Neuroepithelial bodies as mechanotransducers in the intrapulmonary airway epithelium: involvement of TRPC5

Distribution of TRPC5 in the human lung: A study in body donors

Transient receptor potential channel canonical 5 (TRPC5) is a non-selective ion channel; ion influx through TRPC5 causes activation of downstream signaling pathways. In addition, TRPC5 has been identified as having a potential role in pathological processes, particularly in diseases caused by cellular cation homeostasis dysregulation, such as bronchial asthma or pulmonary hypertension. However, the expression and distribution of TRPC5 in the human lung remain unclear. To date, TRPC5 has only been detected in a few cell types in the human lung, such as airway, pulmonary venous and arterial smooth muscle cells. The present study therefore aimed to investigate the protein expression of TRPC5 in the human lung and to evaluate its histological distribution. Human lung samples were obtained from six preserved body donors. After processing, both hematoxylin & eosin staining, as well as immunohistochemistry were performed. Microscopic analysis revealed medium to strong immunostaining signals in all lung structures examined, including the pleura, pulmonary arteries and veins, bronchioles, alveolar septa, type 1 and 2 pneumocytes, as well as alveolar macrophages. Current research suggests that TRPC5 may be involved in various pathological processes in the human lung and some pharmacological compounds have already been identified that affect the function of TRPC5. Therefore, TRPC5 may present a novel drug target for therapeutic intervention in various lung diseases. The results of the present study indicate that the TRPC5 protein is expressed in all examined histological structures of the human lung. These findings suggest that TRPC5 may be more important for physiological cell function and pathophysiological cell dysfunction in the lung than is currently known. Further research is needed to explore the role and therapeutic target potential of TRPC5 in the human lung.

Three-dimensional ultrastructural and anatomical analysis of prostatic neuroendocrine cells in mice

BACKGROUND

A few studies have examined the ultrastructure of prostatic neuroendocrine cells (NECs), and no study has focused on their ultrastructure in three dimensions. In this study, three-dimensional ultrastructural analysis of mouse prostatic NECs was performed to clarify their anatomical characteristics.

METHODS

Three 13-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were deeply anesthetized, perfused with physiological saline and 2% paraformaldehyde, and then placed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M cacodylate (pH 7.3) buffer for electron microscopy. After perfusion, the lower urinary tract, which included the bladder, prostate, coagulation gland, seminal vesicle, upper vas deferens, and urethra, was removed, and the specimen was cut into small cubes and subjected to postfixation and en bloc staining. Three-dimensional ultrastructural analysis was performed on NECs, the surrounding cells, tissues, and nerves using focused ion beam/scanning electron microscope tomography.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven serial sections were used in the present study, and 32 mouse prostatic NECs were analyzed. Morphologically, the NECs could be classified into three types: flask, flat, and closed. Closed-shaped NECs were always adjacent to flask-shaped cells. The flask-shaped and flat NECs were in direct contact with the ductal lumen and always had microvilli at their contact points. Many of the NECs had accompanying nerves, some of which terminated on the surface in contact with the NEC.

CONCLUSIONS

Three-dimensional ultrastructural analysis of mouse prostatic NECs was performed. These cells can be classified into three types based on shape. Novel findings include the presence of microvilli at their points of contact with the ductal lumen and the presence of accompanying nerves.

Neuroendocrine cells initiate protective upper airway reflexes

Airway neuroendocrine (NE) cells have been proposed to serve as specialized sensory epithelial cells that modulate respiratory behavior by communicating with nearby nerve endings. However, their functional properties and physiological roles in the healthy lung, trachea, and larynx remain largely unknown. In this work, we show that murine NE cells in these compartments have distinct biophysical properties but share sensitivity to two commonly aspirated noxious stimuli, water and acid. Moreover, we found that tracheal and laryngeal NE cells protect the airways by releasing adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) to activate purinoreceptive sensory neurons that initiate swallowing and expiratory reflexes. Our work uncovers the broad molecular and biophysical diversity of NE cells across the airways and reveals mechanisms by which these specialized excitable cells serve as sentinels for activating protective responses.

A vagal reflex evoked by airway closure

Airway integrity must be continuously maintained throughout life. Sensory neurons guard against airway obstruction and, on a moment-by-moment basis, enact vital reflexes to maintain respiratory function1,2. Decreased lung capacity is common and life-threatening across many respiratory diseases, and lung collapse can be acutely evoked by chest wall trauma, pneumothorax or airway compression. Here we characterize a neuronal reflex of the vagus nerve evoked by airway closure that leads to gasping. In vivo vagal ganglion imaging revealed dedicated sensory neurons that detect airway compression but not airway stretch. Vagal neurons expressing PVALB mediate airway closure responses and innervate clusters of lung epithelial cells called neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs). Stimulating NEBs or vagal PVALB neurons evoked gasping in the absence of airway threats, whereas ablating NEBs or vagal PVALB neurons eliminated gasping in response to airway closure. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that NEBs uniformly express the mechanoreceptor PIEZO2, and targeted knockout of Piezo2 in NEBs eliminated responses to airway closure. NEBs were dispensable for the Hering-Breuer inspiratory reflex, which indicated that discrete terminal structures detect airway closure and inflation. Similar to the involvement of Merkel cells in touch sensation3,4, NEBs are PIEZO2-expressing epithelial cells and, moreover, are crucial for an aspect of lung mechanosensation. These findings expand our understanding of neuronal diversity in the airways and reveal a dedicated vagal pathway that detects airway closure to help preserve respiratory function.

The Coding Logic of Interoception

Interoception, the ability to precisely and timely sense internal body signals, is critical for life. The interoceptive system monitors a large variety of mechanical, chemical, hormonal, and pathological cues using specialized organ cells, organ innervating neurons, and brain sensory neurons. It is important for maintaining body homeostasis, providing motivational drives, and regulating autonomic, cognitive, and behavioral functions. However, compared to external sensory systems, our knowledge about how diverse body signals are coded at a system level is quite limited. In this review, we focus on the unique features of interoceptive signals and the organization of the interoceptive system, with the goal of better understanding the coding logic of interoception.

Interactions between calcium regulatory pathways and mechanosensitive channels in airways

INTRODUCTION

Asthma is a chronic lung disease influenced by environmental and inflammatory triggers and involving complex signaling pathways across resident airway cells such as epithelium, airway smooth muscle, fibroblasts, and immune cells. While our understanding of asthma pathophysiology is continually progressing, there is a growing realization that cellular microdomains play critical roles in mediating signaling relevant to asthma in the context of contractility and remodeling. Mechanosensitive pathways are increasingly recognized as important to microdomain signaling, with Piezo and transient receptor protein (TRP) channels at the plasma membrane considered important for converting mechanical stimuli into cellular behavior. Given their ion channel properties, particularly Ca2+ conduction, a question becomes whether and how mechanosensitive channels contribute to Ca2+ microdomains in airway cells relevant to asthma.

AREAS COVERED

Mechanosensitive TRP and Piezo channels regulate key Ca2+ regulatory proteins such as store operated calcium entry (SOCE) involving STIM and Orai channels, and sarcoendoplasmic (SR) mechanisms such as IP3 receptor channels (IP3Rs), and SR Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA) that are important in asthma pathophysiology including airway hyperreactivity and remodeling.

EXPERT OPINION

Physical and/or functional interactions between Ca2+ regulatory proteins and mechanosensitive channels such as TRP and Piezo can toward understanding asthma pathophysiology and identifying novel therapeutic approaches.

The pulmonary neuroepithelial body microenvironment represents an underestimated multimodal component in airway sensory pathways

Exciting new imaging and molecular tools, combined with state-of-the-art genetically modified mouse models, have recently boosted interest in pulmonary (vagal) sensory pathway investigations. In addition to the identification of diverse sensory neuronal subtypes, visualization of intrapulmonary projection patterns attracted renewed attention on morphologically identified sensory receptor end-organs, such as the pulmonary neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs) that have been our area of expertise for the past four decades. The current review aims at providing an overview of the cellular and neuronal components of the pulmonary NEB microenvironment (NEB ME) in mice, underpinning the role of these complexly organized structures in the mechano- and chemosensory potential of airways and lungs. Interestingly, the pulmonary NEB ME additionally harbors different types of stem cells, and emerging evidence suggests that the signal transduction pathways that are active in the NEB ME during lung development and repair also determine the origin of small cell lung carcinoma. Although documented for many years that NEBs appear to be affected in several pulmonary diseases, the current intriguing knowledge on the NEB ME seems to encourage researchers that are new to the field to explore the possibility that these versatile sensor-effector units may be involved in lung pathogenesis or pathobiology.

Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells sense succinate to stimulate myoepithelial cell contraction

Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) are rare airway cells with potential sensory capacity linked to vagal neurons and immune cells. How PNECs sense and respond to external stimuli remains poorly understood. We discovered PNECs located within pig and human submucosal glands, a tissue that produces much of the mucus that defends the lung. These PNECs sense succinate, an inflammatory molecule in liquid lining the airway surface. The results indicate that succinate migrates down the submucosal gland duct to the acinus, where it triggers apical succinate receptors, causing PNECs to release ATP. The short-range ATP signal stimulates the contraction of myoepithelial cells wrapped tightly around the submucosal glands. Succinate-triggered gland contraction may complement the action of neurotransmitters that induce mucus release but not gland contraction to promote mucus ejection onto the airway surface. These findings identify a local circuit in which rare PNECs within submucosal glands sense an environmental cue to orchestrate the function of airway glands.

Mechanosensitive Piezo channels mediate the physiological and pathophysiological changes in the respiratory system

Mechanosensitive Piezo ion channels were first reported in 2010 in a mouse neuroblastoma cell line, opening up a new field for studying the composition and function of eukaryotic mechanically activated channels. During the past decade, Piezo ion channels were identified in many species, such as bacteria, Drosophila, and mammals. In mammals, basic life activities, such as the sense of touch, proprioception, hearing, vascular development, and blood pressure regulation, depend on the activation of Piezo ion channels. Cumulative evidence suggests that Piezo ion channels play a major role in lung vascular development and function and diseases like pneumonia, pulmonary hypertension, apnea, and other lung-related diseases. In this review, we focused on studies that reported specific functions of Piezos in tissues and emphasized the physiological and pathological effects of their absence or functional mutations on the respiratory system.

Mechanosensitivity of Murine Lung Slowly Adapting Receptors: Minimal Impact of Chemosensory, Serotonergic, and Purinergic Signaling

Murine slowly adapting receptors (SARs) within airway smooth muscle provide volume-related feedback; however, their mechanosensitivity and morphology are incompletely characterized. We explored two aspects of SAR physiology: their inherent static mechanosensitivity and a potential link to pulmonary neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs). SAR mechanosensitivity displays a rate sensitivity linked to speed of inflation; however, to what extent static SAR mechanosensitivity is tuned for the very rapid breathing frequency (B f ) of small mammals (e.g., mouse) is unclear. NEB-associated, morphologically described smooth muscle-associated receptors (SMARs) may be a structural analog for functionally characterized SARs, suggesting functional linkages between SARs and NEBs. We addressed the hypotheses that: (1) rapid murine B f is associated with enhanced in vivo SAR static sensitivity; (2) if SARs and NEBs are functionally linked, stimuli reported to impact NEB function would alter SAR mechanosensitivity. We measured SAR action potential discharge frequency (AP f, action potentials/s) during quasi-static inflation [0-20 cmH2O trans-respiratory pressure (PTR)] in NEB-relevant conditions of hypoxia (FIO2 = 0.1), hypercarbia (FICO2 = 0.1), and pharmacologic intervention (serotonergic 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, Tropisetron, 4.5 mg/kg; P2 purinergic receptor antagonist, Suramin, 50 mg/kg). In all protocols, we obtained: (1) AP f vs. PTR; (2) PTR threshold; and (3) AP f onset at PTR threshold. The murine AP f vs. PTR response comprises high AP f (average maximum AP f: 236.1 ± 11.1 AP/s at 20 cmH2O), a low PTR threshold (mean 2.0 ± 0.1 cmH2O), and a plateau in AP f between 15 and 20 cmH2O. Murine SAR mechanosensitivity (AP f vs. PTR) is up to 60% greater than that reported for larger mammals. Even the maximum difference between intervention and control conditions was minimally impacted by NEB-related alterations: Tropisetron -7.6 ± 1.8% (p = 0.005); Suramin -10.6 ± 1.5% (p = 0.01); hypoxia +9.3 ± 1.9% (p < 0.001); and hypercarbia -6.2 ± 0.9% (p < 0.001). We conclude that the high sensitivity of murine SARs to inflation provides enhanced resolution of operating lung volume, which is aligned with the rapid B f of the mouse. We found minimal evidence supporting a functional link between SARs and NEBs and speculate that the <10% change in SAR mechanosensitivity during altered NEB-related stimuli is not consistent with a meaningful physiologic role.

Neuroendocrinology of the lung revealed by single-cell RNA sequencing

Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) are sensory epithelial cells that transmit airway status to the brain via sensory neurons and locally via calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and γ- aminobutyric acid (GABA). Several other neuropeptides and neurotransmitters have been detected in various species, but the number, targets, functions, and conservation of PNEC signals are largely unknown. We used scRNAseq to profile hundreds of the rare mouse and human PNECs. This revealed over 40 PNEC neuropeptide and peptide hormone genes, most cells expressing unique combinations of 5-18 genes. Peptides are packaged in separate vesicles, their release presumably regulated by the distinct, multimodal combinations of sensors we show are expressed by each PNEC. Expression of the peptide receptors predicts an array of local cell targets, and we show the new PNEC signal angiotensin directly activates one subtype of innervating sensory neuron. Many signals lack lung targets so may have endocrine activity like those of PNEC-derived carcinoid tumors. PNECs are an extraordinarily rich and diverse signaling hub rivaling the enteroendocrine system.

CXCL13 is expressed in a subpopulation of neuroendocrine cells in the murine trachea and lung

The conducting airways are lined by distinct cell types, comprising basal, secretory, ciliated, and rare cells, including ionocytes, solitary cholinergic chemosensory cells, and solitary and clustered (neuroepithelial bodies) neuroendocrine cells. Airway neuroendocrine cells are in clinical focus since they can give rise to small cell lung cancer. They have been implicated in diverse functions including mechanosensation, chemosensation, and regeneration, and were recently identified as regulators of type 2 immune responses via the release of the neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP). We here assessed the expression of the chemokine CXCL13 (B cell attracting chemokine) by these cells by RT-PCR, in silico analysis of publicly available sequencing data sets, immunohistochemistry, and immuno-electron microscopy. We identify a phenotype of neuroendocrine cells in the naïve mouse, producing the chemokine CXCL13 predominantly in solitary neuroendocrine cells of the tracheal epithelium (approx. 70% CXCL13⁺) and, to a lesser extent, in the solitary neuroendocrine cells and neuroepithelial bodies of the intrapulmonary bronchial epithelium (< 10% CXCL13⁺). In silico analysis of published sequencing data of murine tracheal epithelial cells was consistent with the results obtained by immunohistochemistry as it revealed that neuroendocrine cells are the major source of Cxcl13-mRNA, which was expressed by 68–79% of neuroendocrine cells. An unbiased scRNA-seq data analysis of overall gene expression did not yield subclusters of neuroendocrine cells. Our observation demonstrates phenotypic heterogeneity of airway neuroendocrine cells and points towards a putative immunoregulatory role of these cells in bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue formation and B cell homeostasis.

Reprint of: Mechanosensitive ion channels in cell migration

Cellular processes are initiated and regulated by different stimuli, including mechanical forces. Cell membrane mechanosensors represent the first step towards the conversion of mechanical stimuli to a biochemical or electrical response. Mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels form a growing family of ion gating channels that respond to direct physical force or plasma membrane deformations. A number of calcium (Ca²⁺) permeable MS channels are known to regulate the initiation, direction, and persistence of cell migration during development and tumour progression. While the evidence that links individual MS ion channels to cell migration is growing, a unified analysis of the molecular mechanisms regulated downstream of MS ion channel activation is lacking. In this review, we describe the MS ion channel families known to regulate cell migration. We discuss the molecular mechanisms that act downstream of MS ion channels with an emphasis on Ca²⁺ mediated processes. Finally, we propose the future directions and impact of MS ion channel activity in the field of cell migration.

Mechanosensitive ion channels in cell migration

Cellular processes are initiated and regulated by different stimuli, including mechanical forces. Cell membrane mechanosensors represent the first step towards the conversion of mechanical stimuli to a biochemical or electrical response. Mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels form a growing family of ion gating channels that respond to direct physical force or plasma membrane deformations. A number of calcium (Ca2+) permeable MS channels are known to regulate the initiation, direction, and persistence of cell migration during development and tumour progression. While the evidence that links individual MS ion channels to cell migration is growing, a unified analysis of the molecular mechanisms regulated downstream of MS ion channel activation is lacking. In this review, we describe the MS ion channel families known to regulate cell migration. We discuss the molecular mechanisms that act downstream of MS ion channels with an emphasis on Ca2+ mediated processes. Finally, we propose the future directions and impact of MS ion channel activity in the field of cell migration.

Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells: physiology, tissue homeostasis and disease

Mammalian lungs have the ability to recognize external environments by sensing different compounds in inhaled air. Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) are rare, multi-functional epithelial cells currently garnering attention as intrapulmonary sensors; PNECs can detect hypoxic conditions through chemoreception. Because PNEC overactivation has been reported in patients suffering from respiratory diseases – such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchopulmonary dysplasia and other congenital diseases – an improved understanding of the fundamental characteristics of PNECs is becoming crucial in pulmonary biology and pathology. During the past decade, murine genetics and disease models revealed the involvement of PNECs in lung ventilation dynamics, mechanosensing and the type 2 immune responses. Single-cell RNA sequencing further unveiled heterogeneous gene expression profiles in the PNEC population and revealed that a small number of PNECs undergo reprogramming during regeneration. Aberrant large clusters of PNECs have been observed in neuroendocrine tumors, including small-cell lung cancer (SCLC). Modern innovation of imaging analyses has enabled the discovery of dynamic migratory behaviors of PNECs during airway development, perhaps relating to SCLC malignancy. This Review summarizes the findings from research on PNECs, along with novel knowledge about their function. In addition, it thoroughly addresses the relevant questions concerning the molecular pathology of pulmonary diseases and related therapeutic approaches.

Summary: This Review highlights the physiological relevance of pulmonary neuroendocrine cells, rare airway epithelial cells that form intrapulmonary sensory organs, abnormalities of which are associated with several pulmonary disorders, such as asthma and lung cancer.

Less Is More: Rare Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Cells Function as Critical Sensors in Lung

Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) are rare airway epithelial cells that also uniquely harbor neuronal and endocrine characteristics. In vitro data indicate that these cells respond to chemical or mechanical stimuli by releasing neuropeptides and neurotransmitters, implicating them as airway sensors. Emerging in vivo data corroborate this role and demonstrate that PNECs are important for lung response to signals, such as allergens. With close proximity to steady-state immune cells and innervating nerves, PNECs, as prototype tissue-resident neuroendocrine cells, are at the center of a neuro-immune module that enables the fundamental ability of an organ to sense and respond to the environment.

Consider the lung as a sensory organ: A tip from pulmonary neuroendocrine cells

While the lung is commonly known for its gas exchange function, it is exposed to signals in the inhaled air and responds to them by collaborating with other systems including immune cells and the neural circuit. This important aspect of lung physiology led us to consider the lung as a sensory organ. Among different cell types within the lung that mediate this role, several recent studies have renewed attention on pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs). PNECs are a rare, innervated airway epithelial cell type that accounts for <1% of the lung epithelium population. They are enriched at airway branch points. Classical in vitro studies have shown that PNECs can respond to an array of aerosol stimuli such as hypoxia, hypercapnia and nicotine. Recent in vivo evidence suggests an essential role of PNECs at neuroimmunomodulatory sites of action, releasing neuropeptides, neurotransmitters and facilitating asthmatic responses to allergen. In addition, evidence supports that PNECs can function both as progenitor cells and progenitor niches following airway epithelial injury. Increases in PNECs have been documented in a large array of chronic lung diseases. They are also the cells-of-origin for small cell lung cancer. A better understanding of the specificity of their responses to distinct insults, their impact on normal lung function and their roles in the pathogenesis of pulmonary ailments will be the next challenge toward designing therapeutics targeting the neuroendocrine system in lung.

Neural Sensing of Organ Volume

Many internal organs change volume periodically. For example, the stomach accommodates ingested food and drink, the bladder stores urine, the heart fills with blood, and the lungs expand with every breath. Specialized peripheral sensory neurons function as mechanoreceptors that detect tissue stretch to infer changes in organ volume and then relay this information to the brain. Central neural circuits process this information and evoke perceptions (satiety, nausea), control physiology (breathing, heart rate), and impact behavior (feeding, micturition). Yet, basic questions remain about how neurons sense organ distension and whether common sensory motifs are involved across organs. Here, we review candidate mechanosensory receptors, cell types, and neural circuits, focusing on the stomach, bladder, and airways. Understanding mechanisms of organ stretch sensation may provide new ways to treat autonomic dysfunction.

Selective activation and proliferation of a quiescent stem cell population in the neuroepithelial body microenvironment

BACKGROUND

The microenvironment (ME) of neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs) harbors densely innervated groups of pulmonary neuroendocrine cells that are covered by Clara-like cells (CLCs) and is believed to be important during development and for adult airway epithelial repair after severe injury. Yet, little is known about its potential stem cell characteristics in healthy postnatal lungs.

METHODS

Transient mild lung inflammation was induced in mice via a single low-dose intratracheal instillation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), collected 16 h after LPS instillation, was used to challenge the NEB ME in ex vivo lung slices of control mice. Proliferating cells in the NEB ME were identified and quantified following simultaneous LPS instillation and BrdU injection.

RESULTS

The applied LPS protocol induced very mild and transient lung injury. Challenge of lung slices with BALF of LPS-treated mice resulted in selective Ca²⁺-mediated activation of CLCs in the NEB ME of control mice. Forty-eight hours after LPS challenge, a remarkably selective and significant increase in the number of divided (BrdU-labeled) cells surrounding NEBs was observed in lung sections of LPS-challenged mice. Proliferating cells were identified as CLCs.

CONCLUSIONS

A highly reproducible and minimally invasive lung inflammation model was validated for inducing selective activation of a quiescent stem cell population in the NEB ME. The model creates new opportunities for unraveling the cellular mechanisms/pathways regulating silencing, activation, proliferation and differentiation of this unique postnatal airway epithelial stem cell population.

Plasticity in the lung: making and breaking cell identity

In contrast to a prior emphasis on the finality of cell fate decisions in developmental systems, cellular plasticity is now emerging as a general theme in the biology of multiple adult organ systems. In the lung, lineage tracing has been used to identify distinct epithelial stem and progenitor cell populations. These cells, together with their differentiated progeny, maintain a stable identity during steady state conditions, but can display remarkable lineage plasticity following injury. This Review summarizes our current understanding of the different cell lineages of the adult mammalian lung and their responses to injury. In the lung, which is constantly exposed to infection and aerosolized toxins, epithelial plasticity might be more of a rule than an exception, and it is likely that different injuries elicit different facultative responses.

Physiological and pathophysiological role of transient receptor potential canonical channels in cardiac myocytes

Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels constitute a family of seven Ca²⁺ permeable ion channels, named TRPC1 to 7. These channels are abundantly expressed in the mammalian heart, yet mechanisms underlying activation of TRPC channels and their precise role in cardiac physiology remain poorly understood. In this review, we perused original literature regarding TRPC channels in cardiomyocytes. We first reviewed studies on TRPC channel assembly and sub-cellular localization across multiple species and cell types. Our review indicates that TRPC localization in cardiac cells is still a topic of controversy. We then examined common molecular biology tools used to infer on location and physiological roles of TRPC channels in the heart. We subsequently reviewed pharmacological tools used to modulate TRPC activity in both cardiac and non-cardiac cells. Suggested physiological roles in the heart include modulation of heart rate and sensing of mechanical strain. We examined studies on the contribution of TRPC to cardiac pathophysiology, mainly hypertrophic signaling. Several TRPC channels, particularly TRPC1, 3 and 6 were proposed to play a crucial role in hypertrophic signaling. Finally, we discussed gaps in our understanding of the location and physiological role of TRPC channels in cardiomyocytes. Closing these gaps will be crucial to gain a full understanding of the role of TRPC channels in cardiac pathophysiology and to further explore these channels as targets for treatments for cardiac diseases, in particular, hypertrophy.

Selective gene expression analysis of the neuroepithelial body microenvironment in postnatal lungs with special interest for potential stem cell characteristics

BACKGROUND

The pulmonary neuroepithelial body (NEB) microenvironment (ME) consists of innervated cell clusters that occur sparsely distributed in the airway epithelium, an organization that has so far hampered reliable selective gene expression analysis. Although the NEB ME has been suggested to be important for airway epithelial repair after ablation, little is known about their potential stem cell characteristics in healthy postnatal lungs. Here we report on a large-scale selective gene expression analysis of the NEB ME.

METHODS

A GAD67-GFP mouse model was used that harbors GFP-fluorescent NEBs, allowing quick selection and pooling by laser microdissection (LMD) without further treatment. A panel of stem cell-related PCR arrays was used to selectively compare mRNA expression in the NEB ME to control airway epithelium (CAE). For genes that showed a higher expression in the NEB ME, a ranking was made based on the relative expression level. Single qPCR and immunohistochemistry were used to validate and quantify the PCR array data.

RESULTS

Careful optimization of all protocols appeared to be essential to finally obtain high-quality RNA from pooled LMD samples of NEB ME. About 30% of the more than 600 analyzed genes showed an at least two-fold higher expression compared to CAE. The gene that showed the highest relative expression in the NEB ME, Delta-like ligand 3 (Dll3), was investigated in more detail. Selective Dll3 gene expression in the NEB ME could be quantified via single qPCR experiments, and Dll3 protein expression could be localized specifically to NEB cell surface membranes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study emphasized the importance of good protocols and RNA quality controls because of the, often neglected, fast RNA degradation in postnatal lung samples. It was shown that sufficient amounts of high-quality RNA for reliable complex gene expression analysis can be obtained from pooled LMD-collected NEB ME samples of postnatal lungs. Dll3 expression, which has also been reported to be important in high-grade pulmonary tumor-initiating cells, was used as a proof-of-concept to confirm that the described methodology represents a promising tool for further unraveling the molecular basis of NEB ME physiology in general, and its postnatal stem cell capacities in particular.

Vagal Afferent Innervation of the Airways in Health and Disease

Vagal sensory neurons constitute the major afferent supply to the airways and lungs. Subsets of afferents are defined by their embryological origin, molecular profile, neurochemistry, functionality, and anatomical organization, and collectively these nerves are essential for the regulation of respiratory physiology and pulmonary defense through local responses and centrally mediated neural pathways. Mechanical and chemical activation of airway afferents depends on a myriad of ionic and receptor-mediated signaling, much of which has yet to be fully explored. Alterations in the sensitivity and neurochemical phenotype of vagal afferent nerves and/or the neural pathways that they innervate occur in a wide variety of pulmonary diseases, and as such, understanding the mechanisms of vagal sensory function and dysfunction may reveal novel therapeutic targets. In this comprehensive review we discuss historical and state-of-the-art concepts in airway sensory neurobiology and explore mechanisms underlying how vagal sensory pathways become dysfunctional in pathological conditions.

Effects of transient receptor potential canonical 1 (TRPC1) on the mechanical stretch-induced expression of airway remodeling-associated factors in human bronchial epithelioid cells

Research has shown that mechanical stress stimulation can cause airway remodeling. We investigate the effects of mechanical stretch on the expression of the airway remodeling-associated factors interleukin-13 (IL-13) and matrix metalloprotein-9 (MMP-9) and signaling pathways in human bronchial epithelioid (16HBE) cells under mechanical stretch. A Flexcell FX-4000 Tension System with a flexible substrate was applied to stretch 16HBE cells at a 15% elongation amplitude and 1Hz frequency, with stretching for 0.5h, 1h, 1.5h and 2h. The experimental group with higher IL-13, MMP-9, and TRPC1 expression and higher Ca²⁺ levels was selected for performing intervention experiment. These cells were pretreated with the transient receptor potential canonical 1 (TRPC1) channel antagonist SKF96365 and TRPC1-specific siRNA, and then mechanical stretch was applied. Our results provided evidences that mechanical pressure significantly increased IL-13, MMP-9, and TRPC1 protein and mRNA expression levels and intracellular Ca²⁺ fluorescence intensity at 4 time points compared with the control group. The peak IL-13, MMP-9, and TRPC1 expression levels were observed at 0.5h after exposure to mechanical pressure. IL-13 and MMP-9 expression levels and Ca²⁺ fluorescence intensity in the stretch+SKF96365 group and in the stretch+TRPC1 siRNA group were significantly lower than those were in the mechanical stretch group. By incubating the cells with the intracellular calcium chelator BAPTA-AM, the expression of IL-13 and MMP9 was significantly decreased, and the expression level of TRPC1 remained unchanged. These observations suggest that mechanical stretch may induce an influx of Ca²⁺ and up-regulation of IL-13 and MMP-9 expression in 16HBE cells via activation of TRPC1.

Cardiac Mechano-Gated Ion Channels and Arrhythmias

Mechanical forces will have been omnipresent since the origin of life, and living organisms have evolved mechanisms to sense, interpret, and respond to mechanical stimuli. The cardiovascular system in general, and the heart in particular, is exposed to constantly changing mechanical signals, including stretch, compression, bending, and shear. The heart adjusts its performance to the mechanical environment, modifying electrical, mechanical, metabolic, and structural properties over a range of time scales. Many of the underlying regulatory processes are encoded intracardially and are, thus, maintained even in heart transplant recipients. Although mechanosensitivity of heart rhythm has been described in the medical literature for over a century, its molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood. Thanks to modern biophysical and molecular technologies, the roles of mechanical forces in cardiac biology are being explored in more detail, and detailed mechanisms of mechanotransduction have started to emerge. Mechano-gated ion channels are cardiac mechanoreceptors. They give rise to mechano-electric feedback, thought to contribute to normal function, disease development, and, potentially, therapeutic interventions. In this review, we focus on acute mechanical effects on cardiac electrophysiology, explore molecular candidates underlying observed responses, and discuss their pharmaceutical regulation. From this, we identify open research questions and highlight emerging technologies that may help in addressing them.

Morphologic Characterization of Nerves in Whole-Mount Airway Biopsies

RATIONALE

Neuroplasticity of bronchopulmonary afferent neurons that respond to mechanical and chemical stimuli may sensitize the cough reflex. Afferent drive in cough is carried by the vagus nerve, and vagal afferent nerve terminals have been well defined in animals. Yet, both unmyelinated C fibers and particularly the morphologically distinct, myelinated, nodose-derived mechanoreceptors described in animals are poorly characterized in humans. To date there are no distinctive molecular markers or detailed morphologies available for human bronchopulmonary afferent nerves.

OBJECTIVES

Morphologic and neuromolecular characterization of the afferent nerves that are potentially involved in cough in humans.

METHODS

A whole-mount immunofluorescence approach, rarely used in human lung tissue, was used with antibodies specific to protein gene product 9.5 (PGP9.5) and, for the first time in human lung tissue, 200-kD neurofilament subunit.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

We have developed a robust technique to visualize fibers consistent with autonomic and C fibers and pulmonary neuroendocrine cells. A group of morphologically distinct, 200-kD neurofilament-immunopositive myelinated afferent fibers, a subpopulation of which did not express PGP9.5, was also identified.

CONCLUSIONS

PGP9.5-immunonegative nerves are strikingly similar to myelinated airway afferents, the cough receptor, and smooth muscle-associated airway receptors described in rodents. These have never been described in humans. Full description of human airway nerves is critical to the translation of animal studies to the clinical setting.

Sensory input to the central nervous system from the lungs and airways: A prominent role for purinergic signalling via P2X2/3 receptors

Specific subpopulations of lung-related primary afferent neurons in dorsal root and vagal sensory ganglia have been reported to express P2X2 and P2X3 receptors both in the neuronal cell bodies and in their peripheral terminals. The afferent innervation of airways and lungs is organised as sensory receptor structures, of which at least seven types with a vagal origin and two with a spinal origin have been reported. In view of the recently suggested therapeutic promise of ATP antagonism - specifically at P2X3 receptor expressing nociceptive fibres - in respiratory disorders, the present work focusses on four distinct populations of pulmonary sensory receptors that have so far been reported to express P2X2/3 receptors. Three of them originate from myelinated nerve fibres that display similar mechanosensor-like morphological and neurochemical characteristics. Two of the latter concern vagal nodose sensory fibres, either related to pulmonary neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs), or giving rise to smooth muscle-associated airway receptors (SMARs); the third gives rise to visceral pleura receptors (VPRs) and most likely arises from dorsal root ganglia. The fourth population concerns C-fibre receptors (CFRs) that also derive from neuronal cell bodies located in vagal nodose ganglia. Although the majority of the airway- and lung-related sensory receptors that express P2X2/3 receptors apparently do not belong to accepted nociceptive populations, these data definitely point out that ATP may be an important player in the physiological transduction of different lung-related afferent signals from the periphery to the CNS. The observed variety within the populations of pulmonary sensory receptors that express P2X2/3 receptors argues for a critical and careful interpretation of the functional data.

Molecular candidates for cardiac stretch-activated ion channels

The heart is a mechanically-active organ that dynamically senses its own mechanical environment. This environment is constantly changing, on a beat-by-beat basis, with additional modulation by respiratory activity and changes in posture or physical activity, and further overlaid with more slowly occurring physiological (e.g. pregnancy, endurance training) or pathological challenges (e.g. pressure or volume overload). Far from being a simple pump, the heart detects changes in mechanical demand and adjusts its performance accordingly, both via heart rate and stroke volume alteration. Many of the underlying regulatory processes are encoded intracardially, and are thus maintained even in heart transplant recipients. Over the last three decades, molecular substrates of cardiac mechanosensitivity have gained increasing recognition in the scientific and clinical communities. Nonetheless, the processes underlying this phenomenon are still poorly understood. Stretch-activated ion channels (SAC) have been identified as one contributor to mechanosensitive autoregulation of the heartbeat. They also appear to play important roles in the development of cardiac pathologies – most notably stretch-induced arrhythmias. As recently discovered, some established cardiac drugs act, in part at least, via mechanotransduction pathways suggesting SAC as potential therapeutic targets. Clearly, identification of the molecular substrate of cardiac SAC is of clinical importance and a number of candidate proteins have been identified. At the same time, experimental studies have revealed variable–and at times contrasting–results regarding their function. Further complication arises from the fact that many ion channels that are not classically defined as SAC, including voltage and ligand-gated ion channels, can respond to mechanical stimulation. Here, we summarise what is known about the molecular substrate of the main candidates for cardiac SAC, before identifying potential further developments in this area of translational research.

Functional expression of the multimodal extracellular calcium-sensing receptor in pulmonary neuroendocrine cells

The Ca(2+)-sensing receptor (CaSR) is the master regulator of whole-body extracellular free ionized [Ca(2+)]o. In addition to sensing [Ca(2+)]o, CaSR integrates inputs from a variety of different physiological stimuli. The CaSR is also expressed in many regions outside the [Ca(2+)]o homeostatic system, including the fetal lung where it plays a crucial role in lung development. Here, we show that neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs) of the postnatal mouse lung express a functional CaSR. NEBs are densely innervated groups of neuroendocrine epithelial cells in the lung representing complex sensory receptors in the airways and exhibiting stem cell characteristics. qRT-PCR performed on laser microdissected samples from GAD67-GFP mouse lung cryosections revealed exclusive expression of the CaSR in the NEB microenvironment. CaSR immunoreactivity was present at NEB cells from postnatal day 14 onwards. Confocal imaging of lung slices revealed that NEB cells responded to an increase of [Ca(2+)]o with a rise in intracellular Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]i); an effect mimicked by several membrane-impermeant CaSR agonists (e.g. the calcimimetic R-568) and that was blocked by the calcilytic Calhex-231. Block of TRPC channels attenuated the CaSR-dependent increases in [Ca(2+)]i, suggesting that Ca(2+) influx through TRPC channels contributes to the total [Ca(2+)]i signal evoked by the CaSR in NEBs. CaSR also regulated baseline [Ca(2+)]i in NEBs and, through paracrine signaling from Clara-like cells, coordinated intercellular communication in the NEB microenvironment. These data suggest that the NEB CaSR integrates multiple signals converging on this complex chemosensory unit, and is a key regulator of this intrapulmonary airway stem cell niche.

Mechanisms of respiratory innervation during embryonic development

During embryogenesis, the development of the respiratory tract is closely associated with the formation of an extensive neuronal network. While the topic of respiratory innervation is not new, and similar articles were published previously, recent studies using animal models and genetic tools are breathing new life into the field. In this review, we focus on signaling mechanisms that underlie innervation of the embryonic respiratory tract.

GABAergic signaling in the pulmonary neuroepithelial body microenvironment: functional imaging in GAD67-GFP mice

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS) of vertebrates, but has also been reported in multiple cell types outside the CNS. A GABAergic system has been proposed in neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs) in monkey lungs. Pulmonary NEBs are known as complex intraepithelial sensory airway receptors and are part of the NEB microenvironment. Aim of the present study was to unravel a GABAergic signaling system in the NEB microenvironment in mouse lungs, enabling the use of genetically modified animals for future functional studies. Immunostaining of mouse lungs revealed that glutamic acid decarboxylase 65/67 (GAD65/67), a rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of GABA, and the vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT) were exclusively expressed in NEB cells. In GAD67-green fluorescent protein (GFP) knock-in mice, all pulmonary NEBs appeared to express GFP. For confocal live cell imaging, ex vivo vibratome lung slices of GAD67-GFP mice can be directly loaded with fluorescent functional probes, e.g. a red-fluorescent calcium dye, without the necessity of time-consuming prior live visualization of NEBs. RT-PCR of the NEB microenvironment obtained by laser microdissection revealed the presence of both GABAA and GABAB (R1 and R2) receptors, which was confirmed by immunostaining. In conclusion, the present study not only revealed the presence of a GABAergic signaling pathway, but also the very selective expression of GFP in pulmonary NEBs in a GAD67-GFP mouse model. Different proof of concept experiments have clearly shown that adoption of the GAD67-GFP mouse model will certainly boost future functional imaging and gene expression analysis of the mouse NEB microenvironment.