Exploring Indigenous Identities of Urban American Indian Youth of the Southwest

Voices of Identity: Exploring Identity Development and Transformation among Urban American Indian/Alaska Native Emerging Adults

Emerging adulthood shapes personal, professional, and overall well-being through identity exploration. This study addresses a gap in the minority identity literature by investigating how urban AI/AN emerging adults think about their identity and discussing challenges and protective factors associated with exploring their identity holistically. This mixed-methods study created a sampling framework based on discrimination experiences, cultural identity, social network support, mental health, and problematic substance use. We recruited 20 urban AI/AN emerging adults for interviews. We sought to gain deeper insights into their experiences and discussions surrounding identity formation and exploration. We provide descriptives for demographic characteristics and conducted a thematic analysis of the qualitative data from the interviews. Four themes emerged: a) being an urban AI/AN emerging adult means recognizing that one's identity is multifaceted; b) a multifaceted identity comes with tension of living in multiple worlds; c) the trajectory of one's identity grows over time to a deeper desire to connect with Native American culture; and d) understanding one's Native American background affects one's professional trajectory. Findings underscore the importance of developing programs to support well-being and identity development through cultural connection for urban AI/AN emerging adults.

Risk and protective factors of social networks on alcohol, cannabis, and opioid use among urban American Indian/Alaska Native emerging adults

OBJECTIVES

Assess associations between social networks and urban American Indian/Alaska Native emerging adults' alcohol, cannabis, and opioid use and intentions.

METHOD

American Indian/Alaska Native participants ages 18-25 (N = 150; 86% female) were recruited across the United States from 12/20 to 10/21 via social media. Participants named up to 15 people whom they talked with most over the past 3 months and reported who (a) used alcohol and cannabis heavily or used other drugs (e.g., opioid use), (b) engaged in traditional practices, and (c) provided support. They also reported past 3-month alcohol, cannabis, and opioid use and intentions to use.

RESULTS

Having a higher proportion of network members engaging in regular cannabis and heavy alcohol use (but not other drugs) was associated with more frequent cannabis use and stronger cannabis use intentions. Participants with higher proportions of members engaging in heavy alcohol use, regular cannabis use, or other drug use and who did not engage in traditional practices were more likely to report cannabis use and greater intentions to use cannabis and drink alcohol. In contrast, participants with higher proportions of network members engaging in traditional practices and who did not report heavy alcohol use, regular cannabis use, or other drug use were less likely to report intentions to use cannabis or drink alcohol.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings emphasize what many studies have shown among various racial/ethnic groups-having network members who use substances increases the chance of use. Findings also highlight that traditional practices may be an important part of the prevention approach for this population. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Language Contact, Language Ecology, and Intonational Variation in the Yami Community

This study investigates socioprosodic variation in Yami, a moribund indigenous language under intense contact with Mandarin in Taiwan: 32 bilingual (Yami-dominant, balanced, Mandarin-dominant) and 5 Yami-monolingual participants were recruited. We used an Interactive Card Game to elicit semi-spontaneous speech for neutral questions (NQ), default declarative questions (DQ1), and declarative questions with lighter incredulity (DQ2). Results reveal that (1) yes/no question intonation in Yami is highly variable; (2) on a broad community level, the DQ1-DQ2 distinction is absent from Yami; and (3) there is prosodic hybridization and innovation in bilingual speech. In particular, we see significant differences in DQ1 and NQ productions, with DQ1s having a rising nuclear configuration, higher pitch level, and wider pitch span, while NQs are realized with a mid-level pattern, lower pitch level, and narrower pitch span. DQ2 utterances exhibited highly varied nuclear configuration patterns with no significant differences in either pitch level or pitch span in DQ1-DQ2 comparisons. Yet, there is evidence that a hybridized DQ2 has begun to be integrated into Yami among younger bilinguals, suggesting that present-day Yami is in flux and is undergoing restructuring.These intonational variations are not easily attributable to a weakened Yami identity. Rather, younger bilinguals, who are leading the change, are highly dedicated to cultural practices and show strong rootedness in their Indigenous identity. Seemingly, while these less fluent speakers no longer use Yami to fulfill their everyday communicative needs, they are leaning more on its socio-indexical functions to reflect their ethnocultural identity.

Sociolectal and Dialectal Variation in Prosody

As in many linguistics subfields, studies of prosody have mainly focused on majority languages and dialects and on speakers who hold power in social structures. The goal of this Special Issue is to diversify prosody research in terms of the languages and dialects being investigated, as well as the social structures that influence prosodic variation. The Special Issue brings together prosody researchers and researchers exploring sociological variation in prosody, with a focus on the prosody of marginalized dialects and on prosodic differences based on gender, sexuality, race, and ethnicity. The papers in this volume don't just advance our understanding of critical issues in sociolinguistics, but they also challenge some of the received wisdom in the exploration of sociolinguistic influences on prosody. Not only does this collection highlight the value of this work to informing theories of prosodic variation and change, but the collected papers also provide examples of methodological innovations in the field that will be valuable for all prosody researchers.

Feasibility and acceptability of incorporating social network visualizations into a culturally centered motivational network intervention to prevent substance use among urban Native American emerging adults: a qualitative study

Background

Coupling social network visualizations with Motivational Interviewing in substance use interventions has been shown to be acceptable and feasible in several pilot tests, and has been associated with changes in participants’ substance use and social networks. The objective of this study was to assess acceptability and feasibility of an adaptation of this behavior change approach into a culturally centered behavior change intervention for American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) emerging adults living in urban areas. AI/AN populations experience high rates of health disparities and substance use. Although 70% of AI/AN people live outside of tribal lands, there are few culturally tailored health interventions for these AI/AN populations. Social networks can both increase and discourage substance use. Leveraging healthy social networks and increasing protective factors among urban AI/AN emerging adults may help increase resilience.

Methods

We conducted thirteen focus groups with 91 male and female participants (32 urban AI/AN emerging adults ages 18–25, 26 parents, and 33 providers) and one pilot test of the three workshop sessions with 15 AI/AN emerging adults. Focus group participants provided feedback on a proposed workshop-based intervention curriculum that combined group Motivational Interviewing (MI) and social network visualizations. Pilot workshop participants viewed their own social networks during group MI sessions focused on substance use and traditional practices and discussed their reactions to viewing and discussing their networks during these sessions. We used a combination of open coding of focus group and workshop session transcripts to identify themes across the group sessions and content analysis of comments entered into an online social network interview platform to assess the extent that participants had an intuitive understanding of the information conveyed through network diagrams.

Results

Focus group and pilot test participants reacted positively to the intervention content and approach and provided constructive feedback on components that should be changed. Themes that emerged included feasibility, acceptability, relevance, understandability, and usefulness of viewing personal network visualizations and discussing social networks during group MI workshops. Workshop participants demonstrated an intuitive understanding of network concepts (network composition and structure) when viewing their diagrams for the first time.

Conclusions

Social network visualizations are a promising tool for increasing awareness of social challenges and sources of resilience for urban AI/AN emerging adults. Coupled with Motivational Interviewing in a group context, social network visualizations may enhance discussions of network influences on substance use and engagement in traditional practices.

Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04617938. Registered October 26, 2020

Cultural Dynamics, Substance Use, and Resilience Among American Indian/Alaska Native Emerging Adults in Urban Areas

Identity development during emerging adulthood helps lay down the structure of values, social bonds, and decision-making patterns that help determine adult outcomes, including patterns of substance use. Managing cultural identity may pose unique challenges for American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) emerging adults in "urban" areas (away from tribal lands or reservations), who are relatively isolated from social and cultural connections. This isolation is in turn a product of cultural genocide and oppression, both historically and in the present day. This paper uses qualitative data from 13 focus groups with urban AI/AN emerging adults, parents, and providers to explore how cultural dynamics are related to substance use outcomes for urban AI/AN emerging adults. We found that cultural isolation as well as ongoing discrimination presents challenges to negotiating cultural identity, and that the AI/AN social and cultural context sometimes presented risk exposures and pathways for substance use. However, we also found that culture provided a source of strength and resilience for urban AI/AN emerging adults, and that specific cultural values and traditions - such as mindfulness, connection to nature, and a deep historical and cosmological perspective - offer "binding pathways" for positive behavioral health. We conclude with two suggestions for substance use prevention and intervention for this population: (1) incorporate these "binding pathways" for health and resilience explicitly into intervention materials; (2) emphasize and celebrate emerging adulthood itself as a sacred cultural transition.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42844-022-00058-w.

Mental health, family functioning, and sleep in cultural context among American Indian/Alaska Native urban youth: A mixed methods analysis

Mental health problems contribute significantly to the global burden of disease. Driven in part by family stressors and insufficient sleep, mental health disproportionately affects low SES urban adolescents. In the United States, American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) youth exhibit excessively high rates of mental health problems. Family functioning is strongly associated with adolescent mental health, and sleep problems may serve as a pathway between family functioning and mental health. Using mixed methods we examine the associations among family functioning, subjective- and actigraphy-measured sleep, mental health (depressive and anxiety symptoms), and cultural identity in a sample of urban AI/AN youth. All participants (N = 142) completed surveys; a random subsample (n = 26) completed qualitative interviews to assess family and cultural dynamics related to sleep, which informed hypothesized direct and indirect effects that were tested using survey data. Narratives identified mechanisms of family cohesion (e.g., daily interactions that build perceived family togetherness and family-centered traditional activities) and the role that family cohesion plays in sleep (e.g., ensuring stability of sleep environments). Path analysis showed direct effects of improved family functioning on fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms, and indirect effects through lower self-reported sleep disturbance (but not through greater actigraphy-measured sleep duration or efficiency). Cultural identity did not moderate effects in quantitative tests. Our findings illustrate the complex associations among family functioning, sleep, and mental health in AI/AN youth. Family-based interventions to improve adolescent mental health should address modifiable intervention targets such as sleep, and address sources of both risk and resilience relevant to urban AI/AN families, including extended family and cultural practices.

The Creators' Game: A Conduit for Youth Development, Community Engagement, and American Indian Cultural Connections

The Nebraska Panhandle Creators' Game event (CG) was a grassroots-driven community engagement project for the Nebraska Panhandle region, a largely rural region with a vibrant American Indian (AI) population. The CG event explored the role social workers can play in leveraging a youth sport (lacrosse) as a convening platform for public health messaging and to embrace the fundamental fact that the AI people live with an intimate connection to their community, the land, and their people. This connection is pivotal for self-directed change in communities that actively comingle with American Indian people. A feasibility study was done to explore respondents' perceptions of the impact of the event on youth development, community engagement, and cultural connections. The pilot data collected for this project supports the literature on participatory research as a key to engaging AI communities. Data trends are provided, and the implications of these findings are discussed.

Physical Punishment and Child Externalizing Behavior: Comparing American Indian, White, and African American Children

This study examined if, compared to White and African American children, maternal spanking of American Indian children was associated with child externalizing behavior problems. Using a community-based sample of 3,632 children (1,183 White, 2,183 African American, 266 American Indian), multiple-group autoregressive cross-lagged models examined the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior across the first 5 years of life. Rates of spanking for American Indian and White children were similar at all three time points (age 1, age 3, and age 5). When comparing White and American Indian groups, maternal spanking at age 1 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 3 (White: β = .10, p < .001; American Indian: β = .08, p < .01), and maternal spanking at age 3 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 5 (White: β = .09, p < .05; American Indian: β = .08, p < .01). When comparing African American and American Indian groups, maternal spanking at age 1 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 3 (African American: β = .08, p < .01; American Indian: β = .06, p < .001), and maternal spanking at age 3 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 5 (African American: β = .08, p < .001; American Indian: β = .07, p < .001). Structural invariance tests suggested that the associations observed among American Indian children were not distinguishable from those observed among White and African American children. Results of this study can be interpreted in light of the recent American Academy of Pediatrics statement that encourages pediatricians to counsel parents against the use of physical punishment. Similar to White and African American families, American Indian families may benefit from reducing or eliminating the use of physical punishment.

Unveiling an 'invisible population': health, substance use, sexual behavior, culture, and discrimination among urban American Indian/Alaska Native adolescents in California

Objectives: There are limited public health data on urban American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) populations, particularly adolescents. The current study attempted to address gaps by providing descriptive information on experiences of urban AI/AN adolescents across northern, central, and southern California.Design: We describe demographics and several behavioral health and cultural domains, including: alcohol and other drug (AOD) use, risky sexual behavior, mental and physical health, discrimination experiences, involvement in traditional practices, and cultural pride and belonging. We recruited 185 urban AI/AN adolescents across northern, central, and southern California from 2014 to 2017 who completed a baseline survey as part of a randomized controlled intervention trial.Results: Average age was 15.6 years; 51% female; 59% of adolescents that indicated AI/AN descent also endorsed another race or ethnicity. Rates of AOD use in this urban AI/AN sample were similar to rates for Monitoring the Future. About one-third of adolescents reported ever having sexual intercourse, with 15% reporting using alcohol or drugs before sex. Most reported good mental and physical health. Most urban AI/AN adolescents participated in traditional practices, such as attending Pow Wows and learning their tribal history. Adolescents also reported discrimination experiences, including being a victim of racial slurs and discrimination by law enforcement.Conclusions: This study describes a select sample of California urban AI/AN adolescents across several behavioral health and cultural domains. Although these adolescents reported numerous discrimination experiences and other stressors, findings suggest that this sample of urban AI/AN teens may be particularly resilient with regard to behavioral health.

Beyond deficit: 'strengths-based approaches' in Indigenous health research

Health research concerning Indigenous peoples has been strongly characterised by deficit discourse-a 'mode of thinking' that is overly focused on risk behaviours and problems. Strengths-based approaches offer a different perspective by promoting a set of values that recognise the capacities and capabilities of Indigenous peoples. In this article, we seek to understand the conceptual basis of strengths-based approaches as currently presented in health research. We propose that three main approaches exist: 'resilience' approaches concerned with the personal skills of individuals; 'social-ecological' approaches, which focus on the individual, community and structural aspects of a person's environment; and 'sociocultural' approaches, which view 'strengths' as social relations, collective identities and practices. We suggest that neither 'resilience' nor 'social-ecological' approaches sufficiently problematise deficit discourse because they remain largely informed by Western concepts of individualised rationality and, as a result, rest on logics that support notions of absence and deficit. In contrast, sociocultural approaches tend to view 'strengths' not as qualities possessed by individuals, but as the structure and character of social relations, collective practices and identities. As such, they are better able to capture Indigenous ways of knowing and being and provide a stronger basis on which to build meaningful interventions.

Identifying as American Indian/Alaska Native in Urban Areas: Implications for Adolescent Behavioral Health and Well-Being

American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) youth exhibit multiple health disparities, including high rates of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use, violence and delinquency, and mental health problems. Approximately 70% of AI/AN youth reside in urban areas, where negative outcomes on behavioral health and well-being are often high. Identity development may be particularly complex in urban settings, where youth may face more fragmented and lower density AI/AN communities, as well as mixed racial-ethnic ancestry and decreased familiarity with AI/AN lifeways. This study examines racial-ethnic and cultural identity among AI/AN adolescents and associations with behavioral health and well-being by analyzing quantitative data collected from a baseline assessment of 185 AI/AN urban adolescents from California who were part of a substance use intervention study. Adolescents who identified as AI/AN on their survey reported better mental health, less alcohol and marijuana use, lower rates of delinquency, and increased happiness and spiritual health.

Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measurement invariance across adolescence and diverse ethnic groups

INTRODUCTION

Ethnic identity is an important protective factor for various ethnic groups and developmental periods. Although existing measures assessing ethnic identity are well known, less is known about the measurement invariance of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) across adolescent ethnic groups. The present study evaluates the factor structure of MEIM (Roberts et al., 1999) and tests the measurement invariance across early and middle adolescence and ethnic background (N = 4940).

METHODS

Data from an ethnic minority sample of youth (54% girls; M_age = 13.88, grades 6th - 12th; 60% African American, 22% multi-ethnic, 8% Latinx, 5% Asian, 5% American Indian) in the United States of America were examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and multi-group measurement invariance via a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework. Models for invariance were tested using full information maximum likelihood-robust (FIML-R) estimation in Mplus.

RESULTS

CFA supported a three-factor solution (i.e., cognitive clarity, behavioral engagement, and affective pride). The model indicated scalar invariance across early and middle adolescence and partial scalar invariance across the five self-identified racial/ethnic minority groups. There were no grade differences on the ethnic identity factors. Among the racial/ethnic groups, multi-ethnic youth reported the lowest levels on all three ethnic identity factors compared to the other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this study point to the validity of using the MEIM for meaningful comparisons of ethnic identity across ethnic groups and across early and middle adolescence. Implications for the interpretation and use of this measure with diverse adolescents are discussed.

Harvesting Good Medicine: Internalizing and Crystalizing Core Cultural Values in Young Children

Indigenous Alaskans face many obstacles as they attempt to navigate what it means to be a member of a tribal group. Pressures to assimilate into the global society, loss of access to traditional lands, and dwindling subsistence resources due to climate change are aggravating factors in the cultural identity development of Indigenous Alaskans. Experiences on the land such as fishing, picking berries, and harvesting edible and medicinal plants with family members and other culture-bearers are known to play a mitigating role in resisting assimilative pressures, yet little is known about how such experiences contribute to a child's growing sense of self and belonging. In this research study, the authors sought to untangle the nuanced experiences of young children as they engaged in the cultural activity of harvesting a medicinal plant in Southeast Alaska. Through the use of wearable cameras, the authors captured video footage from the perspectives of 5- to 6-year-old kindergarten children from a small Alaska Native village in Southeast Alaska as they learned lessons on and from the land, from adult culture-bearers, and from peers. As the authors analyzed the videos, themes emerged that pointed to small interactions with adults, peers, and the environment that positioned the children to internalize and crystalize core cultural values and thereby strengthen their own cultural identity development.

Substance Use Prevention for Urban American Indian Youth: A Efficacy Trial of the Culturally Adapted Living in 2 Worlds Program

This article describes a small efficacy trial of the Living in 2 Worlds (L2W) substance use prevention curriculum, a culturally adapted version of keepin' it REAL (kiR) redesigned for urban American Indian (AI) middle school students. Focused on strengthening resiliency and AI cultural engagement, L2W teaches drug resistance skills, decision making, and culturally grounded prevention messages. Using cluster random assignment, the research team randomized three urban middle schools with enrichment classes for AI students. AI teachers of these classes delivered the L2W curriculum in two schools; the remaining school implemented kiR, unadapted, and became the comparison group. AI students (N = 107) completed a pretest questionnaire before they received the manualized curriculum lessons, and a posttest (85% completion) 1 month after the final lesson. We assessed the adapted L2W intervention, compared to kiR, with paired t tests, baseline adjusted general linear models, and effect size estimates (Cohen's d). Differences between the L2W and kiR groups reached statistically significant thresholds for four outcomes. Youth receiving L2W, compared to kiR, reported less growth in cigarette use from pretest to posttest, less frequent use of the Leave drug resistance strategy, and less loss of connections to AI spirituality and cultural traditions. For other substance use behaviors and antecedents, the direction of the non-significant effects in small sample tests was toward more positive outcomes in L2W and small to medium effect sizes. Results suggest that evidence-based substance use prevention programs that are culturally adapted for urban AI adolescents, like L2W, can be a foundation for prevention approaches to help delay initiation and slow increases in substance use. In addition to study limitations, we discuss implementation challenges in delivering school-based interventions for urban AI populations.

Cultural Identity Among Urban American Indian/Alaska Native Youth: Implications for Alcohol and Drug Use

American Indian / Alaska Native (AI/AN) youth exhibit high rates of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use, which is often linked to the social and cultural upheaval experienced by AI/ANs during the colonization of North America. Urban AI/AN youth may face unique challenges, including increased acculturative stress due to lower concentrations of AI/AN populations in urban areas. Few existing studies have explored cultural identity among urban AI/AN youth and its association with AOD use. This study used systematic qualitative methods with AI/AN communities in two urban areas within California to shed light on how urban AI/AN youth construct cultural identity and how this relates to AOD use and risk behaviors. We conducted 10 focus groups with a total of 70 youth, parents, providers, and Community Advisory Board members and used team-based structured thematic analysis in the Dedoose software platform. We identified 12 themes: intergenerational stressors, cultural disconnection, AI/AN identity as protective, pan-tribal identity, mixed racial-ethnic identity, rural vs. urban environments, the importance of AI/AN institutions, stereotypes and harassment, cultural pride, developmental trajectories, risks of being AI/AN, and mainstream culture clash. Overall, youth voiced curiosity about their AI/AN roots and expressed interest in deepening their involvement in cultural activities. Adults described the myriad ways in which involvement in cultural activities provides therapeutic benefits for AI/AN youth. Interventions that provide urban AI/AN youth with an opportunity to engage in cultural activities and connect with positive and healthy constructs in AI/AN culture may provide added impact to existing interventions.

Integrating Professional and Indigenous Therapies: An Urban American Indian Narrative Clinical Case Study

We present a narrative case study of an urban American Indian male college student who integrated Indigenous and professional therapies during an acute period of stress, loss, and depression. The first published case of an American Indian in an urban context, this article expands on previous clinical cases by focusing on the perspective of the client relative to his own conceptions of help-seeking behaviors. Based on qualitative analysis of five audio-recorded interviews, this case utilizes an innovative methodology to portray four approaches to healing (medication, counseling, bonding, and spirituality), which contribute to holistic well-being. Implications for counseling psychologists include being aware of how some American Indian clients may (a) view professional treatment dynamics through a Native cultural lens (e.g., seeing ideal communication as a "rhythm"); (b) utilize an expanded range of therapeutic agents;

Family and Friend Influence on Urban-Dwelling American Indian Adolescent Girl's Sexual Risk Behavior

Previous research with American Indian (AI) adolescent sexual risk behavior primarily focused on reservation-dwelling youth despite 70% of AIs living off Native lands. Using grounded theory methodology, I sampled 20 adolescent AI girls via talking circles and interviews to explore the perceptions of AI adolescent girls living in an urban, Midwest area about the influence of family and friends on their sexual behavior. Similar to research with other racial groups, participants cited their family and friends as a major influence. Five unique themes emerged related to family and friend influence. Urban-dwelling AI girls rely on their female family members and peers for information related to sex and receive varying messages from their networks of family and friends, which often overlap. AI youth have unique family groups yet have some similarities to other ethnic groups with regard to family and friend relationships that may allow for enhanced intervention development.

Crystalizing the role of traditional healing in an urban Native American health center

A needs assessment surveying American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIs/ANs) at an AI/AN health center in the Midwestern United States was conducted, with an emphasis on traditional Native healing. Data from this study included qualitative material from interviews of community members (N = 27; age 12-82) and service providers (N = 11; age 26-70). Respondents emphasized the path to wellness includes physical, spiritual and mental health and that traditional healing can restore various imbalances. Furthermore, traditional healing was considered a complement to Western medicine. Third, traditional medicine as a tool in healthcare settings was conceptualized on a continuum.