentia pigmenti (IP), a genetic disease comprising features of SVD. IP is caused by inactivating mutations of Nemo, the essential component of NF-κB signaling. When deleting Nemo in the majority of brain endothelial cells (Nemo^beKO mice), the transcriptional profile of vessels indicated cell proliferation. Brain endothelial cells expressed Ki67 and showed signs of DNA synthesis. In addition to cell proliferation, we observed sprouting and intussusceptive angiogenesis in Nemo^beKO mice. Angiogenesis occurred in all segments of the vasculature and in proximity to vessel rarefaction and tissue hypoxia. Apparently, NEMO was required for productive angiogenesis because endothelial cells that had escaped Nemo inactivation showed a higher proliferation rate than Nemo-deficient cells. Therefore, newborn endothelial cells were particularly vulnerable to ongoing recombination. When we interfered with productive angiogenesis by inducing ongoing ablation of Nemo, mice did not recover from IP manifestations but rather showed severe functional deficits. In summary, the data demonstrate that angiogenesis is present in this model of SVD and suggest that it may counterbalance the loss of vessels.

Retinal Manifestations of Incontinentia Pigmenti: A Case Series of 14 Patients Highlighting the Importance of Intravenous Fluorescein Angiography and the Benefits of Early Laser Photocoagulation

Purpose:

This case series describes the nature and frequency of retinal manifestations in patients with incontinentia pigmenti (IP).

Methods:

This is a retrospective single-center case series of all known patients with IP who presented to Associated Retina Consultants (Phoenix, AZ) between May 2016 and April 2019. Twenty-eight eyes of 14 patients with a dermatologic diagnosis of IP were included (n = 28). Most patients underwent examination under anesthesia with fundus photographs and intravenous fluorescein angiography (IVFA).

Results:

Of the 28 eyes, 8 (28.6%) had abnormal retinal findings on fundus examination. Of the 26 eyes that had IVFA, 10 (38.5%) had abnormal findings: Seven eyes (26.9%) had peripheral ischemia, 2 (7.7%) had previous peripheral laser scarring, and 2 (7.7%) had active peripheral neovascularization. Three eyes with normal examination results were found to have mild ischemia by IVFA. Patients with ischemia confirmed by IVFA were treated with laser photocoagulation. During follow-up, 4 previously treated eyes received additional laser photocoagulation. No patients showed vision loss, vitreous hemorrhage, retinal detachment, or adverse effects of treatment. No patients required vitreoretinal surgery.

Conclusions:

IP is a potentially blinding disease. Our case series demonstrates the efficacy of early treatment and the importance of ancillary testing with IVFA and fundus photography.

Notch3 and its CADASIL mutants differentially regulate cellular phenotypes

Notch3 is a member of the Notch family and its mutations are known to cause a hereditary human disorder called cerebral autosomal-dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL). However, the specific function and signaling cascade initiated by CADASIL mutants remain unknown. To gain further insight into mechanism of action of CADASIL mutants, the present study conducted several experiments on the effects of Notch3 mutants in multiple cell lines. The protein levels of Notch3, fibronectin, collagen, inducible nitric oxide synthase and DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) were determined by western blotting. The mRNA levels of IL-1β and TNF-α were measured by reverse transcription semi-quantitative PCR and DNMT1 mRNA levels were determined by quantitative PCR. Trypan blue staining was used for proliferation analysis and wound healing assays were performed to determine cell migration capability. The present study reported that R90C and R169C Notch3 mutants, and wild-type Notch3 had different effects on several cell lines. In T/GHA-VSMC cells, following the transfection of the two mutants, collagen and fibronectin expression increased, whereas expression decreased in IMR-90 cells. In BV2 cells, the two mutants resulted in decreased nitric oxide and iNOS production. In HeLa cells, proliferation and migration increased significantly following the transfection of the two mutants, whereas in the MCF-7 and HCC1937 cell lines, cell proliferation and migration decreased. In addition, the two mutants suppressed the expression of DNMT1 in HeLa and IMR-90 cells. Overall, the present study provided novel insights that further explored the underlying mechanisms of CADASIL.

The Relationship Between Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Cerebral Small Vessel Disease Assessed by Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Case-Control Study from a Single Center in Beijing, China

Background

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) reportedly share similar risk factors and pathogenesis. However, the relationship between these 2 diseases is not clear. This study aimed to investigate the association between COPD and CSVD.

Material/Methods

Patients with stable COPD and matched healthy control participants were recruited for this study. Clinical characteristics were collected based on medical history, serological tests, brain magnetic resonance imaging, and pulmonary function tests. Individual CSVD imaging markers (white matter hyperintensities [WMH], enlarged perivascular space [EPVS], and brain atrophy) were assessed to determine their severity. Logistic analysis was used to test the relationship between CSVD markers and COPD.

Results

Significant differences in WMH, basal ganglia EPVS (BG-EPVS), and centrum semiovale EPVS (CSO-EPVS) were found between COPD and control groups (P<0.001). Logistic analysis showed that COPD was a risk factor for WMH (odds ratio [OR]=2.467, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 1.550–3.927, P<0.001), while it was a protective factor for BG-EPVS (OR=0.391, 95% CI: 0.246–0.621, P<0.001) and CSO-EPVS (OR=0.053, 95% CI: 0.021–0.138, P<0.001). Among patients in the COPD group, duration of COPD was a risk factor for WMH (P<0.001) and BG-EPVS (P=0.047, 0.013, 0.746), while there was no significant correlation between the COPD grade and the severity of WMH and BG-EPVS (P>0.05).

Conclusions

A significant correlation exists between COPD and imaging markers of CSVD, including WMH, BG-EPVS, and CSO-EPVS. In addition, the severity of WMH and BG-EPVS is positively related to the duration of COPD, suggesting that COPD may be a risk factor for CSVD.

TGF-β Signaling: A Therapeutic Target to Reinstate Regenerative Plasticity in Vascular Dementia?

Vascular dementia (VaD) is the second leading form of memory loss after Alzheimer's disease (AD). Currently, there is no cure available. The etiology, pathophysiology and clinical manifestations of VaD are extremely heterogeneous, but the impaired cerebral blood flow (CBF) represents a common denominator of VaD. The latter might be the result of atherosclerosis, amyloid angiopathy, microbleeding and micro-strokes, together causing blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and vessel leakage, collectively originating from the consequence of hypertension, one of the main risk factors for VaD. At the histopathological level, VaD displays abnormal vascular remodeling, endothelial cell death, string vessel formation, pericyte responses, fibrosis, astrogliosis, sclerosis, microglia activation, neuroinflammation, demyelination, white matter lesions, deprivation of synapses and neuronal loss. The transforming growth factor (TGF) β has been identified as one of the key molecular factors involved in the aforementioned various pathological aspects. Thus, targeting TGF-β signaling in the brain might be a promising therapeutic strategy to mitigate vascular pathology and improve cognitive functions in patients with VaD. This review revisits the recent understanding of the role of TGF-β in VaD and associated pathological hallmarks. It further explores the potential to modulate certain aspects of VaD pathology by targeting TGF-β signaling.

Iron leakage owing to blood–brain barrier disruption in small vessel disease CADASIL

Objective

To assess the relationship among iron accumulation, blood–brain barrier (BBB) damage, and cognitive function in patients with cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL).

Methods

We enrolled 21 patients with NOTCH3 mutations and 21 age-matched healthy controls in this cross-sectional study. All participants underwent global physical and cognitive assessments and brain MRI using voxel-based quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM; iron deposition measure) and dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI (BBB permeability measure). We compared behavioral and imaging data between the groups and analyzed the correlations in each group.

Results

Among 21 NOTCH3 mutation carriers, 10 were symptomatic and 11 asymptomatic. Montreal Cognitive Assessment scores were significantly different among the groups (symptomatic < asymptomatic < control participants). Voxel-based QSM analysis revealed that the symptomatic group had higher QSM values than did the asymptomatic group in the putamen, caudate nucleus, temporal pole, and centrum semiovale. These QSM values were positively correlated with regional BBB permeabilities (putamen: r = 0.57, p = 0.006; caudate nucleus: r = 0.51, p = 0.019; temporal pole: r = 0.48, p = 0.030; centrum semiovale: r = 0.45, p = 0.044) and negatively correlated with Montreal Cognitive Assessment scores (caudate nucleus: r = −0.53, p = 0.012; temporal pole: r = −0.56, p = 0.008).

Conclusions

This study showed that cerebral iron burden was associated with regional BBB permeability and cognitive dysfunction in patients with CADASIL, highlighting the potential of these imaging techniques as auxiliary biomarkers to monitor the course of small vessel disease.

Excessive Production of Transforming Growth Factor β1 Causes Mural Cell Depletion From Cerebral Small Vessels

It is increasingly becoming apparent that cerebrovascular dysfunction contributes to the pathogenic processes involved in vascular dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, and other neurodegenerative disorders. Under these pathologic conditions, the degeneration of cerebral blood vessels is frequently accompanied by a loss of mural cells from the vascular walls. Vascular mural cells play pivotal roles in cerebrovascular functions, such as regulation of cerebral blood flow and maintenance of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, cerebrovascular mural cell impairment is involved in the pathophysiology of vascular-related encephalopathies, and protecting these cells is essential for maintaining brain health. However, our understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying mural cell abnormalities is incomplete. Several reports have indicated that dysregulated transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signaling is involved in the development of cerebral arteriopathies. These studies have specifically suggested the involvement of TGFβ overproduction. Although cerebrovascular toxicity via vascular fibrosis by extracellular matrix accumulation or amyloid deposition is known to occur with enhanced TGFβ production, whether increased TGFβ results in the degeneration of vascular mural cells in vivo remains unknown. Here, we demonstrated that chronic TGFβ1 overproduction causes a dropout of mural cells and reduces their coverage on cerebral vessels in both smooth muscle cells and pericytes. Mural cell degeneration was also accompanied by vascular luminal dilation. TGFβ1 overproduction in astrocytes significantly increased TGFβ1 content in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and increased TGFβ signaling-regulated gene expression in both pial arteries and brain capillaries. These results indicate that TGFβ is an important effector that mediates mural cell abnormalities under pathological conditions related to cerebral arteriopathies.

Incontinentia Pigmenti Associated with Aplasia Cutis Congenita in a Newborn Male with Klinefelter Syndrome: Is the Severity of Neurological Involvement Linked to Skin Manifestations?

We report a rare case of a newborn male affected by incontinentia pigmenti, Klinefelter syndrome, and aplasia cutis congenita, who developed severe cutaneous, neurological, and ophthalmological manifestations. Genetic analysis showed the presence of the common mutation of NEMO (exon 4–10 deletion), Klinefelter syndrome karyotype (47 XXY), and random X inactivation. This is in accordance with the severity of involvement of the affected tissues (skin, central nervous system, and retina). Indeed, the patient developed typical skin lesions all over the body, except the head. Equally, multiple lesions diffusely involving both the cortical grey matter and subcortical white matter of the cerebellum and cerebral hemispheres were observed. Discussing current knowledge about the etiopathogenesis of skin and brain lesions in incontinentia pigmenti, our case seems to support the proapoptotic origin of central nervous system involvement. Possibly, incontinentia pigmenti patients suffer an impaired protection against apoptosis at the level of cerebral endothelial cells of small vessels, leading to vascular damage and subsequent ischemic brain lesions.

More homogeneous capillary flow and oxygenation in deeper cortical layers correlate with increased oxygen extraction

Our understanding of how capillary blood flow and oxygen distribute across cortical layers to meet the local metabolic demand is incomplete. We addressed this question by using two-photon imaging of resting-state microvascular oxygen partial pressure (PO₂) and flow in the whisker barrel cortex in awake mice. Our measurements in layers I-V show that the capillary red-blood-cell flux and oxygenation heterogeneity, and the intracapillary resistance to oxygen delivery, all decrease with depth, reaching a minimum around layer IV, while the depth-dependent oxygen extraction fraction is increased in layer IV, where oxygen demand is presumably the highest. Our findings suggest that more homogeneous distribution of the physiological observables relevant to oxygen transport to tissue is an important part of the microvascular network adaptation to local brain metabolism. These results will inform the biophysical models of layer-specific cerebral oxygen delivery and consumption and improve our understanding of the diseases that affect cerebral microcirculation.

Incontinentia pigmenti in adults

Incontinentia Pigmenti (IP; MIM 308300) is an X-linked dominant genodermatosis caused by pathogenic variant in IKBKG. The phenotype in adults is poorly described compared to that in children. Questionnaire survey of 99 affected women showed an age at diagnosis from newborn to 41 years, with 53 diagnosed by 6 months of age and 30 as adults. Stage I, II, and III lesions persisted in 16%, 17%, and 71%, respectively, of those who had ever had them. IP is allelic to two forms of ectodermal dysplasia. Many survey respondents reported hypohidrosis and/or heat intolerance and most had Stage IV findings. This suggests that "Stage IV" may be congenitally dysplastic skin that becomes more noticeable with maturity. Fifty-one had dentures or implants with 26 having more invasive jaw or dental surgery. Half had wiry or uncombable hair. Seventy-three reported abnormal nails with 27 having long-term problems. Cataracts and retinal detachment were the reported causes of vision loss. Four had microphthalmia. Respondents without genetic confirmation of IP volunteered information suggesting more involved phenotype or possibly misassigned diagnosis. Ascertainment bias likely accounts for the low prevalence of neurocognitive problems in the respondents.

The relationship between blood-brain barrier permeability and enlarged perivascular spaces: a cross-sectional study

Purpose: Enlarged perivascular spaces (EPVS) have been widely considered as a feature of cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD) but the pathogenesis of EPVS remains unclear. Compromised blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity may play a role since previous studies have shown that BBB breakdown is a critical contributor to the pathogenesis of other cSVD markers. This study aimed to investigate the association of EPVS in the centrum semiovale (CSO) and basal ganglia (BG) with BBB permeability.

Patients and methods: Consecutive participants free of symptomatic stroke history presented for physical examination were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. CSO- and BG-EPVS on T2-weighted (T2-W) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were rated using a five-point validated scale. Dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI and Patlak pharmacokinetic model were applied to quantify BBB permeability in the CSO and BG.

Results: A total of 109 participants aged 49–90 years (mean age of 69.85 years) were enrolled. The proportions of participants presenting high-grade (>10) EPVS in the CSO and BG were 50.5% and 44.0%, respectively. After adjustments for potential confounders by logistic regression, leakage rate and fractional blood plasma volume were correlated with the severity of BG-EPVS (OR: 5.33; 95%CI: 1.95–14.60 and OR: 0.93; 95%CI: 0.87–0.99).

Conclusion: Our study demonstrates that BG-EPVS are associated with compromised BBB integrity, supporting the hypothesis that the BBB dysfunction may be involved in the pathogenesis of BG-EPVS. EPVS in the CSO and BG may have distinct pathophysiology.

Plasma Metabolites Associated with Brain MRI Measures of Neurodegeneration in Older Adults in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities⁻Neurocognitive Study (ARIC-NCS)

Background: Plasma metabolites are associated with cognitive and physical function in the elderly. Because cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) and neurodegeneration are common causes of cognitive and physical function decline, the primary objective of this study was to investigate the associations of six plasma metabolites (two plasma phosphatidylcholines [PCs]: PC aa C36:5 and PC aa 36:6 and four sphingomyelins [SMs]: SM C26:0, SM [OH] C22:1, SM [OH] C22:2, SM [OH] C24:1) with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features of cerebral SVD and neurodegeneration in older adults. Methods: This study included 238 older adults in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study at the fifth exam. Multiple linear regression was used to assess the association of each metabolite (log-transformed) in separate models with MRI measures except lacunar infarcts, for which binary logistic regression was used. Results: Higher concentrations of plasma PC aa C36:5 had adverse associations with MRI features of cerebral SVD (odds ratio of 1.69 [95% confidence interval: 1.01, 2.83] with lacunar infarct, and beta of 0.16 log [cm3] [0.02, 0.30] with log [White Matter Hyperintensities (WMH) volume]) while higher concentrations of 3 plasma SM (OH)s were associated with higher total brain volume (beta of 12.0 cm3 [5.5, 18.6], 11.8 cm3 [5.0, 18.6], and 7.3 cm3 [1.2, 13.5] for SM [OH] C22:1, SM [OH] C22:2, and SM [OH] C24:1, respectively). Conclusions: This study identified associations between certain plasma metabolites and brain MRI measures of SVD and neurodegeneration in older adults, particularly higher SM (OH) concentrations with higher total brain volume.

The Rare Neurocutaneous Disorders: Update on Clinical, Molecular, and Neuroimaging Features

Phakomatoses, also known as neurocutaneous disorders, comprise a vast number of entities that predominantly affect structures originated from the ectoderm such as the central nervous system and the skin, but also the mesoderm, particularly the vascular system. Extensive literature exists about the most common phakomatoses, namely neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, von Hippel-Lindau and Sturge-Weber syndrome. However, recent developments in the understanding of the molecular underpinnings of less common phakomatoses have sparked interest in these disorders. In this article, we review the clinical features, current pathogenesis, and modern neuroimaging findings of melanophakomatoses, vascular phakomatoses, and other rare neurocutaneous syndromes that may also include tissue overgrowth or neoplastic predisposition.

Cerebral Small Vessel Disease: A Review Focusing on Pathophysiology, Biomarkers, and Machine Learning Strategies

Cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD) has a crucial role in lacunar stroke and brain hemorrhages and is a leading cause of cognitive decline and functional loss in elderly patients. Based on underlying pathophysiology, cSVD can be subdivided into amyloidal and non-amyloidal subtypes. Genetic factors of cSVD play a pivotal role in terms of unraveling molecular mechanism. An important pathophysiological mechanism of cSVD is blood-brain barrier leakage and endothelium dysfunction which gives a clue in identification of the disease through circulating biological markers. Detection of cSVD is routinely carried out by key neuroimaging markers including white matter hyperintensities, lacunes, small subcortical infarcts, perivascular spaces, cerebral microbleeds, and brain atrophy. Application of neural networking, machine learning and deep learning in image processing have increased significantly for correct severity of cSVD. A linkage between cSVD and other neurological disorder, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease and non-cerebral disease, has also been investigated recently. This review draws a broad picture of cSVD, aiming to inculcate new insights into its pathogenesis and biomarkers. It also focuses on the role of deep machine strategies and other dimensions of cSVD by linking it with several cerebral and non-cerebral diseases as well as recent advances in the field to achieve sensitive detection, effective prevention and disease management.

Spinal cord hypometabolism associated with infection by human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1(HTLV-1)

Background

HTLV-1 infection is endemic in Brazil. About 1 to 2% of the Brazilian population is estimated to be infected, but most infected HTLV-1 individuals do not know about their own infection, which favors the continuity of sexual and vertical virus transmission. In addition, HTLV-1 associated central nervous system diseases and their pathophysiologic mechanisms are not fully understood. This study aimed to evaluate the correlation of spinal cord metabolism, viral and inflammatory profiles with features of neurological presentation in HTLV-1 infected individuals.

Methodology

This is a cross-sectional study of a cohort including 48 HTLV-1 infected individuals clinically classified as asymptomatic-AG (N = 21), symptomatic-SG (N = 11) and HAM/TSP-HG (N = 16) and a nested case-control study with HTLV-1 infected individuals-HIG (N = 48) and HTLV-1 non infected controls-CG (N = 30) that had their spinal cord analysed by Positron Emission Tomography with 18F-Fluordeoxyglucose (18F-FDG PET/CT). HTLV-1 infected individuals had 18F-FDG PET/CT results analyzed with clinical and demographic data, proviral load, cytokines and chemokines in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

Principal Findings

18F-FDG PET/CT showed hypometabolism in the thoracic spinal cord in HTLV-1 infected individuals. The method had an accuracy of 94.4% to identify HAM/TSP. A greater involvement of the thoracic spinal cord was observed, although hypometabolism was also observed in the cervical spinal cord segment in HTLV-1 infected individuals. Individuals with HAM/TSP showed a pro-inflammatory profile in comparison to asymptomatic and symptomatic groups, with a higher level of Interferon-inducible T-cell alpha chemoattractant (ITAC/CXCL₁₁), IL-6, IL-12p70 in the plasma; and ITAC, IL-4, IL-5, IL-8 (CXCL₈) and TNF-alpha in the CSF. Using regression, thoracic spinal cord SUV (standardized uptake value) and CSF ITAC level were identified as the HAM/TSP predictors in the multivariate model.

Conclusions

18F-FDG PET/CT imaging showed spinal cord hypometabolism in most HTLV-1 infected individuals, even in the asymptomatic HTLV-1 group. Thoracic spinal cord hypometabolism and CSF-ITAC levels were identified predictors of HAM/TSP.

Significance

Our findings suggested that in most HTLV-1 infected individuals there was compromise of central nervous system (CNS) structures despite of the lack of clinical symptoms. To explain the found hypometabolism, the role of microcirculatory and metabolic factors in the pathogenesis of neurological diseases associated with HTLV-1 infection must be further investigated. It is paramount to evaluate the central nervous function and to compare the performance among HTLV-1 infected individuals considered asymptomatic to the uninfected controls.

For the past 30 years, human T-cell lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) has been isolated and associated with neoplastic, inflammatory, and infectious diseases. It is known that the neurological disorder associated with HTLV-1 comprises HTLV-1-associated myelopathy (HAM/TSP) or any other isolated signals and symptoms. Despite all the knowledge accumulated so far, the association of neurological diseases to HTLV-1 infection remains difficult and neglected. We designed this study in order to assess the degree of neurological impairment associated with HTLV-1 infection through a metabolic evaluation with 18F-FDG PET/CT. Our results evidenced a more pronounced hypometabolism in the spinal cord of individuals with neurological impairment, but also evidenced hypometabolism in asymptomatic HTLV-1 infected individuals. We believe that areas of the CNS with lower circulatory and perfusional balance are more vulnerable to HTLV-1 infection. Mechanisms of cellular entry of the virus may be associated with loss of microcirculatory homeostasis and predisposition to a breakdown of the blood-brain barrier in these areas. Further studies are still necessary to shed light on the mechanisms associated with brain and spinal hypometabolism.

A case of reversible pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with incontinentia pigmenti

Incontinentia pigmenti (IP) is a multisystemic disorder in which pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a severe and rarely reported association. The prognosis has been poor in reported cases. In our patient, IP was diagnosed during the neonatal period with a combination of cutaneous, ophthalmic, and neurological symptoms. The infant experienced severe collapse with bradycardia during general anesthesia to treat retinal telangiectasia. Echocardiography after resuscitation revealed suprasystemic pulmonary hypertension (PH). Right heart catheterization (RHC) confirmed precapillary PAH not responding to acute vasodilatation test. Lung biopsy was performed to exclude alveolo-capillary dysplasia. Upfront triple therapy with endothelin receptor antagonist, PDE5 inhibitors, and prostacyclin was started. Due to a potential inflammatory mechanism of this acute PAH in the setting of IP, TNF-alpha blockers and steroids were associated. The evolution was favorable with progressive normalization of the pulmonary artery pressure confirmed by RHC after six months. Doses of PAH drugs were tapered down, and finally all PAH treatments could be stopped after 18 months. Subsequent controls including physical exams and echocardiograms did not show signs of PH. This unusual reversible case of pediatric PAH without associated congenital heart disease or portal hypertension highlights the potential reversibility of pediatric PH when an inflammatory mechanism can be suspected. This is the first reported case of non-fatal isolated PAH associated with IP.

CADASIL brain vessels show a HTRA1 loss-of-function profile

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) and a phenotypically similar recessive condition (CARASIL) have emerged as important genetic model diseases for studying the molecular pathomechanisms of cerebral small vessel disease (SVD). CADASIL, the most frequent and intensely explored monogenic SVD, is characterized by a severe pathology in the cerebral vasculature including the mutation-induced aggregation of the Notch3 extracellular domain (Notch3ECD) and the formation of protein deposits of insufficiently determined composition in vessel walls. To identify key molecules and pathways involved in this process, we quantitatively determined the brain vessel proteome from CADASIL patient and control autopsy samples (n = 6 for each group), obtaining 95 proteins with significantly increased abundance. Intriguingly, high-temperature requirement protein A1 (HTRA1), the extracellular protease mutated in CARASIL, was found to be strongly enriched (4.9-fold, p = 1.6 × 10-3) and to colocalize with Notch3ECD deposits in patient vessels suggesting a sequestration process. Furthermore, the presence of increased levels of several HTRA1 substrates in the CADASIL proteome was compatible with their reduced degradation as consequence of a loss of HTRA1 activity. Indeed, a comparison with the brain vessel proteome of HTRA1 knockout mice (n = 5) revealed a highly significant overlap of 18 enriched proteins (p = 2.2 × 10-16), primarily representing secreted and extracellular matrix factors. Several of them were shown to be processed by HTRA1 in an in vitro proteolysis assay identifying them as novel substrates. Our study provides evidence for a loss of HTRA1 function as a critical step in the development of CADASIL pathology linking the molecular mechanisms of two distinct SVD forms.

Compromised Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity Is Associated With Total Magnetic Resonance Imaging Burden of Cerebral Small Vessel Disease

Objective

Several studies have demonstrated that compromised blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity may play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of individual cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD) markers, but the association between BBB permeability and total magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) cSVD burden remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between BBB permeability and total MRI cSVD burden.

Methods

Consecutive participants without symptomatic stroke history presented for physical examination were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. The presence of lacunes, white matter hyperintensities (WMH), cerebral microbleeds, and enlarged perivascular spaces was recorded in an ordinal score (range 0–4). We used dynamic contrast-enhanced-MRI and Patlak pharmacokinetic model to quantify BBB permeability in the normal-appearing white matter (NAWM), WMH, cortical gray matter (CGM), and deep gray matter (DGM).

Results

All 99 participants averaged 70.33 years old (49–90 years). Multivariable linear regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, and vascular risk factors showed that leakage rate and area under the leakage curve in the NAWM, WMH, CGM, and DGM were positively associated with total MRI cSVD burden (all P < 0.01). Moreover, fractional blood plasma volumes in the NAWM, CGM, and DGM were negatively associated with total MRI cSVD burden (all P < 0.05).

Conclusion

This study verified that compromised BBB integrity is associated with total MRI cSVD burden, suggesting that BBB dysfunction may be a critical contributor to the pathogenesis of cSVD. Longitudinal studies are required to determine whether there is a causal relationship between BBB permeability and total MRI cSVD burden.

Incontinentia Pigmenti: A Summary Review of This Rare Ectodermal Dysplasia With Neurologic Manifestations, Including Treatment Protocols

Incontinentia pigmenti is a rare neuroectodermal dysplasia caused by a defect in the IKBKG gene (formerly known as NEMO). There are 27.6 new cases per year worldwide; 65% to 75% are sporadic mutations, and 25% to 35% are familial. It is usually lethal in males, but females survive because of X-inactivation mosaicism. The disorder is typically identified by unique skin findings, a series of four stages that emerge throughout the first year of life. The central nervous system manifestations in the eye and in the brain cause the most disability. Defects of hair, nails, and teeth occur, and there can be other systemic involvement. Surveillance protocols for medical management have been established by the Incontinentia Pigmenti International Foundation. This article will summarize the existing knowledge of this condition and detail the protocols to help manage the care of the infant or child who presents with incontinentia pigmenti.

Higher blood-brain barrier permeability is associated with higher white matter hyperintensities burden

The pathogenesis of white matter hyperintensities (WMH) is incompletely understood but blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction may play a key role. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between BBB permeability and the severity of WMH burden. Consecutive participants without symptomatic stroke history presented for physical examination were recruited in this cross-sectional study and divided into three WMH burden groups according to total Fazekas scores. They received dynamic contrast-enhanced-magnetic resonance imaging to measure BBB permeability, and received Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). A total of 102 participants aged 49-90 years (mean age of 69.82 years) were enrolled (36 with low WMH burden, 35 with medium WMH burden, and 31 with high WMH burden). Multivariable linear regression analyses revealed that participants with higher WMH burden had significantly higher BBB leakage rate and area under the leakage curve in normal-appearing white matter, WMH, cortical gray matter, and deep gray matter (DGM) after adjustment for age, sex, and vascular risk factors. Scores on MMSE and MoCA decreased with increasing leakage rate in WMH and DGM after adjustment for age, sex, WMH burden, and education years. We found that higher BBB permeability is associated with higher WMH burden and cognitive decline. The compromised BBB integrity may be a critical contributor to the pathogenesis of WMH and part of a series of pathological processes that finally lead to cognitive impairment.

TGFβ pathway deregulation and abnormal phospho-SMAD2/3 staining in hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis-Dutch type

Hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis‐Dutch type (HCHWA‐D) is an early onset hereditary form of cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) pathology, caused by the E22Q mutation in the amyloid β (Aβ) peptide. Transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) is a key player in vascular fibrosis and in the formation of angiopathic vessels in transgenic mice. Therefore, we investigated whether the TGFβ pathway is involved in HCHWA‐D pathogenesis in human postmortem brain tissue from frontal and occipital lobes. Components of the TGFβ pathway were analyzed with quantitative RT‐PCR. TGFβ1 and TGFβ Receptor 2 (TGFBR2) gene expression levels were significantly increased in HCHWA‐D in comparison to the controls, in both frontal and occipital lobes. TGFβ‐induced pro‐fibrotic target genes were also upregulated. We further assessed pathway activation by detecting phospho‐SMAD2/3 (pSMAD2/3), a direct TGFβ down‐stream signaling mediator, using immunohistochemistry. We found abnormal pSMAD2/3 granular deposits specifically on HCHWA‐D angiopathic frontal and occipital vessels. We graded pSMAD2/3 accumulation in angiopathic vessels and found a positive correlation with the CAA load independent of the brain area. We also observed pSMAD2/3 granules in a halo surrounding occipital vessels, which was specific for HCHWA‐D. The result of this study indicates an upregulation of TGFβ1 in HCHWA‐D, as was found previously in AD with CAA pathology. We discuss the possible origins and implications of the TGFβ pathway deregulation in the microvasculature in HCHWA‐D. These findings identify the TGFβ pathway as a potential biomarker of disease progression and a possible target of therapeutic intervention in HCHWA‐D.