Depression among students with learning disabilities: assessing the risk

Beyond Reading: Psychological and Mental Health Needs in Adolescents with Dyslexia

BACKGROUND

Overall, children and adolescents diagnosed with dyslexia or ADHD show an increased risk for psychological and mental health problems, and dyslexia and ADHD tend to coexist frequently. Thus, the main objective of this study was to examine psychological and mental health problems in dyslexia.

METHOD

Participated 95 adolescents with dyslexia (DG), comorbid dyslexia + attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, combined subtype (D + ADHD-CG), and a comparison group with typical development (TDCG). Self-reported measures of anxiety and depression, and parent and teacher versions of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) were used.

RESULTS

Self-reports of internalizing problems showed that adolescents in the GD and D + ADHD-CG groups had more depression and stated anxiety problems with a very high percentage above the clinical cut-off point than the CG. Both the parent and teacher reports showed that the DG and D + ADHD-CG groups obtained higher mean values and a higher number of adolescents above the clinical cut-off of internalizing, externalizing, and total problems than the TDCG. The comorbid D + ADHD-CG group had the highest internalizing and externalizing problems.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, our findings indicate that the internalizing and externalizing problems experienced by adolescents with dyslexia and comorbid ADHD should be recognized early and treated promptly by education professionals.

Telerehabilitation of Developmental Dyslexia: Critical Considerations on Intervention Methods and Their Effectiveness

Paper-based or IT tools can be used in telerehabilitation mode to improve the skills of children with developmental dyslexia (DD), seeking to increase reading speed and reduce errors. Telerehabilitation is the provision of remote treatments in which the patient works autonomously in a familiar environment under the remote monitoring, through telecommunication means, of an expert operator. Through telerehabilitation, children with DD can receive treatments outside the specialist clinic, at home or school, via internet connections, and through advanced technological platforms. These procedures allow adequate communication with the family, intensity of treatment, self-adaptivity of exercises, and child engagement; these factors are crucial for a high intervention efficacy. Recent studies have supported the effectiveness of the telerehabilitation of reading in children with DD, with some studies reporting no differences in efficacy between remote and in-person methods. Nevertheless, many points remain to be clarified about the procedures and methods required by telerehabilitation, the variables linked to its effectiveness (e.g., the impact of the intensity of the training and the neuropsychological profile of the child), and the comparative validity of different tele-treatment paths. These aspects are discussed in the present paper.

Prevalence of depression and protective factors in a population of children aged 8 to 10 years, suffering from specific learning disorders, in a special education and home care service (SESSAD)

OBJECTIVES

Evaluate the prevalence of depression in a population of children aged 8 to 10 years with learning disabilities treated in a Special Education and Home Care Service (SESSAD) and identify the protective factors that might preserve these children from depressive and affective problems.

METHODS

Twenty children, aged 8 to 10, with learning disabilities were evaluated prior to their admission in SESSAD. Depression had been assessed through the Multiscore Depression Inventory for Children (MDIC), adapted to the French population as well as their developmental position in relation with their perceptual maturity of their body schema, through the Draw your family drawing. The protective factors were assessed through the qualitative analysis of the stories told on the Draw your family projective drawing and card 4, 9, 20 of The Socialization Test for Children (TSEA). Quantitative data were computed through descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests (Spearman's correlation test) by the jamovi© statistic software (V.2.3.24), and the qualitative data were analyzed through thematic content analysis and lexical text analysis through the TROPES software (V.8.3).

RESULTS

Quantitative data showed for the entire group: (1) a perceptual maturity delay of the body schema in 75% of the sample; (2) a low incidence of depression in this population with, however, 40% of the sample, (aged 8 and 9) displaying a critical threshold for feelings of helplessness. The qualitative analysis of the Draw your family and TSEA stories allowed to underline some of the protective factors against depression and those which refer, in decreasing order, to the social support given by family members, peers, and the emotional substitutes (animals).

CONCLUSIONS

This research highlighted the precocity of the feelings of helplessness in this population and the importance given by these children to the social support. These findings and future research on the topic might be used to guide the design and implementation of adjusted interventions addressing both the development of their learning capability and psychological empowerment.

Depression in persons with disabilities: a scoping review

Individuals with disabilities are more vulnerable to depression development than the general population. This study sought to map the evidence on current knowledge of depression, intervention strategies, and assessment tools among people with disabilities. This review was conducted following Arksey and O'Malley's scoping review methodology framework. An electronic search was performed on four English databases: PubMed, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, and Web of Science. The original search returned 1802 results, with 1,116 from Web of Science, 626 from PubMed, 25 from Cochrane, and 35 from PsycINFO. After removing duplicates, 786 articles were chosen for the title and abstract screening processes. Finally, 112 full-text publications were deemed eligible, with 41 papers being included in this scoping review for analysis. A large proportion (32; 78.04%) of the studies chosen were cross-sectional, 14 (34.14%) of them reported general disability, 12 (29.26%) used a patient health questionnaire (PHQ-9) to measure depression, and 14 (34.14%) had interventions, including cognitive behavioral therapy, psychological counseling, social support, and physical activity. All interventions successfully reduced the severity of the depression. Cognitive behavioral therapies and psychological counseling were widely used interventions that had a significant impact on reducing depression. More randomized controlled trials are required, and they should focus on individuals with specific disabilities to provide disability-specific care that can improve the quality of life for disabled individuals.

From classroom to life: Gender differences in the persistent effect of learning disabilities on adult depressive symptoms

Despite the well-established link between adolescent learning disabilities (LD) and mental health, little is known about its long-term consequences. This study examines the relationship between adolescent LD and adult depressive symptoms, with a focus on gender differences and underlying mechanisms. Using a sibling sample from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 3,414), this study estimated sibling fixed effects models to account for unobserved family-level characteristics such as genes and early childhood family and social context. Sobel mediation analyses were conducted to examine social-psychological mechanisms, including the student-teacher relationship, the student-student relationship, and a sense of school belonging. LD in adolescence was positively associated with depressive symptoms in adulthood (b = 0.823, p < 0.05). This association remained robust when controlling for unobserved family-level confounders as well as educational attainment in adulthood. Gender-stratified models showed that only the association for women is statistically significant (b = 1.935, p < 0.05), and its magnitude is nearly three times that of the association for men. Sobel mediation tests indicate that a decline in a sense of school belonging mediates approximately 17% of the association between adolescent LD and adult depressive symptoms. This study's findings suggest that LD in adolescence is associated with an increase in depressive symptoms in adulthood, particularly in women, and a low sense of school belonging may be a potential mediator. Implementing interventions to improve the school integration of girls with LD could be an effective means of improving their long-term mental health.

Internalizing problems in individuals with reading, mathematics and unspecified learning difficulties: a systematic review and meta-analysis

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to examine if individuals with reading difficulties (RD), mathematics difficulties (MD), or unspecified learning difficulties (ULD) experience internalizing problems (i.e., anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, and social withdrawal) to the same extent, and if the effect sizes are influenced by moderators (age, internalizing problems type, anxiety type, rater type, selection criteria, and attention control). We reviewed 2,806 studies published in English between January 2000 and April 2023. Our final sample consisted of 96 studies that reported effect sizes or data to calculate them (a total of 120 unique samples, 83,260 participants, age range = 7.3 - 34.8 years). Risk of bias and sensitivity were assessed. A random-effects model analysis revealed a significant and moderate overall effect size (Hedge's g = -.54), indicating that individuals with RD, MD or ULD experience more internalizing problems than their chronological-age (CA) controls. Follow-up analyses showed that neither learning difficulties type nor age of participants were significant moderators, but selection criteria (diagnosis versus screening) and internalizing problems type were. These findings suggest that individuals with RD do not differ from those with MD or ULD in internalizing problems, and all fare poorly compared to CA controls.

Anxiety and Depression from Childhood to Young Adulthood: Trajectories and Risk Factors

This study aimed to (1) evaluate how population levels of anxiety and depression grow and correlate from middle childhood through early adulthood, and (2) determine whether sex, family socioeconomic status, parental education, academic achievement, learning disabilities, or externalizing symptoms predict anxiety and/or depression levels and growth trajectory. We used two longitudinal samples (N = 445, 448) of Portuguese children. Mean depression levels increased from mid-childhood through adolescence before stabilizing in early adulthood and were most strongly predicted by academic achievement and learning disabilities. Mean anxiety levels increased until adolescence before decreasing across early adulthood and were most strongly predicted by academic achievement, learning disabilities, and externalizing symptoms. Quadratic models of growth fit best for both depression and anxiety, and depression and anxiety growth trajectories were strongly correlated. Though anxiety and depression trajectories differ in pattern and predictors, the two are highly interrelated and pathways to comorbid anxiety and depression should be characterized.

A Register Study Suggesting Homotypic and Heterotypic Comorbidity Among Individuals With Learning Disabilities

The present study examined whether learning disabilities (LD) in reading and/or math (i.e., reading disability [RD], math disability [MD], and RD+MD) co-occur with other diagnoses. The data comprised a clinical sample (n = 430) with LD identified in childhood and a sample of matched controls (n = 2,140). Their medical diagnoses (according to the International Classification of Diseases nosology) until adulthood (20-39 years) were analyzed. The co-occurrence of LD with neurodevelopmental disorders was considered a homotypic comorbidity, and co-occurrence with disorders or diseases from the other diagnostic categories (i.e., mental and behavioral disorders, diseases of the nervous system, injuries, other medical or physical diagnoses) was considered a heterotypic comorbidity. Both homotypic and heterotypic comorbidity were more common in the LD group. Co-occurring neurodevelopmental disorders were the most prominent comorbid disorders, but mental and behavioral disorders, diseases of the nervous system, and injuries were also pronounced in the LD group. Accumulation of diagnoses across the diagnostic categories was more common in the LD group. No differences were found among the RD, MD, and RD+MD subgroups. The findings are relevant from the theoretical perspective, as well as for clinical and educational practice, as they provide understanding regarding individual distress and guiding for the planning of support.

Analysis of Psychological and Social Functioning in Undergraduate Students with a Specific Learning Disorder (SLD)

It is considered to be particularly interesting to enrich the scientific overview investigating the comorbidities of specific learning disorders (SLDs) in young adults. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the psychosocial and relational profiles associated with the presence of learning difficulties in a population of university students. The hypothesis is that young adults with SLDs have lower psychological and socio-relational functioning than their typical-development peers. We further hypothesized that the socio-relational difficulties of students with SLDs could be explained not only by referring to the presence of a learning disorder, but also by considering some variables that may follow the experience of students with SLDs. The results highlighted that students with SLDs, compared to their typical-development peers, have low self-efficacy, high academic anxiety scores, emotional problems, and issues with peers. We finally suggest considering these aspects as early as the diagnostic process to facilitate an effective treatment plan for learning disorders to prevent, in terms of developmental trajectory, the manifestation of these aspects in adulthood.

The comparison of sluggish cognitive tempo, processing speed, and executive functions in female children with specific learning disabilities and typically developing female children: A pilot study

This study investigated the association of sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT), processing speed, and executive function (EF) in children with specific learning disabilities (SLD), and the typically developing children (TD) (60 female students aged between 8 and 10). Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory-Parent Version (CABI), the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale-Children and Adolescents (BDEFS-CA), and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (the Processing Speed Index (PSI) were used to assess SCT, processing speed, and EF. The results showed that SCT problems were higher in children with SLD (p < 0.001). In addition, results showed that children with SLD had poorer performance on processing speed (p < 0.001) compared to the TD group. Executive dysfunctioning in self-management to time, self-organization, problem-solving, self-restraint, self-motivation, and self-regulation of emotions were poorer in children with SLD than TD group (p < 0.05). This study provides initial evidence that SCT symptoms are poor in female children with SLD, and associated with executive dysfunction and poor processing speed.

Learning Disabilities Elevate Children's Risk for Behavioral-Emotional Problems: Differences Between LD Types, Genders, and Contexts

Our purpose was to study the frequency of behavioral-emotional problems among children identified with a learning disability (LD). The data were obtained for 579 Finnish children (8-15 years) with reading disability (RD-only), math disability (MD-only), or both (RDMD) assessed at a specialized clinic between 1985 and 2017. We analyzed percentages of children with behavioral-emotional symptoms reaching clinical range (i.e., z score ≥1.5 SDs) and the effects of the LD type, gender, and context (home vs. school) on them. Furthermore, we analyzed the effect of the severity of LD and gender on the amount of behavioral-emotional symptoms reported by teachers and parents. Alarmingly high percentages of children, irrespective of LD type, demonstrated behavioral-emotional problems: more than 37% in Affective, Anxiety, and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) problems. Contextual variation was large, as more problems were reported by teachers than by mothers. The unique effects of gender and LD type were rare, but the results raised concern for those with MD-only, especially boys. The results underscore the need to draw attention to the importance of assessing children with LD for behavioral-emotional problems and emphasize the importance of teachers' awareness of behavioral-emotional problems among students with LD and cooperation among child, teacher, and parents in assessment and support planning.

Effect of Stanford Youth Diabetes Coaches' Program on Youth and Adults in Diverse Communities

The Stanford Youth Diabetes Coaches' Program (SYDCP) trains high school students to become diabetes coaches for friends and adult family members. The objective of this study was to assess effects of SYDCP participation on youth and adults from a rural and urban underserved high school community. We used a mixed-methods approach. Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) measures for Pediatric Sense of Meaning and Purpose were measured in high school students. PROMIS Adult Global Health and Self-Efficacy was measured in coached adults. Paired t tests compared pre- and postintervention and 6-month follow-up scores. Thematic analysis was used to analyze focus group discussion of adults. Twenty-five students participated, 15 students coached adults with diabetes or prediabetes. Students' sense of meaning and purpose significantly improved postintervention compared to preintervention. Diet and physical activity behaviors improved. Adolescent-adult relationships mediated participation benefits. Our study showed SYDCP improved adolescents' sense of meaning and purpose. In addition, youth and adult relatedness led to improved health behaviors. These findings have important implications, as a sense of purpose and youth-adult connectedness are associated with health behaviors and psychological well-being. Further larger studies of health education programs that engage related youth-adult dyads and assess long-term behaviors and health outcomes are needed.

Neuropsychological intervention of dyslexia has a positive effect on aspects of psychological well-being in young adults - a randomized controlled study

Effectiveness of individual- and group-based neuropsychological intervention on aspects of psychological well-being of dyslexic adults was evaluated. Dyslexic young adults (n = 120) were randomly assigned into individual intervention, group intervention or wait-list control group. Both interventions focussed on cognitive strategy learning, supporting self-esteem, and using psychoeducation. In group format peer support was also utilized. Cognitive and behavioural strategies, mood states, quality of life and self-esteem were assessed via self-report questionnaires at baseline, after the intervention/wait-list control time at 5 months and 10 months. Results indicated that the neuropsychological interventions had a positive effect on self-evaluated cognitive and behavioural strategies, especially in increasing success expectations and to a lesser degree in diminishing task-avoidance and in group intervention in diminishing social pessimism. The interventions also improved cognition-related quality of life and, to a lesser degree, self-esteem. These results indicate that structured neuropsychological interventions can positively affect self-evaluated psychological well-being, especially on cognitive and behavioural strategies. Considering the secondary consequences of dyslexia, support among young adults is often needed beyond the cognitive and reading-based challenges dyslexia poses.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and child behaviour problems in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Adverse childhood events (ACEs) are associated with negative health effects in adulthood. Despite knowledge of these later impacts, little is known about the earlier effect of ACEs on later child behaviour in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC).

METHODS

The population-based Asenze cohort study was implemented in a peri-rural area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, comprising five Zulu tribal areas. Two waves of data were examined: family information and ACEs exposure when children were on average 5 years old and child behaviour problems (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire [SDQ]) approximately 2 years later (average age 7 years). Logistic regression analysis was used to examine unadjusted and adjusted relationships between cumulative ACEs experienced and the SDQ total scores (dichotomized as top 10% vs. the rest) as well as selected SDQ subscales.

RESULTS

A significant relationship between increased ACE exposure and SDQ total score was observed. The same relationship was also seen for the SDQ emotional symptoms and conduct problem subscales, but not for hyperactivity. The results of a sensitivity analysis excluding intimate partner violence from the ACEs measure demonstrated similar results.

CONCLUSIONS

There is an association between exposure to ACEs and later child behaviour problems within this LMIC population demonstrating an early negative impact for ACEs. While previous research has focused on the effects of ACEs on adult health, this study provided evidence for an earlier relationship between ACEs and child behaviour problems that may be a part of the mechanism through which later health effects arise.

Mental health among students with neurodevelopment disorders: case of dyslexic children and adolescents

ABSTRACT Several research studies have been devoted to study the links between emotional disorders and learning disabilities. However, very minimal of this research has focused on dyslexic students. Objective: The objectives of this study were as follows: (1) to assess self-esteem, anxiety, and depression in dyslexic Arabic-speaking children and adolescents and (2) to describe psychiatric comorbidities in these subjects by comparing them to their non-dyslexic peers. Methods: In total, 205 students (56 dyslexics and 149 good readers), pursuing their education in ordinary schools in the Beni Mellal-Khenifra region of Morocco responded to Taylor’s Self-Assessment Scale of Anxiety, Beck’s Depression Questionnaire, and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI). Results: Overall, dyslexics were more anxious, more depressed, and had disturbed self-esteem compared to their non-dyslexic peers. The percentage of psychiatric comorbidity was higher in the dyslexic group. Conclusions: The results of this study highlight the need for a multidisciplinary approach that integrates emotional needs assessment into the rehabilitation care of dyslexic children and adolescents.

Training the attentional blink: subclinical depression decreases learning potential

The attentional blink (AB) reflects a temporal restriction of selective attention and is generally regarded as a very robust phenomenon. However, previous studies have found large individual differences in AB performance, and under some training conditions the AB can be reduced significantly. One factor that may account for individual differences in AB magnitude is the ability to accurately time attention. In the current study, we focus on the sensitivity for temporal information on the ability to control attention. Following a visual AB task, a time estimation task was presented in either the visual or auditory modality, followed by another visual AB task. It was found that the time estimation training in both the auditory and visual modality reduced AB magnitude. Although a reduction in AB magnitude was also observed when individuals were trained on a control task (either an auditory frequency or visual line length estimation task), the effect was significantly larger following the time estimation tasks. In addition, it was found that individuals who showed most improvement on the visual time estimation task, also showed the largest reduction in AB magnitude, which was not the case for individuals who were trained on the control tasks. Finally, a negative correlation was observed between depression scores (tested by Beck Depression Inventory-Short Form (BDI-SF) scores and the improvement in the AB and time estimation tasks. Our findings demonstrate clear links between timing ability and mechanisms to control attention and emotion.

Emotionally engaged or feeling anxious and cynical? School experiences and links to school achievement among Finland-Swedish general and special education students

The aim of the study was to enhance understanding of how seventh graders vary in emotional engagement and experienced well-being at school in terms of anxiety and cynicism. The two profiles were explored, and comparisons were made between students in general education and those in special education. The study participants comprised 119 Finland–Swedish students from five secondary schools. Four emotional-engagement and well-being profiles were identified based on cluster analysis. The students with the most typical profile were moderately engaged in teacher-student interaction and emotionally highly engaged in peer interaction, combined with a low risk of anxiety and cynicism. The profiles showed no statistically significant differences regarding gender and school achievement. However, there were differences between students in special education and those in general education. In Finland, Swedish –speaking Finns are a language minority group. Swedish has official language status in Finland. Compared to many other language minority groups they can be considered somewhat exceptional, since according to many welfare indicators they tend to do better than the general population. There are a few studies on differences between Swedish and Finnish– speaking students’ school experiences in Finland, however, so far studies exploring Swedish- speaking general and special education students’ emotional engagement and study well-being in terms of anxiety and cynicism have been scarce.

Comparing the Effects of Reading Intervention Versus Reading and Mindset Intervention for Upper Elementary Students With Reading Difficulties

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of providing mindset intervention in addition to reading intervention compared with only reading intervention for fourth graders with reading difficulties. Reading intervention was provided daily in 45 min sessions throughout the school year. Mindset intervention occurred in small groups for 24-30 min lessons. Multilevel structural equation modeling (SEM) via n-level SEM was used to account for the latent variable representation of constructs, and the complex nesting and cross-classification structure of the data. Students in the reading intervention plus mindset condition significantly outperformed the business as usual condition on nonword reading (d = 0.35) as did students in the reading intervention condition (d = 0.20), who also outperformed the business as usual condition on phonological processing (d = 0.28). There were no significant differences among students in the three conditions on nonword reading, word reading, phonological processing, reading comprehension, or growth mindset. Initial reading achievement, mindset, and problem behavior did not generally moderate these findings.

Evidence for the Technical Adequacy of the Risk Assessment and Distress Recovery: Examining Risks While Avoiding Profiling Youth With Mental Health Difficulties

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Risk Assessment and Distress Recovery (RADR) Scale—a new self-report psychological screening tool for high school students that explores risk factors related to mental health characteristics of students who have engaged in school violence. The sample consisted of 1093 high school students from all four regions of the United States. A four-factor model consisting of coping skills, depression, suicidal ideation, and narcissism demonstrated good fit. Results of confirmatory factor analysis and measurement invariance, as well as internal consistency estimates, provide initial evidence for reliability and validity of the RADR. Exploratory analyses between the RADR and characteristics of past school shooters are also presented. Students with disabilities self-reported significantly greater risks for mental health concerns across all four constructs, with small (.15) to large (.80) effect sizes.

The school-to-prison pipeline for probation youth with special education needs

Juvenile justice-involved youth with special education eligibility may have distinct needs from other justice-involved youth that place them at higher risk of re-offending. This study examines the extent to which the comorbidity of risk factors, such as school challenges and mental and emotional health problems, is related to recidivism among probation youth with a diagnosis eligible for special education. Data came from the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment provided to 4,317 youth adjudicated to probation for at least 3 months. We used independent sample t-tests and chi-square tests to assess the difference in mental health and school problems (e.g., suspension/expulsion history) between those with and without special education needs. Multiple regression models estimated the unique and cumulative role of special education status, mental health, and school problems in future recidivism. In the study sample, 39.6% (n = 1,708) of the youth had diagnoses eligible for special education; over 42% of these youth had two or more qualifying diagnoses. Controlling for demographics, mental health, and self-regulation skills, our findings suggest that probation youth with special education needs, compared to the rest of the probation youth, were more likely to recidivate. School exclusion increased the number of recidivisms significantly more for justice-involved youth with special education needs than those without special education needs. The findings of the study illuminate important factors for continued justice-involvement as well as insights into service and treatment planning for youth serving probation in the community, especially for those who are eligible for special education. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Behavior Problems and Depressive Symptoms in Developmental Dyslexia: Risk Assessment in Brazilian Students

Objective

To investigate if students with developmental dyslexia (DD) have more behavior problems and depressive symptoms than students without learning difficulties.

Method

Participants were 61 students, aged 7-14 years, including 31 with interdisciplinary DD diagnosis and 30 without learning disabilities. We collected data from parents, using the children’s behavior checklist (CBCL), and from students, using the children’s depression inventory (CDI).

Results

The DD group had higher CBCL averages for anxiety, depression, withdrawal, rule-breaking behaviors, aggressiveness, and social, attentional and thought problems. They also showed higher results for the internalizing and externalizing categories, others and total. In the CDI, DD students had higher averages for total score and for the following symptoms: negative self-evaluation, guilt, suicidal thoughts, feeling concern, performance comparison, sleeping difficulties, fatigue, and problems in interacting with peers at school.

Conclusions

We discuss the results in terms of implications for DD diagnosis and intervention. Parent reports indicate a higher frequency of behavior problems in students with DD diagnosis. Those students also demonstrate more symptoms of depression than students without learning difficulties.

Internalizing Symptoms in Developmental Dyslexia: A Comparison Between Primary and Secondary School

Although the relationship between developmental dyslexia (DD) and the risk of occurrence of internalizing symptomatology has been widely investigated in the extant literature, different findings have been reported. In this study, two experiments with two general purposes are presented. The first study investigates whether the differences in the severity of internalizing symptoms between DD and controls are greater in students attending secondary school than in those attending primary school. Sixty-five DD and 169 controls attending primary and secondary school took part in the first study. The diagnosis of dyslexia was obtained from standardized reading tests; internalizing symptom severity was assessed with the Self Administrated Psychiatric Scales for Children and Adolescents questionnaire. The results showed that adolescents with dyslexia had an increased level of self-perceived anxiety, depression and somatic symptoms, whereas no significant differences between DD and controls emerged in childhood. In the second study, a cohort of adolescents attending secondary school (DD = 44; controls = 51) was closely analyzed to clarify whether contextual and subjective factors could contribute toward exacerbating the risk of internalizing symptomatology at that age. Internalizing symptom severity was assessed with the Child Behavior Checklist, Youth Self Report questionnaire, decision-making factors were measured with the Melbourne Decision Making Questionnaire, and student’s quality of life was gaged using the Clipper test. The results showed that high levels of internalizing symptoms in DD were associated with a low level of self-esteem and the tendency to react to problematic situations with hyperactivation. By contrast, positive relationships with peers were associated with low symptom severity. In conclusion, the intensified internalizing symptoms that could emerge in adolescents in association with the presence of dyslexia are predicted by social protective and risk factors that are associated with symptom severity. Accordingly, the results suggest that remediation programs for dyslexia should include implementing motivation strategies, self-esteem enhancement activities and building peers networks that, starting in childhood, can prevent the appearance of internalizing symptoms.

Manual-Based Personalized Intervention for Mothers of Children With SLD/ADHD: Effects on Maternal and Family Resources and Children's Internalizing/Externalizing Behaviors

Objective: This study explored manual-based personalized intervention for mothers of children with SLD and/or ADHD, as possibly contributing to (a) mothers' parenting-related emotional/coping resources, (b) family functioning, and (c) child adjustment, compared with a control group of mothers. Method: Participants were 73 mothers of a child formally diagnosed with SLD and/or ADHD ages 7-17. Mothers were assigned to an experimental (n=40) or control (n=33) group. Short-term intervention utilized a three-stage emotion-cognition-behavior model. Pre-post assessments included maternal affective resources (positive/negative affect, parenting stress), maternal coping resources (general coping strategies, coping specifically with diagnosed child's negative emotions), family cohesion/adaptability, and diagnosed child's externalizing/internalizing syndromes. Results: Significant interactions emerged between group (experimental/control) and time (pre/post) for most study variables. Conclusion: Findings clearly revealed the intervention's significant impact. Only the trained mothers demonstrated significant gains over time for most of the maternal, family, and child indices, whereas the untrained mothers did not.

Impact of mentoring on socio-emotional and mental health outcomes of youth with learning disabilities and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

BACKGROUND

Learning disabilities (LD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are often accompanied by significant socio-emotional impairments and mental health challenges. However, there is a lack of controlled, quantitative research on potential interventions to address this issue. The current study evaluated the impact of a near-peer mentoring program for youth with LD/ADHD designed to promote socio-emotional well-being.

METHODS

Youth with LD/ADHD who participated in the mentoring program (Mentored; n=99) were compared to non-mentored youth with LD/ADHD (Control-NM; n=51) and typically-developing youth without LD/ADHD (Control-TD; n=81) pre-mentoring in the fall, and post-mentoring in the spring. Participants were assessed on self-report measures of anxiety, depression, interpersonal relations, and self-esteem.

RESULTS

Youth with LD/ADHD showed significantly higher scores of depression and significantly lower scores of interpersonal relations compared to the Control-TD group at fall baseline. The depression and self-esteem scores of the Mentored group significantly decreased and increased respectively after mentoring. These changes were associated with mentee-perceived mentorship quality. The Control-NM group showed significant decreases in both self-esteem and interpersonal relations, as well as increases in depression over time, while the Control-TD group remained stable across all measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that mentoring shows promise as a potential intervention for youth with LD/ADHD and co-occurring socio-emotional and mental health difficulties. The study is the first, to our knowledge, to quantify the effect of a near-peer mentoring program on youth with LD/ADHD in a design with two control groups. Implications for research and practice involving LD, ADHD, and mental health disorders are discussed.

Behavioral and brain evidence for language by ear, mouth, eye, and hand and motor skills in literacy learning

Two studies were conducted of students with and without persisting Specific Learning Disabilities (SLDs-WL) in Grades 4 to 9 (M = 11 years, 11 months) that supported the hypotheses that CELF 4 parent ratings for listening (language by ear), speaking (language by mouth), reading (language by eye), and writing (language by hand) were correlated with both (a) normed, standardized behavioral measures of listening, speaking, reading, and writing achievement (Study 1, 94 boys and 61 girls); and (b) fMRI connectivity or DTI white matter integrity involving brain regions for primary motor functions or motor planning and control, or motor timing in a subsample of right handers who did not wear metal (Study 2, 28 boys and 16 girls). Results of these assessment studies, which have implications for planning instruction for three SLDs-WL (dysgraphia, dyslexia, and oral and written language learning disability [OWL LD]), show that more than multisensory instruction is relevant. Language by ear, by mouth, by eye, and by hand, as well as motor planning, control, and output skills and motor timing should also be considered. Research is also reviewed that supports other processes beyond multisensory input alone that should also be considered for students with SLDs-WL.

Associations Between Childhood Learning Disabilities and Adult-Age Mental Health Problems, Lack of Education, and Unemployment

We studied the impact of diverse subtypes of learning disabilities (LD) on adult-age mental health, education, and employment by comparing the LD group ( n = 430) with a matched control group without a known history of LD ( n = 2,149). The clinical archived data were merged with lifelong register data on sickness allowances/disability pensions granted on the basis of psychiatric illnesses, reimbursements for psychoactive medication, having a degree after compulsory education, and having received unemployment allowances. Differences emerged between the LD and control groups in all outcomes, suggesting that a higher proportion of individuals with LD had mental health problems compared to the control group, and a notable share of them had not attained a degree after compulsory education and had been unemployed for an extended period. Subgroup comparisons indicated that math disability (MD) was associated with antidepressant use and unemployment, whereas the reading disability (RD) group showed the least problems with employment. Interactions between subgroup and gender suggested that MD (with/without RD) may pose a higher risk than RD for females, whereas RD seemed to pose a risk for males. The findings suggest the need for researchers, clinicians, and those involved with adult education to consider mental health and educational problems among individuals with LD.

Sexual Abuse of Children With Learning Disabilities

Although children with a learning disability (LD) are at an increased risk of sexual abuse, it is unclear whether conditions specific to their impairment are associated with sexual assault or if risk derives from other comorbid conditions such as behavioral problems, social skill deficits, or loneliness. Using a national probability study of child maltreatment investigations in the United States ( n = 2,033), we hypothesized that children over the age of 4 with a LD are target congruent to a sexual perpetrator. Seven percent of children were identified as having a LD, and the odds of a sexual abuse allegation was 2.5 times greater for children with a LD relative to children without a LD regardless of confounders. Further, type and severity of assaults varied by group: over 3 times more children with a LD experienced digital or oral copulation compared to those without a LD. Results suggest that children with LDs may require tailored prevention efforts to protect them from sexual abuse.

Perceived Close Relationships With Parents, Teachers, and Peers: Predictors of Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Features in Adolescents With LD or Comorbid LD and ADHD

This study examined the role of adolescents' perceived close relationships with significant others (attachment relationships with mothers/fathers, appraisal of homeroom teacher as secure base, and quality of peer friendship) in explaining differences in their socioemotional and behavioral functioning (peer-network/peer-dyadic loneliness, positive/negative affect, and externalizing/internalizing problems), among adolescents with learning disabilities (LD), with comorbid LD and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or with typical development (TD). Participants were 280 adolescents in Grades 10 through 11 in three groups: LD (n = 90), comorbid LD and ADHD (n = 91), and TD (n = 98). Preliminary analyses yielded significant group differences on most socioemotional and behavioral measures. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis indicated high fit between the theoretical model and empirical findings and partially different patterns of relationships among the model's components for the three populations. The discussion focuses on the possible unique value of close relationships with each significant attachment figure for adolescents with LD, comorbid LD-ADHD, and TD.

Risk factors for comorbid psychopathology in youth with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures

PURPOSE

To examine the risk factors for internalizing (anxiety, depression) and posttraumatic stress (PTSD) disorders, somatization, and anxiety sensitivity (AS) in youth with psychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES).

METHODS

55 probands with PNES and 35 siblings, aged 8-18 years, underwent a psychiatric interview, cognitive and language testing, and completed somatization and AS questionnaires. Parents provided the subjects' medical, psychiatric, family, and adversity history information.

RESULTS

The risk factors for the probands' internalizing disorders (girls, older age of PNES onset), somatization (older age, epilepsy), and anxiety sensitivity (girls, adversities) differed from their siblings. The risk factors in the siblings, however, were similar to the general pediatric population. Proband depression was unrelated to the study's risk variables while PTSD was significantly associated with female gender and lower Full Scale IQ.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowledge about the specificity of the risk factors for comorbid psychopathology in youth with PNES might facilitate their early identification and treatment.

Anxiety and Depression in Children With Nonverbal Learning Disabilities, Reading Disabilities, or Typical Development

The main goal of the present study was to shed further light on the psychological characteristics of children with different learning disability profiles aged between 8 and 11 years, attending from third to sixth grade. Specifically, children with nonverbal learning disabilities (NLD), reading disabilities (RD), or a typical development (TD) were tested. In all, 15 children with NLD, 15 with RD, and 15 with TD were administered self-report questionnaires to assess different types of anxiety and depression symptoms. Both NLD and RD children reported experiencing more generalized and social anxiety than TD, the NLD children reported more severe anxiety about school and separation than TD, and the children with RD had worse depressive symptoms than those with NLD or TD.

Internalizing Problems in Children and Adolescents With Math Disability

Research has shown that learning disabilities are associated with internalizing problems in (pre)adolescents. In order to examine this relationship for math disability (MD), math achievement and internalizing problem scores were measured in a representative group of 1,436 (pre)adolescents. MD was defined by a discrepancy between math achievement and IQ. Internalizing problems were measured through a multi-informant (parents, teachers, self-report) approach. The results revealed that MD puts (pre)adolescents at a higher risk for internalizing problems. External and self-ratings differed between boys and girls, indicating that either they show distinct internalizing symptoms or they are being perceived differently by parents and teachers. Results emphasize the importance of both a multi-informant approach and the consideration of gender differences when measuring internalizing symptomatology of children with MD. For an optimal treatment of MD, depressive and anxious symptoms need to be considered.

Specific learning difficulties: a retrospective study of their co morbidity and continuity as early indicators of mental disorders

BACKGROUND

Specific Learning difficulties constitute a continuity of complex disorders, which unfold across the lifespan and are associated with a wide range of mental disorders. In order to determine the importance of specific learning difficulties as an underlying factor in various mental disorders, we investigated associations between mental disorders and factors related to learning difficulties, poor family and school environment, and social and psycho-emotional disorders.

METHODS

This retrospective study is based on data from 835 case histories of adults who were treated at the Psychiatric Clinic of the University Hospital in Ioannina, Greece, between 1992 and 2008. The examination of the early (co-)occurrence of specific disorders was based on the ICD-10 classification of mental disorders. LogLinear analysis showed that all models retained 2nd or 3rd order effects with p-values >0.8 for all estimated likelihood ratios.

RESULTS

Patients with specific learning difficulties, who grew up in a socially disturbed environment, and manifested behavioral problems (aggression, alcoholism, and isolation or running away from home) were found to be more frequently diagnosed with schizophrenia than with any other mental disorder. In some cases, the profiles of these patients also included family problems such as parental loss or alcoholism.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant association between learning and other disorders in adult psychiatric patients' developmental profile has been indicated. Furthermore, a specific association between specific learning difficulties, environmental problems, and schizophrenia corroborates the continuity and complexity of these disorders at higher developmental stages. The results from this study can be utilized in the study of mental disorder etiology, raising the possibility that the early treatment of the learning or other disorders could reduce children's likelihood of developing mental disorders in adulthood.

Mathematics achievement and anxiety and their relation to internalizing and externalizing behaviors

Although behavioral difficulties are well documented in reading disabilities, little is known about the relationship between math ability and internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Here, we use standardized measures to investigate the relation among early math ability, math anxiety, and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in a group of 366 second and third graders. Math achievement was significantly correlated with attentional difficulties and social problems but not with internalizing symptoms. The relation between math achievement and externalizing behavioral problems was stronger in girls than in boys. Math achievement was not correlated with trait anxiety but was negatively correlated with math anxiety. Critically, math anxiety differed significantly between children classified as math learning disabled (MLD), low achieving (LA), and typically developing (TD), with math anxiety significantly higher in the MLD and LA groups compared to the TD group. Our findings suggest that, even in nonclinical samples, math difficulties at the earliest stages of formal math learning are associated with attentional difficulties and domain-specific anxiety. These findings underscore the need for further examination of the shared cognitive, neural, and genetic influences underlying problem solving and nonverbal learning difficulties and accompanying internalizing and externalizing behaviors.

Gender differences in the relationship between school problems, school class context and psychological distress: results from the Young-HUNT 3 study

PURPOSE

Few studies have examined the relationship between shared school classroom environment and psychological distress. The aim of this study is to investigate whether there are gender differences in the clustering of psychological distress within school classes as well as to assess individual and contextual effects of school problems.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the Young-HUNT 3 study (2006-2008), a population study of adolescents attending school in the Norwegian county of Nord-Trøndelag. A total of 6,379 pupils were analysed using multilevel models.

RESULTS

The results suggest that the amount of variation in psychological distress attributable to school class context was higher among girls (4.5%) compared to boys (1.0%). Furthermore, individual school problems were associated with psychological distress for both genders, although the effects were greater for girls. The effects of school class variables were limited for both genders, although gender composition was associated with higher levels of psychological distress among girls.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that researchers should account for possible gender differences when examining the association between classroom environment and psychological distress.

Internalizing problems of adults with learning disabilities: a meta-analysis

In this article the authors report a meta-analysis that examines the association between internalizing problems (anxiety and depressive symptoms) and learning disabilities (LD) in adults. Two hypotheses about the relationship between internalizing problems and LD in adults are posited and tested: the abeyance hypothesis (internalizing problems decline in adulthood) and the continuance hypothesis (internalizing problems continue in adulthood). From an initial pool of 171 relevant studies, 15 studies met the inclusion criteria, with eight published articles and seven dissertations yielding 48 effect sizes, N Total = 16,239). The overall effect size was significant and of medium magnitude (d = 0.51, p < .001). Results from the study suggest support for the continuance hypothesis, with rates of adult internalizing problems similar to those found in studies of children and adolescents with LD. Moderating variables are explored, and implications for practice and research are offered.

Special education and later academic achievement

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether grade at entry to special education is associated with improved reading achievement in children with reading disorders (RD) and whether the effect of grade at entry to special education differs by socioeconomic status (SES).

METHODS

The authors conducted a secondary data analysis using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), a nationally representative cohort of children followed longitudinally from kindergarten through eighth grade (1998-2007). Using data from the fifth grade wave of ECLS-K, the authors identified children with RD (n = 290). The outcome of interest was change in score on the reading achievement test, which was developed by ECLS-K staff, between first and fifth grade. Using multiple linear regression, the authors modeled outcome as a function of a child's grade at entry to special education, controlling for several covariates.

RESULTS

Early entry to special education (by first grade vs second or third grade) was associated with larger gains in reading achievement between first and fifth grade (p < .0001). Children who entered special education by first grade versus second grade gained 4.5 more points on the reading achievement test (p < .0001). Children who entered special education by first grade versus third grade gained 1.7 more points on the reading achievement test (p < .0001). There was no difference in the magnitude of gains associated with early entry to special education between children from families of low and higher SES.

CONCLUSION

For children with RD, early entry to special education is associated with improved reading achievement during elementary school.

Veränderungen psychischer Belastung durch die Förderung von rechenschwachen Kindern und Jugendlichen

Fragestellung: Die vorliegende Studie untersuchte die Effekte der Förderung rechenschwacher Kinder mit der Wasserglasmethode im Vergleich zu konventioneller Nachhilfe. Methodik: In einem Prä-Post-Kontrollgruppendesign wurden N = 46 Kinder im Alter von 7 bis 12 Jahren und deren Eltern hinsichtlich Prüfungsangst, Schulunlust, Manifester Angst, Aufmerksamkeitsproblemen sowie internaler und externaler Auffälligkeiten befragt. Ergebnisse: Es zeigte sich, dass Kinder, die mit der Wasserglasmethode behandelt wurden, eine stärkere Reduktion von Prüfungsangst, Schulunlust und Aufmerksamkeitsproblemen, tendenziell auch im CBCL-Gesamtwert zeigten. Diese Veränderungen waren durch die Verbesserung der mathematischen Leistung mediiert. Darüber hinaus ließ sich feststellen, dass überzufällig viele Kinder zu Beginn der Intervention im internalen Störungsspektrum klinisch relevante Störungen aufwiesen. Schlussfolgerungen: Eine dyskalkuliespezifische Intervention bei Rechenschwäche wirkt sich positiv auf das psychische Funktionsniveau der Kinder aus. Weitere Studien sind notwendig, um die Wirkmechanismen und den Einfluss auf die mathematische Leistungsfähigkeit zu überprüfen.

Latent class analysis of reading, decoding, and writing performance using the Academic Performance Test: concurrent and discriminating validity

AIM

To explore and validate the best returned latent class solution for reading and writing subtests from the Academic Performance Test (TDE).

SAMPLE

A total of 1,945 children (6-14 years of age), who answered the TDE, the Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA), and had an estimated intelligence quotient (IQ) higher than 70, came from public schools in São Paulo (35 schools) and Porto Alegre (22 schools) that participated in the 'High Risk Cohort Study for Childhood Psychiatric Disorders' project. They were on average 9.52 years old (standard deviation = 1.856), from the 1st to 9th grades, and 53.3% male. The mean estimated IQ was 102.70 (standard deviation = 16.44).

METHODS

Via Item Response Theory (IRT), the highest discriminating items ('a'>1.7) were selected from the TDE subtests of reading and writing. A latent class analysis was run based on these subtests. The statistically and empirically best latent class solutions were validated through concurrent (IQ and combined attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] diagnoses) and discriminant (major depression diagnoses) measures.

RESULTS

A three-class solution was found to be the best model solution, revealing classes of children with good, not-so-good, or poor performance on TDE reading and writing tasks. The three-class solution has been shown to be correlated with estimated IQ and to ADHD diagnosis. No association was observed between the latent class and major depression.

CONCLUSION

The three-class solution showed both concurrent and discriminant validity. This work provides initial evidence of validity for an empirically derived categorical classification of reading, decoding, and writing performance using the TDE. A valid classification encourages further research investing correlates of reading and writing performance using the TDE.

Psychische Auffälligkeiten bei Umschriebenen Entwicklungsstörungen: Gibt es Unterschiede zwischen Lese-Rechtschreib- und Rechenstörungen?

Diese Studie zielte auf die Untersuchung psychischer Begleitsymptome bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit Umschriebenen Entwicklungsstörungen (UES) schulischer Fertigkeiten ab. Ausgehend von einer großen, nicht-klinischen Stichprobe von 6- bis 16-Jährigen wurden Schüler mit Lese-Rechtschreibstörungen (n = 136), mit Rechenstörungen (n = 39) und eine Kontrollgruppe ohne Leistungsprobleme (n = 1798) verglichen. Zur Erfassung psychopathologischer Symptome wurden die Eltern befragt sowie die Schüler selbst um eine Einschätzung ihrer Lebensqualität, ihres Selbstwertgefühls und ihrer emotionalen und sozialen Schulerfahrungen gebeten. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass Eltern bei Kindern mit Lese-Rechtschreibstörungen und jenen mit Rechenstörungen mehr psychisch auffällige Symptome angeben. Insbesondere hyperkinetische Symptome sind häufiger als in der Kontrollgruppe. Eine Differenzierung der Leitsymptome der Hyperkinetischen Störung in beeinträchtigte Aufmerksamkeit, motorische Überaktivität und Impulsivität unterstreicht, dass insbesondere Aufmerksamkeitsprobleme unabhängig vom Geschlecht mit beiden Störungsbildern verknüpft sind. Anders als erwartet werden keine erhöhten Verhaltens- oder emotionalen Probleme bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit UES berichtet. Zudem gab es keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen den Störungsgruppen, mit Ausnahme eines tendenziellen Effekts bei somatischen Symptomen. Demnach scheinen LRS und Rechenstörung nicht mit unterschiedlichen Profilen psychischer Komorbidität einherzugehen. Kinder und Jugendliche mit UES gaben, unabhängig vom Störungstyp, im Bereich der Schule erwartungsgemäß höhere Problemwerte an. Des Weiteren gehen Rechenstörungen mit höheren Problemwerten in der Gesamteinschätzung der Lebensqualität einher. Während das Selbstwertgefühl insgesamt sowie die generelle Einstellung zur Schule nicht geringer ausgeprägt sind, lässt sich unabhängig vom Störungsbereich eine geringe Anstrengungsbereitschaft bei Kindern mit UES aufdecken. Diese Ergebnisse unterstreichen die Bedeutung psychosozialer Komponenten, die in Diagnostik und Förderung der UES schulischer Fertigkeiten Berücksichtigung finden sollten.

Methodology and reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies in psychiatric epidemiology: systematic review

BACKGROUND

Relatively little is known of the use of systematic review and synthesis methods of non-randomised psychiatric epidemiological studies, which play a vital role in aetiological research, planning and policy-making.

AIMS

To evaluate reviews of psychiatric epidemiological studies of functional mental disorders that employed synthesis methods such as systematic review or meta-analysis, or other forms of quantitative review.

METHOD

We searched the literature to identify appropriate reviews published during the period 1996 to April 2009. Selected reviews were evaluated using published review guidelines.

RESULTS

We found 106 reviews in total, of which 38 (36%) did not mention method of data abstraction from primary studies at all. Many failed to mention study quality, publication bias, bias and confounding. In 73 studies that performed a meta-analysis, 58 (79%) tested for heterogeneity and of these, 47 found significant heterogeneity. Studies that detected heterogeneity made some allowance for this. A major obstacle facing reviewers is the wide variation between primary studies in the use of instruments to measure outcomes and in sampling methods used.

CONCLUSIONS

Many deficiencies found in systematic reviews are potentially remediable, although synthesis of primary study findings in a field characterised by so many sources of heterogeneity will remain challenging.

Depression and anxiety among transitioning adolescents and college students with ADHD, dyslexia, or comorbid ADHD/dyslexia

OBJECTIVE

To investigate depressive and anxious symptomatology among transitioning adolescents and college students with ADHD, dyslexia, or comorbid ADHD/dyslexia.

METHOD

Transitioning adolescents and college students with these disorders along with a non-ADHD/dyslexia college sample completed self-report measures of depression and anxiety.

RESULTS

Results indicated no differences between the college-level groups, although a main effect for gender was found and trended toward females with dyslexia reporting more symptoms of depression and anxiety than did males with dyslexia. Internalizing symptomatology differences were not found for subtypes of ADHD. Transitioning high school students with ADHD, dyslexia, or ADHD/dyslexia reported fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression than did college underclassmen with these disorders.

CONCLUSION

The unique characteristics and experiences of the college population of individuals with ADHD and/or dyslexia are discussed relative to the general adult population with these disorders.

Anxiety, Depression, and Coping Skills Among Mexican School Children: A Comparison of Students With and Without Learning Disabilities

The purpose of this study was to compare severity and risk status for anxiety and depression with coping skills among 130 Mexican school children with learning disabilities (LD) and 130 school children without LD. This research is the first to explore the emotional difficulties of Mexican children with LD. Children completed the Spanish version of the Spence Children's Anxiety Scale and Children's Depression Inventory, and the Cuestionario de Afrontamiento (Coping Skills Questionnaire). Results indicated that a higher percentage of children with LD were at risk for anxiety (22.3% vs. 11.5%) and depression (32% vs. 18%). No statistically significant differences were found for coping skills. Results support the idea that there is an increased awareness of comorbid depression and anxiety among students with LD and a need to promote early identification and intervention in schools. Efforts should focus on better understanding the relationship between social-emotional difficulties and academic achievement and on developing effective interventions to support children with LD.

Changes in emotional health symptoms in adolescents with specific language impairment

BACKGROUND

Adolescents and young adults with specific language impairment (SLI) are at risk of experiencing emotional health symptoms, in particular depression and anxiety disorder. However, there is a dearth of research examining issues of stability versus change in symptomatology across time.

AIMS

To examine depressive and anxiety symptoms reported by adolescents with and without a history of SLI at 16 years, and a year later.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Depressive and anxiety symptoms were examined in 90 adolescents with SLI and in 91 adolescents with typical development (TD) initially at 16 years and again at 17 years.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

Participants with SLI experienced significantly more depressive and anxiety symptoms than participants with TD at 16 years, and continued to experience significantly more anxiety symptoms at 17 years. Females, regardless of language status (SLI versus TD), were more vulnerable than males. The group with SLI evidenced a significant drop in depressive symptoms over the year. A similar change in anxiety symptoms was not apparent. Regression analyses revealed that for individuals with SLI peer problems at 16 years predicted concurrent depressive symptoms, but behavioural factors did not contribute significantly to depressive symptoms at 17 years. For individuals with typical development, hyperactivity at 16 years predicted depressive symptoms at both 16 and 17 years. Language ability and non-verbal IQ did not predict depressive symptoms. Adolescents who experienced more bullying at 16 years were more likely to become, or remain, at risk for depression at 17 years.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

Anxiety symptoms appear to be a consistent feature of some individuals with SLI in young adulthood whilst depressive symptoms can diminish.