Effects of aflatoxin B1 on oxidative stress markers and apoptosis of spleens in broilers

Microalgae: A promising strategy for aflatoxin control in poultry feeds

Aflatoxins are toxic compounds produced by certain molds, primarily Aspergillus species, which can contaminate crops such as grains and nuts. These toxins pose a significant health risk to animals and humans. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most potent of these compounds and has been well-characterized to lead to diminished growth and feed efficiency by disrupting nutrient absorption and metabolism in poultry. AFB1 can trigger apoptosis and inflammation, leading to a decline in immune function and changes in blood biochemistry in poultry. Recently, there has been growing interest in using microalgae as a natural antioxidant to mitigate the effects of aflatoxins in poultry diets. Microalgae have strong antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory properties, and adding them to aflatoxin-contaminated poultry diets has been shown to improve growth and overall health. This review investigates the potential of microalgae, such as Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Enteromorpha prolifera, to mitigate AFB1 contamination in poultry feeds. These microalgae contain substantial amounts of bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, peptides, vitamins, and pigments, which possess antioxidant, antimicrobial, and detoxifying properties. Microalgae can bind to aflatoxins and prevent their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract of poultry. They can also enhance the immune system of poultry, making them more resilient to the toxic effects of AFB1. Based on the data collected, microalgae have shown promising results in combating AFB1 contamination in poultry feeds. They can bind to aflatoxins, boost the immune system, and improve feed quality. This review emphasizes the harmful effects of AFB1 on poultry and the promising role of microalgae in reducing these effects.

Aflatoxin B1 Impairs Bone Mineralization in Broiler Chickens

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a ubiquitous mycotoxin in corn-based animal feed, particularly in tropical regions, impairs liver function, induces oxidative stress and disrupts cellular pathways, potentially worsening bone health in modern broilers. A 19-day experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of feeding increasing levels of AFB1-contaminated feed (<2, 75-80, 150, 230-260 and 520-560 ppb) on bone mineralization markers in broilers (n = 360). While growth performance remained unaffected up to Day 19, significant reductions in tibial bone ash content were observed at levels exceeding 260 ppb. Micro-computed tomography results showed that AFB1 levels at 560 ppb significantly decreased trabecular bone mineral content and density, with a tendency for reduced connectivity density in femur metaphysis. Moreover, AFB1 above 230 ppb reduced the bone volume and tissue volume of the cortical bone of femur. Even at levels above 75 ppb, AFB1 exposure significantly downregulated the jejunal mRNA expressions of the vitamin D receptor and calcium and phosphorus transporters. It can be concluded that AFB1 at levels higher than 230 ppb negatively affects bone health by impairing bone mineralization via disruption of the vitamin D receptor and calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, potentially contributing to bone health issues in broilers.

AFB1 induced free radicals cause encephalopathy in goat kids via intrinsic pathway of apoptosis: pathological and immunohistochemical confirmation of non-hepatic neuroaflatoxicosis

Aflatoxins, particularly AFB1, are the most common feed contaminants worldwide, causing significant economic losses to the livestock sector. The current paper describes an outbreak of aflatoxicosis in a herd of 160 male young goat kids (3-4 months), of which 68 young kids succumbed over a period of 25 days after showing neurological signs of abnormal gait, progressive paralysis and head pressing. The haematobiochemical investigation showed reduced haemoglobin, leucocyte count, PCV level, increased levels of AST, ALT, glucose, BUN, creatinine and reduced level of total protein. Grossly, kids had pale mucous membranes, pale and swollen liver; right apical lobe consolidation, and petechiation of the synovial membrane of the hock joints. The microscopic changes were characterized by multifocal hemorrhages, status spongiosus/ vacuolation, vasculitis, focal to diffuse gliosis, satellitosis, and ischemic apoptotic neurons in different parts of the brain and spinal cord. These changes corresponded well with strong immunoreactivity for AFB1 in neurons, glia cells (oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and ependymal cells) in various anatomical sites of the brain. The higher values of LPO and reduced levels of antioxidant enzymes (Catalase, SOD, GSH) with strong immunoreactivity of 8-OHdG in the brain indicating high level of oxidative stress. Further, the higher immunosignaling of caspase-3 and caspase-9 in the brain points towards the association with intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. The toxicological analysis of feed samples detected high amounts of AFB1 (0.38ppm). These findings suggest that AFB1 in younger goat kids has more of neurotoxic effect mediated through caspase dependent intrinsic pathway.

Transcriptome and metabolomics analysis of adaptive mechanism of Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) to aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), with the strong toxicity and carcinogenicity, has been reported to great toxicity to the liver and other organs of animals. It cause huge economic losses to breeding industry, including the aquaculture industry. Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis), as one of important species of freshwater aquaculture in China, are deeply disturbed by it. However, the molecular and metabolic mechanisms of hepatopancreas and ovary in crabs underlying coping ability are still unclear. Hence, we conducted targeted injection experiment with or without AFB1, and comprehensively analyzed transcriptome and metabolomics of hepatopancreas and ovary. As a result, 210 and 250 DEGs were identified in the L-C vs. L-30 m and L-C vs. L-60 m comparison, among which 14 common DEGs were related to six major functional categories, including antibacterial and detoxification, ATP energy reaction, redox reaction, nerve reaction, liver injury repair and immune reaction. A total of 228 and 401 DAMs in the ML-C vs. ML-30 m and ML-C vs. ML-60 m comparison both enriched 12 pathways, with clear functions of cutin, suberine and wax biosynthesis, tyrosine metabolism, purine metabolism, nucleotide metabolism, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, ABC transporters and tryptophan metabolism. Integrated analysis of metabolomics and transcriptome in hepatopancreas discovered three Co-enriched pathways, including steroid biosynthesis, glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, and sphingolipid metabolism. In summary, the expression levels and functions of related genes and metabolites reveal the regulatory mechanism of Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) adaptability to the Aflatoxin B1, and the findings contribute to a new perspective for understanding Aflatoxin B1 and provide some ideas for dealing with it.

Effects of Aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, carcass traits, organ index, blood biochemistry and oxidative status in Chinese yellow chickens

In this study, the effects of different levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on the growth performance, carcass traits, organ index, blood biochemistry, and antioxidant capacity of yellow-feathered broilers were investigated to provide a reference for the application of AFB1-containing feed ingredients. In this test, yellow-feathered broilers were chosen as the research objects and divided into five treatment groups, with seven replicates in each group and 75 broilers in each replicate. The AFB1 concentration in the diets of groups 1 to 5 were 1.5 μg/kg, 15 μg/kg, 30 μg/kg, 45 μg/kg, and 60 μg/kg, respectively. The results showed that when dietary AFB1 levels were greater than 45 μg/kg, the feed conversion ratios of broilers of 1-21, 22-42, and 43-63 days of age increased (P<0.05). When dietary AFB1 levels were 30 μg/kg, liver glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity was decreased (P<0.05), and serum transaminase (AST) activity was increased (P<0.05). Overall, dietary AFB1 levels had negative effects on growth performance, antioxidant capacity, blood biochemistry, and liver metabolism in yellow-feathered broilers. Based on using growth performance as the effect index, AFB1 levels in the diets of yellow-feathered broilers should not exceed 45 μg/kg. Based on using antioxidant capacity, liver function, and blood biochemistry as effect indexes, AFB1 levels in the diets of yellow-feathered broilers should not exceed 30 μg/kg.

Porcine β-defensin-2 alleviates AFB1-induced intestinal mucosal injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most toxic mycotoxin contaminant, which is widely present in crops and poses a major safety hazard to animal and human health. To alleviate the cytotoxic effects of AFB1 on the intestine, we tested the protective effects of porcine β-defensin-2 (pBD-2). Results demonstrated that pBD-2 inhibited oxidative stress induced by AFB1 via decreasing the levels of ROS and enhancing the expression of antioxidant factors SOD-2 and NQO-1. In addition, pBD-2 attenuated AFB1-induced intestinal porcine epithelial cell line-J2 (IPEC-J2) injury through blocking mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. In vivo, pBD-2 treatment restored the intestinal mucosal structure and reduced the expression levels of apoptosis factors caspase-3 and Bax/Bcl-2. In conclusion, these results indicated that pBD-2 can alleviate AFB1-induced intestinal mucosal injury by inhibiting oxidative stress and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. This study provides an effective strategy in developing pBD-2 as green feed additive to prevent AFB1 damage to animals.

Effects of crude methanol extract of Adansonia digitata fruit pulp on Naja nigricollis venom-induce toxicity in Wistar rats

OBJECTIVES

This study evaluated the effects of Crude Methanol Extract of Adansonia digitata Fruit Pulp on Naja nigricollis Venom-Induce Toxicity in Wistar rats.

METHODS

A. digitata was extracted using 70% methanol and median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of both the extract and venom were determined using the up-and-down method. Sixty Wistar rats were randomly assigned into 10 groups of 6 rats each and were administered with normal saline, venom only, venom + antivenom, 125 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg crude methanol extract (CME) pre-envenomation, 125 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg CME post-envenomation, and venom + antivenom + 250 mg/kg CME, respectively. Blood samples were collected 8-h post-envenomation in EDTA and plain sample bottles. Erythrocyte osmotic fragility (EOF) test was carried out on the EDTA blood samples while serum was harvested and used for Malondialdehyde (MDA) and Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) assays.

RESULTS

LD₅₀ of the CME and venom was >5,000 mg/kg and 0.889 mg/kg, respectively. N. nigricollis-induced oxidative stress was evident in group B through increased % haemolysis, MDA and lowered SOD activities. The groups treated with antivenom only, 250 mg/kg CME post-envenomation and antivenom +250 mg/kg CME significantly (p<0.05) reduced EOF, MDA values and increased SOD. The CME revealed better ameliorative effect than protective via inhibition of EOF, MDA values and increased SOD activity.

CONCLUSIONS

The CME when administered singly showed more ameliorative properties and the combination of CME with antivenom for protection was not as effective as when compared to single administration.

Development of High-Throughput Sample Preparation Procedures for the Quantitative Determination of Aflatoxins in Biological Matrices of Chickens and Cattle Using UHPLC-MS/MS

Aflatoxins (AFs) frequently contaminate food and animal feeds, especially in (sub) tropical countries. If animals consume contaminated feeds, AFs (mainly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2) and their major metabolites aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and M2 (AFM2)) can be transferred to edible tissues and products, such as eggs, liver and muscle tissue and milk, which ultimately can reach the human food chain. Currently, the European Union has established a maximum level for AFM1 in milk (0.05 µg kg^-1). Dietary adsorbents, such as bentonite clay, have been used to reduce AFs exposure in animal husbandry and carry over to edible tissues and products. To investigate the efficacy of adding bentonite clay to animal diets in reducing the concentration of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, and the metabolites AFM1 and AFM2 in animal-derived foods (chicken muscle and liver, eggs, and cattle milk), chicken and cattle plasma and cattle ruminal fluid, a sensitive and selective ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method has been developed. High-throughput sample preparation procedures were optimized, allowing the analysis of 96 samples per analytical batch and consisted of a liquid extraction using 1% formic acid in acetonitrile, followed by a further clean-up using QuEChERS (muscle tissue), QuEChERS in combination with Oasis^® Ostro (liver tissue), Oasis^® Ostro (egg, plasma), and Oasis^® PRiME HLB (milk, ruminal fluid). The different procedures were validated in accordance with European guidelines. As a proof-of-concept, the final methods were used to successfully determine AFs concentrations in chicken and cattle samples collected during feeding trials for efficacy and safety evaluation of mycotoxin detoxifiers to protect against AFs as well as their carry-over to animal products.

Compound mycotoxin detoxifier alleviating aflatoxin B1 toxic effects on broiler growth performance, organ damage and gut microbiota

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of compound mycotoxin detoxifier (CMD) on alleviating the toxic effect of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) for broiler growth performance. One-kilogram CMD consists of 667 g aflatoxin B₁-degrading enzyme (ADE, 1,467 U/g), 200 g montmorillonite and 133 g compound probiotics (CP). The feeding experiment was divided into 2 stages (1-21 d and 22-42 d). In the early stage, a total of 300 one-day-old Ross broilers were randomly divided into 6 groups, 5 replications for each group, 10 broilers (half male and half female) in each replication. In the later feeding stage, about 240 twenty-two-day-old Ross broilers were randomly divided into 6 groups, 8 replications for each group, 5 broilers in each replication. Group A: basal diet; group B: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB₁; group C: basal diet with 1 g/kg CMD; groups D, E, and F: basal diet with 40 μg/kg AFB₁ plus 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 g/kg CMD, respectively. The results indicated that AFB₁ significantly decreased average daily gain (ADG), protein metabolic rate, organ index of thymus, bursa of Fabricius (BF), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX) and catalase activities in serum, and increased AFB₁ residues in serum and liver (P < 0.05). Hematoxylin-Eosin (HE) staining analysis of jejunum, liver and kidney showed that AFB₁ caused the main pathological changes with different degrees of inflammatory cell infiltration. However, CMD additions could alleviate the negative effects of AFB₁ on the above parameters. The gut microbiota analysis indicated that AFB₁ could significantly increase the abundances of Staphylococcus-xylosu, Esherichia-coli-g-Escherichia-Shigella, and decrease Lactobacillus-aviarius abundance (P < 0.05), but which were adjusted to almost the same levels as the control group by CMD addition. The correlative analysis showed that Lactobacillus-aviarius abundance was positively correlated with ADG, SOD and BF (P < 0.05), whereas Staphylococcus-xylosus abundance was positively correlated with AFB₁ residues in serum and liver (P < 0.05). In conclusion, CMD could keep gut microbiota stable, alleviate histological lesions, increase growth performance, and reduce mycotoxin toxicity. The optimal CMD addition should be 1 g/kg in AFB₁-contaminated broilers diet.

Effects of aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, antioxidant status, immune response, and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in ISA chicks

The research evaluated the effects of Aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, antioxidant status, immune response, and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in ISA chicks. In total, 240 7-day-old ISA chicks were randomly assigned to four treatment groups. The control group comprised chicks fed a basal diet. The aflatoxin (AFB₁)-treatment groups (T1, T2, and T3) comprised chicks fed the basal diet supplemented with AFB₁ at concentrations of 5, 8, and 10 μg/kg, respectively. The growth performance, antioxidant status, immune responses, and pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression in all groups were measured. In the T1 treatment group (receiving the lowest AFB₁ dose), a reduction in the Newcastle disease virus antibody (NDV-Ab) titer, and increases in interleukin 2 (IL-2), IL-6, and interferon γ (IFN-γ) mRNA levels were observed on days 21 and 42 (P < 0.05). Treatment with the higher AFB₁ doses (groups T2 and T3) reduced the chicks' growth performance on days 21 and 42, measured as reductions in body weight (BW) and average daily gain (ADG) compared with the control group. In the T2 and T3 groups, the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, serum immunoglobulin A (IgA) and IgG levels, and IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ levels were also lower than in the control group. On days 21 and 42, these two groups also showed increased malondialdehyde (MDA) content, higher feed to gain ratio (F/G), and higher IL-2, IL-6, and IFN-γ mRNA levels than the control group (P < 0.05). The T2 and T3 groups also showed reduced T-AOC, NDV-Ab titer, IL-2 content, and GPx-1 mRNA levels on days 21 and 42 (P < 0.05), increased IL-6 and IFN-γ mRNA levels on day 21, and increased F/G and MDA content on day 42 (P < 0.05) compared with group (T1). Increased MDA content and IL-6 mRNA levels in the liver and ileum were observed in group T3 compared with group T2 on day 21, and lower IgM and IL-6 levels were observed on days 21 and 42 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, our data showed that AFB₁ exposure resulted in dose-dependent oxidative and inflammatory damage, immunosuppression, and a decline in the growth performance of chicks.

Research progress in toxicological effects and mechanism of aflatoxin B1 toxin

Fungal contamination of animal feed can severely affect the health of farm animals, and result in considerable economic losses. Certain filamentous fungi or molds produce toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins, of which aflatoxins (AFTs) are considered the most critical dietary risk factor for both humans and animals. AFTs are ubiquitous in the environment, soil, and food crops, and aflatoxin B₁(AFB₁) has been identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the most potent natural group 1A carcinogen. We reviewed the literature on the toxic effects of AFB₁ in humans and animals along with its toxicokinetic properties. The damage induced by AFB₁ in cells and tissues is mainly achieved through cell cycle arrest and inhibition of cell proliferation, and the induction of apoptosis, oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and autophagy. In addition, numerous coding genes and non-coding RNAs have been identified that regulate AFB₁ toxicity. This review is a summary of the current research on the complexity of AFB₁ toxicity, and provides insights into the molecular mechanisms as well as the phenotypic characteristics.

The effect of curcumin on some cytokines, antioxidants and liver function tests in rats induced by Aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxins are common food contaminants threating human and animal health. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) toxication can lead to important health issues. Recent studies have revealed the therapeutic effect of curcumin (Cur) and have drawn attention in the pharmaceutical industry. The therapeutic efficacy of Cur on AFB1-induced oxidative stress, pro-inflammatory response, and hepatorenal damage has not been adequately studied. This study was conducted to evaluate the protective efficacy of Cur on several lipid peroxidation and antioxidant defense system enzymes, some pro-inflammatory cytokines, and liver function tests in rats suffering from chronic aflatoxicosis induced by AFB1 administered for sixty days. Rats were divided into five groups; Control (K), Dimethyl sulfoxide (D), Curcumin (Cur; 300 mg/kg/day, orally), AFB1 (AF; 250 μg/kg/day, oral) and AFB1+ Curcumin (AF + Cur). Oxidative stress caused by AFB1 caused an increase in Malondialdehyde (MDA), a lipid peroxidation product, and a decrease in glutathione (GSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. In addition, AFB1 led to increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), interleukin-1b (IL-1b), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Liver function tests after chronic exposure to AFB1 showed that this toxic substance causes liver damage. Concomitant Cur administration normalized AFB1-induced oxidative damage, inflammatory response, and liver functions. This therapeutic effect of Cur on AFB1 was thought to be related to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Our results suggest that CUR supplementation in food as it shows beneficial effects particularly on liver impairment exerted by AFB1.

Curcumin Supplementation Protects Broiler Chickens Against the Renal Oxidative Stress Induced by the Dietary Exposure to Low Levels of Aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) causes hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, and kidney damage, and it is included in group I of human carcinogens. The European Commission has established maximum limits of AFB1 in feed, ranging from 5 to 20 μg/kg. Chicken is moderately sensitive to AFB1, which results in reduced growth performance and economic losses. Oxidative stress triggered by AFB1 plays a crucial role in kidney damage and the antioxidant activity of Curcumin (CURC) could help in preventing such adverse effect. Twenty-days-old broilers were treated for 10 days with AFB1 (0.02 mg/kg feed), alone or in combination with CURC (400 mg/kg feed), to explore the effects on the renal tissue. Animals exposed to AFB1 alone displayed alterations of the oxidative stress parameters compared with controls: serum antioxidant capacity, and enzymatic activity of kidney superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were decreased, while renal malondialdehyde levels and NADPH oxidase complex expression were increased. The administration of CURC attenuates all the oxidative stress parameters modified by AFB1 in the chicken kidney, opening new perspectives in the management of aflatoxicosis.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of AFB1 and OTA-toxicity through immunofluorescence and flow cytometry techniques: A systematic review

Due to the globalization, mycotoxins have been considered a major risk to human health being the main contaminants of foodstuffs. Among them, AFB1 and OTA are the most toxic and studied. Therefore, the goal of this review is to deepen the knowledge about the toxicological effects that AFB1 and OTA can induce on human health by using flow cytometry and immunofluorescence techniques in vitro and in vivo models. The examination of the selected reports shows that the majority of them are focused on immunotoxicity while the rest are concerned about nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, neurotoxicity, embryotoxicity, reproductive system, breast, esophageal and lung toxicity. In relation to immunofluorescence analysis, biological processes related to AFB1- and OTA-toxicity were evaluated such as inflammation, neuronal differentiation, DNA damage, oxidative stress and cell death. In flow cytometry analysis, a wide range of assays have been performed across the reviewed studies being apoptosis assay, cell cycle analysis and intracellular ROS measurement the most employed. Although, the toxic effects of AFB1 and OTA have been reported, further research is needed to clarify AFB1 and OTA-mechanism of action on human health.

Resveratrol Relieved Acute Liver Damage in Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) Induced by AFB1 via Modulation of Apoptosis and Nrf2 Signaling Pathways

Simple Summary

Aflatoxin B1 is ubiquitous in food and feed, which not only poses a great threat to animals, but also affects human health. It is unclear whether resveratrol can resist aflatoxin B1 damage in ducks’ livers. Therefore, the effect of resveratrol supplementation in the diets on liver injury aflatoxin B1was investigated through the gavage of aflatoxin B1. It was found that a diet that includes resveratrol can effectively protect ducks’ livers from acute injury caused by aflatoxin B1. Our study suggests that resveratrol serves as a potential phytochemical feed additive for the treatment of acute aflatoxin B1 poisoning in ducks

Abstract

The presence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in feed is a serious threat to livestock and poultry health and to human food safety. Resveratrol (Res) is a polyphenolic compound with antioxidant, anti-apoptotic and other biological activities; however, it is not clear whether it can improve AFB1 induced hepatotoxicity. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary Res on liver injury induced by AFB1 and its mechanisms. A total of 270 one-day-old male specific pathogen free (SPF) ducks, with no significant difference in weight, were randomly assigned to three groups: the control group, the AFB1 group and the AFB1 + Res group, which were fed a basic diet, a basic diet and a basic diet containing 500 mg/kg Res, respectively. On the 70th day, the ducks in theAFB1 group and the AFB1+ 500 mg/kg Res group were given 60 μg/kg AFB1 via gavage. When comparing the AFB1 group and the AFB1 + Res group and also with the control group, AFB1 significantly increased liver damage, cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and AFB1-DNA adduct content, increased oxidative stress levels and induced liver apoptosis, which was improved by Res supplementation. In sum, the addition of Res to feed can increase the activity of the II-phase enzyme, activate the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signal pathway, and protect ducks’ livers from the toxicity, oxidative stress and inflammatory reaction induced by AFB1.

Hepatoprotective Role of Clay and Nano Clay for Alleviating Aflatoxin Toxicity in Male Rats

&lt;b&gt;Background and Objective:&lt;/b&gt; Aflatoxin formed by &lt;i&gt;Aspergillus&lt;/i&gt; sp. causes acute hepatotoxicity by DNA damage, gene expression disruption and induced liver carcinoma in humans and laboratory animals. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the protective role of both clay and nano clay as adsorbents to inhibit the side effect of Aflatoxin (AF) by measures the common biological assay of aflatoxicosis in rats along with hepatic gene expression and comet assay. &lt;b&gt;Materials and Methods:&lt;/b&gt; Six weeks old male albino rats were distributed into 6 groups with 10 rats per group fed on, Group 1: Basal diet, Group 2: Basal diet with clay (5 g kg&lt;sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; diet), Group 3: Basal diet with nano clay (5 g kg&lt;sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; diet), Group 4: AF-contaminated diet (1 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; diet), Group 5: AF with clay, Group 6: AF with nano clay. &lt;b&gt;Results:&lt;/b&gt; AF induced a noticeable increase in the liver function parameters, accompanied by a significant decrease in antioxidant enzyme activities and significant histological alterations in liver tissues. The obtained qPCR results showed a significant up regulation in the expression of Cyp3A6, HO-1, TNFα and NFKB genes in the liver of rats treated with aflatoxin. In contrast, there is a significant down regulation in the expression levels of the Glut2 gene in liver rats treated with aflatoxin. Also, aflatoxin induced a significant increase in DNA damage. Clay and nano clay succeeded in ameliorating the toxic effects of aflatoxin. &lt;b&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/b&gt; The results indicated the effective role of clay and nano clay in alleviating aflatoxin and reduce its harmful effects.

Aflatoxin B1 Toxicity in Zebrafish Larva (Danio rerio): Protective Role of Hericium erinaceus

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a secondary metabolite produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus, has been found among various foods as well as in fish feed. However, the effects of AFB1 on fish development and its associated toxic mechanism are still unclear. In the present study, we confirmed the morphological alterations in zebrafish embryos and larvae after exposure to different AFB1 doses as well as the oxidative stress pathway that is involved. Furthermore, we evaluated the potentially protective effect of Hericium erinaceus extract, one of the most characterized fungal extracts, with a focus on the nervous system. Treating the embryos 6 h post fertilization (hpf) with AFB1 at 50 and 100 ng/mL significantly increased oxidative stress and induced malformations in six-day post-fertilization (dpf) zebrafish larvae. The evaluation of lethal and developmental endpoints such as hatching, edema, malformations, abnormal heart rate, and survival rate were evaluated after 96 h of exposure. Hericium inhibited the morphological alterations of the larvae as well as the increase in oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. In conclusion: our study suggests that a natural extract such as Hericium may play a partial role in promoting antioxidant defense systems and may contrast lipid peroxidation in fish development by counteracting the AFB1 toxicity mechanism.

Toxicogenicity and mechanistic pathways of aflatoxin B1 induced renal injury

The study investigated the toxicogenic effects, molecular mechanisms and proteomic assessment of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁ ) on human renal cells. Hek293 cells were exposed to AFB₁ (0-100 μM) for 24 h. The effect on cell viability was assessed using the methylthiazol tetrazolium (MTT) assay, which also produced the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀ ) used in subsequent assays. Free radical production was evaluated by quantifying malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitrate concentration, while DNA fragmentation was determined using the single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay and DNA gel electrophoresis. Damage to cell membranes was ascertained using the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay. The concentration of ATP, reduced glutathione (GSH), necrosis, annexin V and caspase activity was measured by luminometry. Western blotting and quantitative PCR was used to assess the expression of proteins and genes associated with apoptosis and oxidative stress. The MTT assay revealed a reduction in cell viability of Hek293 cells as the AFB₁ concentration was increased, with a half maximum inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀ ) of 32.60 μM. The decreased viability corresponded to decreased ATP concentration. The upregulation of Hsp70 indicated that oxidative stress was induced in the AFB₁ -treated cells. While this implies an increased production of free radicals, the accompanying upregulation of the antioxidant system indicates the activation of defense mechanisms to prevent cellular damage. Thus, membrane damage associated with increased radical formation was prevented as indicated by the reduced LDH release and necrosis. In addition, cytotoxic effects were evident as AFB₁ activated the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis with corresponding increased DNA fragmentation, p53 and Bax upregulation and increased caspase activity, but externalization of phosphatidylserine (PS), a major hallmark of apoptosis, did not occur in AFB₁ treated renal cells. The results suggest that AFB₁ induced oxidative stress leading to cell death by the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in renal cells.

Degradation of aflatoxin B1 by a recombinant laccase from Trametes sp. C30 expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: A mechanism assessment study in vitro and in vivo

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is the most harmful mycotoxin and presents risks to human health. Utilization of enzyme to degrade AFB1 is a promising strategy to overcome this problem. In this study, we evaluated the effect of recombinant laccase expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae on the degradation of AFB₁. It was found that AFB₁ could be degraded effectively by laccase up to 91%.The results of ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) showed that there were four main degradation products of AFB₁ including C₁₆H₂₂O₄, C₁₄H₁₆N₂O₂, C₇H₁₂N₆O and C₂₄H₃₀O₆. Two possible degradation pathways were proposed: 1) AFB₁ lost -CO continuously, and then double bonds of furan ring were broken after reactions with H₂O, H⁺, and -NH₂; 2) AFB₁ occurred decarbonylation reaction after losing -CO and double bonds were broken by additional reaction with H⁺. Two toxicological activity sites in AFB₁, including a double bond of furo-furan ring and lactone ring in the coumarin in moiety, were destroyed. The toxicity of AFB₁ degradation products was evaluated on HepG2 cells and in vivo tests, and the results indicated a decrease in hepatocytes apoptosis, liver and kidney histopathological lesions, oxidative stress, and inflammation as compared to non-laccase degraded AFB_1. Moreover, the AFB₁ degradation products significantly decreased the cytotoxicity and hepatotoxicity. This investigation provides innovative evidence on the effectiveness of laccase expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae in detoxifying AFB₁.

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens B10 can alleviate aflatoxin B1-induced kidney oxidative stress and apoptosis in mice

Aflatoxin B1(AFB1) widely exists in food and feed, which seriously endangers human and animal health. How to detoxify AFB1 is a research hotspot at present. This study attempts to use the Bacillus amyloliquefaciens B10, one of probiotics strain as the research object to ascertain whether it can alleviate the kidney injury induced by AFB1 in mice and its mechanism. Fifty-six mice were divided into four groups (control, AFB1, AFB1 + B10, and B10). The mice that received intragastric administration for 28 days were euthanised, and serum was collected for biochemical index detection with fresh kidney tissue taken for HE staining, TUNEL detection, and protein expression detection. Our results showed that the biochemical indices changed, significant pathological changes appeared, the number of apoptotic cells increased in the kidney tissue of the AFB1 group mice; the protein expressions of Nrf2, HO-1,AKT, P-AKT, and Bcl-2 in the AFB1 group were significantly decreased; the protein expressions of Keap-1, PTEN, Bax, Caspase-9, and Caspase-3 were significantly increased. After B. amyloliquefaciens B10 co-treatment, compared with the AFB1 group, the biochemical indices, pathological changes, and protein expressions were significantly reversed. The results indicated that B. amyloliquefaciens B10 can alleviate AFB1-induced kidney injury in mice.

Effects of a modified clinoptilolite zeolite on growth performance, health status and detoxification of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in male broiler chickens

1. The aim of the present study was to test the ability of an in-feed modified clinoptilolite zeolite-based mycotoxin binding substance (Minazel® Plus, Patent Co, Misicevo, Serbia; MP) to prevent gastrointestinal absorption of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) and its effects on health status and performance parameters of broilers.2. A total of 375, 1 d old male broiler chickens (Cobb 500) were used for a total trial period of 42 d (from hatch to 42 d of age). Animals were randomly allocated to five treatment groups (T1-T5), in 25 pens (15 male broilers per pen, five pens per treatment). T1 was the control maize-based diet without the addition of mycotoxins, or the test product. T2 and T3 groups received contaminated maize in the diet containing 0.02 mg AFB1/kg feed and 0.1 mg OTA/kg feed, whereas T4 and T5 groups received 0.05 mg AFB1/kg feed and 0.5 mg OTA/kg feed. The MP was added to T3 (1 g/kg feed), and T5 (2 g/kg feed) groups.3. Results showed that exposure to AFB1 and OTA at low or moderate levels, as used in this study, did not markedly affect growth performance, blood profile or organ weights. Improvements in feed conversion ratio (FCR) were observed in birds receiving MP, whereby FCR of T3 group was improved in comparison with T2 group, although there was no significant difference between T5 and T4 groups. However, average body weight gain (ABWG) was improved in the T5 group compared to T4, but not in the T3 versus T2 group comparison.4. For serum biochemical parameters, glutamate-dehydrogenase (GLDH) was significantly improved in T5 birds in comparison with T4. The addition of MP significantly decreased residue levels of AFB1 in liver and OTA in the spleen of the treated groups.5. The improvements in productive performance and reduction of mycotoxin residue levels in tissues demonstrated a beneficial effect of MP in cases of concurrent AFB1 and OTA ingestion by broilers.

Effects of compound probiotics and aflatoxin-degradation enzyme on alleviating aflatoxin-induced cytotoxicity in chicken embryo primary intestinal epithelium, liver and kidney cells

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is one of the most dangerous mycotoxins for humans and animals. This study aimed to investigate the effects of compound probiotics (CP), CP supernatant (CPS), AFB₁-degradation enzyme (ADE) on chicken embryo primary intestinal epithelium, liver and kidney cell viabilities, and to determine the functions of CP + ADE (CPADE) or CPS + ADE (CPSADE) for alleviating cytotoxicity induced by AFB₁. The results showed that AFB₁ decreased cell viabilities in dose-dependent and time-dependent manners. The optimal AFB₁ concentrations and reactive time for establishing cell damage models were 200 µg/L AFB₁ and 12 h for intestinal epithelium cells, 40 µg/L and 12 h for liver and kidney cells. Cell viabilities reached 231.58% (p < 0.05) for intestinal epithelium cells with CP addition, 105.29% and 115.84% (p < 0.05) for kidney and liver cells with CPS additions. The further results showed that intestinal epithelium, liver and kidney cell viabilities were significantly decreased to 87.12%, 88.7% and 84.19% (p < 0.05) when the cells were exposed to AFB₁; however, they were increased to 93.49% by CPADE addition, 102.33% and 94.71% by CPSADE additions (p < 0.05). The relative mRNA abundances of IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, iNOS, NF-κB, NOD1 (except liver cell) and TLR2 in three kinds of primary cells were significantly down-regulated by CPADE or CPSADE addition, compared with single AFB₁ group (p < 0.05), indicating that CPADE or CPSADE addition could alleviate cell cytotoxicity and inflammation induced by AFB₁ exposure through suppressing the activations of NF-κB, iNOS, NOD1 and TLR2 pathways.

Carcinogenesis: Failure of resolution of inflammation?

Inflammation in the tumor microenvironment is a hallmark of cancer and is recognized as a key characteristic of carcinogens. However, the failure of resolution of inflammation in cancer is only recently being understood. Products of arachidonic acid and related fatty acid metabolism called eicosanoids, including prostaglandins, leukotrienes, lipoxins, and epoxyeicosanoids, critically regulate inflammation, as well as its resolution. The resolution of inflammation is now appreciated to be an active biochemical process regulated by endogenous specialized pro-resolving lipid autacoid mediators which combat infections and stimulate tissue repair/regeneration. Environmental and chemical human carcinogens, including aflatoxins, asbestos, nitrosamines, alcohol, and tobacco, induce tumor-promoting inflammation and can disrupt the resolution of inflammation contributing to a devastating global cancer burden. While mechanisms of carcinogenesis have focused on genotoxic activity to induce mutations, nongenotoxic mechanisms such as inflammation and oxidative stress promote genotoxicity, proliferation, and mutations. Moreover, carcinogens initiate oxidative stress to synergize with inflammation and DNA damage to fuel a vicious feedback loop of cell death, tissue damage, and carcinogenesis. In contrast, stimulation of resolution of inflammation may prevent carcinogenesis by clearance of cellular debris via macrophage phagocytosis and inhibition of an eicosanoid/cytokine storm of pro-inflammatory mediators. Controlling the host inflammatory response and its resolution in carcinogen-induced cancers will be critical to reducing carcinogen-induced morbidity and mortality. Here we review the recent evidence that stimulation of resolution of inflammation, including pro-resolution lipid mediators and soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibitors, may be a new chemopreventive approach to prevent carcinogen-induced cancer that should be evaluated in humans.

Impact of Mycotoxins on Animals' Oxidative Status

Mycotoxins appear to be the "Achilles' heel" of the agriculture sector inducing enormous economic losses and representing a severe risk to the health of humans and animals. Although novel determination protocols have been developed and legislation has been implemented within Europe, the side effects of mycotoxins on the homeostatic mechanisms of the animals have not been extensively considered. Feed mycotoxin contamination and the effects on the antioxidant status of livestock (poultry, swine, and ruminants) are presented. The findings support the idea that the antioxidant systems in both monogastrics and ruminants are challenged under the detrimental effect of mycotoxins by increasing the toxic lipid peroxidation by-product malondialdehyde (MDA) and inhibiting the activity of antioxidant defense mechanisms. The degree of oxidative stress is related to the duration of contamination, co-contamination, the synergetic effects, toxin levels, animal age, species, and productive stage. Since the damaging effects of MDA and other by-products derived by lipid peroxidation as well as reactive oxygen species have been extensively studied on human health, a more integrated monitoring mechanism (which will take into account the oxidative stability) is urgently required to be implemented in animal products.

Mycoplasma gallisepticum infection triggered histopathological changes, oxidative stress and apoptosis in chicken thymus and spleen

Previous studies mainly focused on the inflammatory responses caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) in the chicken respiratory mucosa, setting the stage for chronic infection and disease manifestation. However, the underlying mechanism is still unknown. Spleen and thymus are important immune organs, which play a critical role in eliciting protective immune responses to ensure healing process and elimination of harmful stimuli. In the present study, the effects of MG infection on chicken spleen and thymus were investigated. The results showed that MG infection reduced antioxidant activities and induced oxidative stress in the spleen and thymus tissues. Histological examination showed normal morphology of chicken spleen and thymus in control group compared to MG infection group. In contrast, increased number of necrotic and nuclear debris, lymphocytolysis, prominent reticuloepithelial cells and loose arrangement of cells in the spleen and thymus were seen in MG-infected chickens. Ultrastructural analysis indicated nuclear and mitochondrial damage including mitochondrial swelling, deformation of nuclear membrane and congestion of chromatin material in MG infection group. The mRNA and protein expression of apoptosis-related genes were significantly upregulated in the spleen and thymus of MG-infected chickens compared to control group. Moreover, Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick endlabeling (TUNEL) assay results suggested that MG infection increased the number of positive-stained nuclei in the spleen and thymus. Meanwhile, the mRNA expression of mitochondrial dynamics in the spleen and thymus were altered by MG infection. In summary, these results showed that MG induced oxidative stress and apoptosis, which could be the possible causes associated with the immune damage, structural impairment and disease pathogenesis of MG infection.

Prospect of early vascular tone and satellite cell modulations on white striping muscle myopathy

Polyphasic myodegeneration potentially causes severe physiological and metabolic disorders in the breast muscle of fast-growing broiler chickens. To date, the etiology of recent muscle myopathies, such as the white striping (WS) phenotype, is still unknown. White striping–affected breast meats compromise the water holding capacity and predispose muscle to poor vascular tone, leading to the deterioration of meat qualities. Herein, this review article provides insight on the complexities around chicken breast myopathies: (i) the etiologies of WS occurrence in chicken; (ii) the metabolic changes that occur in WS defect in pectoralis major; and (iii) the interactions between breast muscle physiology and vascular tone. It also addressed the effects of nutritional supplements on muscle myopathies on chicken breast meats. Moreover, the review explored breast muscle biology focusing on the early preparation of satellite and vascular cells in fast-growth chicken breeds. Transcriptomics and histological analyses revealed poor vascularity in breast muscle of fast growth chickens. Thus, we suggest in ovo feeding of nutrients promoting vascularization and satellite cells replenishment as a potential strategy to enhance endothelium-derived nitric oxide availability to promote vascularization in the pectoralis major muscle region.

Marine algal polysaccharides alleviate aflatoxin B1-induced bursa of Fabricius injury by regulating redox and apoptotic signaling pathway in broilers

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) causes toxic effect and leads to organ damage in broilers. Marine algal polysaccharides (MAP) of Enteromorpha prolifera exert multiple biological activities, maybe have a potential detoxification effect on AFB1, but the related research in broilers is extremely rare. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether MAPs can alleviate AFB1-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis of bursa of Fabricius in broilers. A total of 216 five-week-old male indigenous yellow-feathered broilers (with average initial body weight 397.35 ± 6.32 g) were randomly allocated to one of three treatments (6 replicates with 12 broilers per replicate), and the trial lasted 4 wk. Experimental groups were followed as basal diet (control group); basal diet mixed with 100 μg/kg AFB1 (AFB1 group, the AFB1 is purified form); basal diet with 100 μg/kg AFB1 + 2,500 mg/kg MAPs (AFB1 + MAPs group). The results showed that the diet with AFB1 significantly decreased the relative weight of bursa of Fabricius (P < 0.05), antioxidant enzymes activities of total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and total antioxidation capacity (T-AOC), while increased malondialdehyde (MDA) content (P < 0.05). Besides, compared with AFB1 group, dietary MAPs improved the relative weight of bursa of Fabricius and activities of antioxidant enzymes (T-SOD, GSH-Px, CAT, GST) with decreased MDA contents (P < 0.05). Moreover, the consumption of AFB1 downregulated the mRNA expression of SOD1, SOD2, GSTA3, CAT1, GPX1, GPx3, GSTT1, Nrf2, HO-1, and p38MAPK (P < 0.05). Dietary MAPs upregulated the mRNA expression of SOD2, GSTA3, CAT1, GPX1, GSTT1, p38MAPK, Nrf2, and HO-1 in comparison with AFB1 group (P < 0.05). The histological analysis confirmed restoration of apoptotic cells of bursa of Fabricius (P < 0.01), which seen with MAPs supplemented broilers. Besides, dietary MAPs down-regulated the mRNA expression of caspase-3 and Bax (P < 0.05), while up-regulated the mRNA expression of Bcl-2 (P < 0.05) compared with AFB1 group. In addition, according to protein expression results, dietary MAPs up-regulated the protein expression level of antioxidant and apoptosis-associated proteins (Nrf2, HO-1, p38MAPK, Bcl-2) (P < 0.01), but down-regulated the protein expression level of caspase-3 and Bax (P < 0.01). In conclusion, dietary MAPs alleviated AFB1-induced bursa of Fabricius injury through regulating Nrf2-mediated redox and mitochondrial apoptotic signaling pathway in broilers.

Characteristics, Occurrence, Detection and Detoxification of Aflatoxins in Foods and Feeds

Mycotoxin contamination continues to be a food safety concern globally, with the most toxic being aflatoxins. On-farm aflatoxins, during food transit or storage, directly or indirectly result in the contamination of foods, which affects the liver, immune system and reproduction after infiltration into human beings and animals. There are numerous reports on aflatoxins focusing on achieving appropriate methods for quantification, precise detection and control in order to ensure consumer safety. In 2012, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 as group 1 carcinogenic substances, which are a global human health concern. Consequently, this review article addresses aflatoxin chemical properties and biosynthetic processes; aflatoxin contamination in foods and feeds; health effects in human beings and animals due to aflatoxin exposure, as well as aflatoxin detection and detoxification methods.

AFB1 Induced Transcriptional Regulation Related to Apoptosis and Lipid Metabolism in Liver of Chicken

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) leads to a major risk to poultry and its residues in meat products can also pose serious threat to human health. In this study, after feeding 165-day-old Roman laying hens for 35 days, the toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 at different concentrations were evaluated. The purpose of this study was to explore the mechanism of liver toxicosis responses to AFB1. We found that highly toxic group exposure resulted in liver fat deposition, increased interstitial space, and hepatocyte apoptosis in laying hens. Furthermore, a total of 164 differentially expressed lnRNAs and 186 differentially expressed genes were found to be highly correlated (Pearson Correlation Coefficient > 0.80, p-value < 0.05) by sequencing the transcriptome of control (CB) and highly toxic group (TB3) chickens. We also identify 29 differentially expressed genes and 19 miRNAs that have targeted regulatory relationships. Based on the liver cell apoptosis and fatty liver syndrome that this research focused on, we found that the highly toxic AFB1 led to dysregulation of the expression of PPARG and BCL6. They are cis-regulated by TU10057 and TU45776, respectively. PPARG was the target gene of gga-miR-301a-3p, gga-miR-301b-3p, and BCL6 was the target gene of gga-miR-190a-3p. In summary, highly toxic AFB1 affects the expression levels of protein-coding genes and miRNAs in the liver of Roman layer hens, as well as the expression level of long non-coding RNA in the liver, which upregulates the expression of PPARG and downregulates the expression of Bcl-6. Our study provides information on possible genetic regulatory networks in AFB1-induced hepatic fat deposition and hepatocyte apoptosis.

Lycopene alleviates AFB1-induced immunosuppression by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis in the spleen of mice

Lycopene (LYC) has been reported to exhibit antioxidant and immunoprotective activities, and our previous studies confirmed that LYC can alleviate multiple tissue damage induced by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). However, it is unclear whether LYC could relieve the AFB1-induced immunosuppression. Thus, forty-eight male mice were randomly allocated and treated with LYC (5 mg kg-1) and/or AFB1 (0.75 mg kg-1) by intragastric administration for 30 days. We found that LYC alleviated AFB1-induced immunosuppression by relieving splenic structure injury and increasing the spleen weight, spleen coefficient, T lymphocyte subsets, the contents of IL-2, IFN-γ and TNF-α in serum, as well as the mRNA expression of IL-2, IFN-γ and TNF-α in spleen. Furthermore, LYC inhibited oxidative stress induced by AFB1via decreasing the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA), while enhancing the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and antioxidant enzyme activities. In addition, LYC also restrained splenic apoptosis through blocking mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in AFB1 intoxicated mice, presenting as the increase of mitochondrial membrane potential, and the decrease of cytoplasmic Cyt-c protein expression, cleaved Caspase-3 protein expression, Caspase-3/9 activities and mRNA expressions, as well as balancing the mitochondrial protein and mRNA expressions of Bax and Bcl-2. These results indicate that LYC can alleviate AFB1-induced immunosuppression by inhibiting oxidative stress and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis of mice spleen.

Selenium Deficiency Aggravates Aflatoxin B1-Induced Immunotoxicity in Chick Spleen by Regulating 6 Selenoprotein Genes and Redox/Inflammation/Apoptotic Signaling

BACKGROUND

Selenium (Se) plays a protective role in aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced splenic immunotoxicity in chicks.

OBJECTIVE

This study was designed to reveal the underlying mechanism of Se-mediated protection against AFB1-induced splenic injury in broilers.

METHODS

Four groups of 1-d-old Cobb male broilers (n = 5 cages/diet, 6 chicks/cage) were arranged in a 3-wk 2 × 2 factorial design trial whereby they were fed an Se-deficient, corn- and soy-based diet [base diet (BD), 36 μg Se/kg], BD plus 1.0 mg AFB1/kg, BD plus 0.3 mg Se/kg, or BD plus 1.0 mg AFB1/kg and 0.3 mg Se/kg (as 2-hydroxy-4-methylselenobutanoic acid). Serum and spleen were collected at week 3 to assay for cytokines, histology, redox status, selected inflammation- and apoptosis-related genes and proteins, and the selenogenome.

RESULTS

Dietary AFB1 induced growth retardation and spleen injury, decreasing (P < 0.05) body weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion efficiency, and serum interleukin-1β by 17.8-98.1% and increasing (P < 0.05) the spleen index and serum interleukin-6 by 37.6-113%. It also reduced the splenic lymphocyte number, the white pulp region, and histiocyte proliferation in Se-adequate groups. However, Se deficiency aggravated (P < 0.05) these AFB1-induced alterations by 16.2-103%. Moreover, Se deficiency decreased (P < 0.05) splenic glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity and glutathione-S transferase and glutathione concentrations by 35.6-89.4% in AFB1-exposed groups. Furthermore, Se deficiency upregulated (P < 0.05) the apoptotic (Caspase 3 and Caspase 9) and antimicrobial (β defensin 1 and 2) genes, but downregulated (P < 0.05) antiapoptotic (B-cell lymphoma 2) and inflammatory (E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase CBL-B) genes at the mRNA and/or protein level in AFB1 supplementation groups. Additionally, Se deficiency downregulated (P < 0.05) GPX3, thioredoxin reductase 1 (TXNRD 1), GPX4, and selenoprotein (SELENO) S, and upregulated (P < 0.05) SELENOT and SELENOU in spleen in AFB1 administered groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary Se deficiency exacerbated AFB1-induced spleen injury in chicks, partially through the regulation of oxidative stress, inflammatory and apoptotic signaling, and 6 selenoproteins.

Melatonin alleviates aluminium chloride-induced immunotoxicity by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis associated with the activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway

The present study aimed to investigate whether melatonin (MT) treatment can attenuate immunotoxicity induced by aluminum chloride (AlCl₃) in rat spleen. Forty-eight healthy male Wistar rats were randomly allocated and treated with AlCl₃ and/or MT. Rats were orally administered with AlCl₃ for 90 days, from 61st days, rats were injected intraperitoneally with MT for 30 days. Firstly, we found that MT relieved the AlCl₃-induced immunosuppression by improving spleen structural damage, CD3⁺ and CD4⁺ T lymphocyte subsets, IL-2 and TNF-α mRNA expressions and decreasing CD8⁺ T lymphocyte subsets. Secondly, MT attenuated the AlCl₃-induced oxidative stress in rat spleen by decreasing the levels of ROS and MDA, while increasing the activities of SOD and CAT. Thirdly, MT relieved the AlCl₃-induced apoptosis in rat spleen by increasing the MMP and Bcl-2 mRNA and protein expressions, while decreasing apoptosis rates, activity of Caspase-3 and pro-apoptotic gene expression. Finally, MT increased Nrf2 nuclear translocation, and Nrf2 target genes (HO-1, NQO1, SOD1 and CAT) mRNA expressions in the spleen of AlCl₃-exposed rat. These results suggest that MT may alleviate AlCl₃-induced immunotoxicity by inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis associated with the activation of Nrf2 signaling pathway, which could lay the foundation for the treatment of AlCl₃ immunotoxicity.

Altered Gene Response to Aflatoxin B1 in the Spleens of Susceptible and Resistant Turkeys

Susceptibility and/or resistance to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a threshold trait governed principally by glutathione S transferase (GST)-mediated detoxification. In poultry, domesticated turkeys are highly sensitive to AFB₁, most likely due to dysfunction in hepatic GSTs. In contrast, wild turkeys are comparatively resistant to aflatoxicosis due to the presence of functional hepatic GSTAs and other possible physiological and immunological interactions. The underlying genetic basis for the disparate GST function in turkeys is unknown as are the broader molecular interactions that control the systemic response. This study quantifies the effects of dietary AFB₁ on gene expression in the turkey spleen, specifically contrasting genetically distinct domesticated (DT, susceptible) and Eastern wild (EW, resistant) birds. Male turkey poults were subjected to a short-term AFB₁ treatment protocol with feed supplemented with 320 ppb AFB₁ beginning on day 15 of age and continuing for 14 days. Spleen tissues were harvested and subjected to deep RNA sequencing and transcriptome analysis. Analysis of differential gene expression found the effects of AFB₁ treatment on the spleen transcriptomes considerably more prominent in the DT birds compared to EW. However, expression of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) was directionally biased, with the majority showing higher expression in EW (i.e., down-regulation in DT). Significantly altered pathways included FXR/RXR and LXR/RXR activation, coagulation system, prothrombin activation, acute phase response, and atherosclerosis signaling. Differential extra-hepatic expression of acute phase protein genes was confirmed by quantitative real time PCR (qRT-PCR) in the original experiment and additional turkey lines. Results demonstrate that wild turkeys possess a capacity to more effectively respond to AFB₁ exposure.

Protective Effect of Ginsenoside Rg1 on Oxidative Damage Induced by Hydrogen Peroxide in Chicken Splenic Lymphocytes

Previous investigation showed that ginsenoside Rg1 (Rg1) extracted from Panax ginseng C.A. Mey has antioxidative effect on oxidative stress in chickens. The present study was designed to investigate the protective effects of Rg1 on chicken lymphocytes against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress and the potential mechanisms. Cell viability, apoptotic cells, malondialdehyde, activity of superoxide dismutase, mitochondrial membrane potential, and [Ca²⁺]i concentration were measured, and transcriptome analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction were used to investigate the effect of Rg1 on gene expression of the cells. The results showed that treatment of lymphocytes with H₂O₂ induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. However, pretreatment of the cells with Rg1 dramatically enhanced cell viability, reduced apoptotic cells, and decreased oxidative stress induced by H₂O₂. In addition, Rg1 reduced these H₂O₂-dependent decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential and reversed [Ca²⁺]i overload. Transcriptome analysis showed that 323 genes were downregulated and 105 genes were upregulated in Rg1-treated cells. The differentially expressed genes were involved in Toll-like receptors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor signaling pathway, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction. The present study indicated that Rg1 may act as an antioxidative agent to protect cell damage caused by oxidative stress via regulating expression of genes such as RELT, EDA2R, and TLR4.

Selenium Ameliorates AFB1-Induced Excess Apoptosis in Chicken Splenocytes Through Death Receptor and Endoplasmic Reticulum Pathways

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) can cause hepatotoxicity, genotoxicity, and immunosuppressive effects for a variety of organisms. Selenium (Se), as an essential nutrient element, plays important protective effects against cell apoptosis induced by AFB₁. This research aimed to reveal the ameliorative effects of selenium on AFB₁-induced excess apoptosis in chicken splenocytes through death receptor and endoplasmic reticulum pathways in vivo. Two hundred sixteen neonatal chickens, randomized into four treatments, were fed with basal diet (control treatment), 0.4 mg/kg Se supplement (+Se treatment), 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ (AFB₁ treatment), and 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ + 0.4 mg/kg Se (AFB₁ + Se treatment) during 21 days of experiment, respectively. Compared with the AFB₁ treatment, the levels of splenocyte apoptosis in the AFB₁ + Se treatment were obviously dropped by flow cytometry and TUNEL assays although they were still significantly higher than those in the control or + Se treatments. Furthermore, the mRNA expressions of CASP-3, CASP-8 and CASP-10, GRP78, GRP94, TNF-α, TNF-R1, FAS, and FASL of splenocytes in the AFB₁ + Se treatment by qRT-PCR assay were significantly decreased compared with the AFB₁ treatment. These results indicate that Se could partially ameliorate the AFB₁-caused excessive apoptosis of chicken splenocytes through downregulation of endoplasmic reticulum and death receptor pathway molecules. This research may rich the knowledge of the detoxification mechanism of Se on AFB₁-induced apoptosis.

DNA damage checkpoint response to aflatoxin B1

Although most countries regulate the aflatoxin levels in food by legislations, high amounts of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-DNA adducts can still be detected in normal and tumorous tissue obtained from cancer patients. AFB1 cannot directly interact with DNA unless it is biotransformed to AFB1-8, 9-epoxide via cytochrome p450 enzymes. This metabolite spontaneously and irreversibly attaches to guanine residues to generate highly mutagenic DNA adducts. AFB1-induced mutation of ATM kinase results in the deterioration of the cell cycle checkpoint activation at the G2/M checkpoint site. Genomic instability and increased cancer risk due to A-T mutation is the result of diminished repair of DNA double strand breaks. The major point mutation caused by AFB1 is G-to-T transversion that is related with the high frequency of p53 mutation. Majority of AFB1 associated hepatocellular cancer cases carry TP53 mutant DNA, which is an indicator of AFB1 exposure, as well as hepatocellular cancer risk.

The Protective Role of Selenium in AFB1-Induced Tissue Damage and Cell Cycle Arrest in Chicken's Bursa of Fabricius

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a naturally occurring secondary metabolites of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, and is the most toxic form of aflatoxins. Selenium (Se) with antioxidant and detoxification functions is one of the essential trace elements for human beings and animals. This study aims to evaluate the protective effects of Se on AFB₁-induced tissue damage and cell cycle arrest in bursa of Fabricius (BF) of chickens. The results showed that a dietary supplement of 0.4 mg·kg^-1 Se alleviated the histological lesions induced by AFB₁, as demonstrated by decreasing vacuoles and nuclear debris, and relieving oxidative stress. Furthermore, flow cytometry studies showed that a Se supplement protected AFB₁-induced G₂M phase arrest at 7 days and G₀G₁ phase arrest at 14 and 21 days. Moreover, the mRNA expression results of ATM, Chk2, p53, p21, cdc25, PCNA, cyclin D₁, cyclin E₁, cyclin B₃, CDK6, CDK2, and cdc2 indicated that Se supplement could restore these parameters to be close to those in the control group. It is concluded that a dietary supplement of 0.4 mg kg^-1 Se could diminish AFB₁-induced immune toxicity in chicken's BF by alleviating oxidative damage and cell cycle arrest through an ATM-Chk2-cdc25 route and the ATM-Chk2-p21 pathway.

Oxidative Stress in Extrahepatic Tissues of Rats Co-Exposed to Aflatoxin B1 and Low Protein Diet

Early life exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and low protein diet through complementary foods during weaning is common in parts of Africa and Asia. This study evaluated the effect of co-exposure to AFB1 and low protein diet on the extrahepatic tissues of rats. Twenty-four three-week old weanling male albino rats were used for this study and were randomly assigned into four groups: group 1 served as control and was fed normal protein diet (20% protein), group 2 was fed low protein diet (5% protein), group 3 was fed normal protein diet + 40 ppb AFB1 while group 4 received low protein diet + 40 ppb AFB1, all for eight weeks. Afterward, biomarkers of anemia (packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin) and kidney function (urea, uric acid, and creatinine) were determined in the blood while biomarkers of oxidative stress were determined in the tissues spectrophotometrically. Co-exposure to AFB1 and low protein diet significantly (p < 0.05) decreased body weight gain and PCV, increased biomarkers of kidney functions and induced oxidative stress in the tissues studied. There was significant (p < 0.05) reduction in glutathione concentration while TBARS was significantly increased in the tissues. Co-exposure to AFB1 and low protein diet had additive effects on decreasing the weight gain and potentiation effect of kidney dysfunction in the rats. The co-exposure also decreased antioxidant enzymes and increased oxidant status in the tissues. Our results demonstrate that this co-exposure has deleterious health effects on extrahepatic tissues and should be a public health concern especially in developing countries where AFB1 contamination is common.

Immunotoxicity of ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 in combination is associated with the nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathway in 3D4/21 cells

The co-contamination of cereals, grains, crops, and animal feeds by mycotoxins is a universal problem. Humans and animals are exposed to several mycotoxins simultaneously as evidenced by extensive studies on this topic. Yet, most studies have addressed the effects of mycotoxins individually. Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A can induce immunotoxicity. However, it remains unclear whether a combination of these mycotoxins aggravates immunotoxicity and the potential mechanism underlying this effect. In this study, we used the cell line 3D4/21, swine alveolus macrophages and innate immune cell. The results showed that the percentage of cell inhibition, annexin V/PI-positive rates, and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6) significantly increased and the release of lactate dehydrogenase and phagocytotic index were significantly decreased at different concentrations of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A combination when compared with control. The combination of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A significantly decreased the production of GSH and increased reactive oxygen species level. However, N-acetylcysteine suppressed the oxidative stress and alleviated the immunotoxicity induced by the combination. The combination of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A markedly enhanced the degradation of IκBa, the phosphorylation of nuclear factor kappa B (p65), and the translocation of activated nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) into the nuclei as demonstrated by western blotting and confocal laser scanning microscopy. These effects could be reversed by BAY 11-7082, a specific inhibitor of NF-κB. Taken together, a combination of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A could aggravate immunotoxicity by activating the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Histopathological Injuries, Ultrastructural Changes, and Depressed TLR Expression in the Small Intestine of Broiler Chickens with Aflatoxin B₁

To explore AFB₁-induced damage of the small intestine, the changes in structure and expression of TLRs (Toll-like Receptors) in the small intestine of chickens were systematically investigated. Ninety healthy neonatal Cobb chickens were randomized into a control group (0 mg/kg AFB₁) and an AFB₁ group (0.6 mg/kg AFB₁). The crypt depth of the small intestine in the AFB₁ group was significantly increased in comparison to the control chickens, while the villus height and area were evidently decreased, as well as the villus:crypt ratio and epithelial thickness. The histopathological observations showed that the villi of the small intestine exposed to AFB₁ were obviously shedding. Based on ultrastructural observation, the absorptive cells of small intestine in the AFB₁ group exhibited fewer microvilli, mitochondrial vacuolation and the disappearance of mitochondrial cristae, and junctional complexes as well as terminal web. Moreover, the number of goblet cells in the small intestine in the AFB₁ group significantly decreased. Also, AFB₁ evidently decreased the mRNA expression of TLR2-2, TLR4, and TLR7 in the small intestine. Taken together, our study indicated that dietary 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ could induce histopathological injuries and ultrastructural changes, and depress levels of TLR mRNA in the chicken small intestine.

Aflatoxin B1 invokes apoptosis via death receptor pathway in hepatocytes

The fungal metabolites produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus cause detrimental health effects on humans and animals. Particularly aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most studied and a well-known global carcinogen, producing hepatotoxic, genotoxic and immunotoxic effects in multiple species. AFB1 is shown to provoke liver dysfunctioning by causing hepatocytes apoptosis and disturbing cellular enzymatic activities. In liver, AFB1 causes apoptosis via extrinsic mechanism because of high expression of death receptor pathway. The detailed mechanism of AFB1 induced hepatocytes apoptosis, via death receptor pathway still remains elusive. So the present study was conducted to explore apoptotic mechanism initiated by death receptors and associated genes in aflatoxin B1 induced liver apoptosis in chickens fed with AFB1 for 3 weeks. Results from the present study displayed histopathological and ultrastructural changes in liver such as hydropic degeneration, fatty vacuolar degeneration and proliferation of bile duct in hepatocytes in AFB1 group, along with imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defense system upon AFB1 ingestion. Moreover, AFB1 intoxicated chickens showed upregulation of death receptors FAS, TNFR1 and associated genes and downregulation of inhibitory apoptotic proteins XIAP and BCL-2. The results obtained from this novel and comprehensive study including histopathological, ultrastructural, flow cytometrical and death receptor pathway gene expression profiles, will facilitate better understanding of mechanisms and involvement of death receptor pathway in hepatocytes apoptosis induced by AFB1 and ultimately may be helpful in bringing down the toxigenic potential of AFB1.

The mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum pathways involved in the apoptosis of bursa of Fabricius cells in broilers exposed to dietary aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), a toxic metabolite produced by some fungi, exerts well-known hepatocarcinogenic and immunosuppressive effects, the latter can increase the apoptotic immune cells in vitro. However, it is largely unknown that which signaling pathways contribute to excessive apoptosis of immune cells which induced by AFB₁. In this study, we investigated the roles of the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and death receptor activated apoptotic pathways in the bursal of Fabricius (BF) cells in the broilers exposed to AFB₁ diet. We found that (1) AFB₁ diet induced morphological changes in the BF. (2) FCM and TUNEL methods showed that excessive apoptosis could be resulted from AFB₁ intake. (3) AFB₁-induced apoptosis of bursal cells involved mitochondrial pathway (increase of Bax, Bak, cytC, caspase-9, Apaf-1, caspase-3 and decrease of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL) and ER pathway (increase of Grp78/Bip, Grp94 and CaM). (4) Oxidative stress was confirmed in the BF of chicken fed on AFB₁ diet. Overall, this work is the first to demonstrate that the activation of mitochondria and ER apoptosis pathways can lead to excessive apoptosis in BF cells, and oxidative stress is a crucial driver during AFB₁ exposure.

The molecular mechanism of cell cycle arrest in the Bursa of Fabricius in chick exposed to Aflatoxin B 1

Aflatoxin B₁ shows potent hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, genotoxic, immunotoxic potential in humans and many species of animals. The aim of this study was to clarify the underlying mechanism of G₀G₁ phase and G₂M phase arrest of cell cycle in the bursa of Fabricius in broilers exposed to dietary AFB₁. 144 one-day-old healthy Cobb broilers were randomly divided into two groups and fed on control diet and 0.6 mg·Kg⁻¹ AFB₁ diet for 3 weeks. Histological observation showed that AFB₁ induced the increase of nuclear debris and vacuoles in lymphoid follicle of BF. Results of flow cytometry studies showed that bursal cells arrested in G₂M phase at 7 days of age and blocked in G₀G₁ phase at 14 and 21 days of age following exposure to AFB₁. The qRT-PCR analysis indicated that cell cycle arrested in G₂M phase via ATM-Chk2-cdc25-cyclin B/cdc2 pathway, and blocked in G₀G₁ phase through ATM-Chk2-cdc25-cyclin D/CDK6 pathway and ATM-Chk2-p21-cyclin D/CDK6 route. In a word, our results provided new insights that AFB₁ diet induced G₂M and G₀G₁ phase blockage of BF cells in different periods, and different pathways were activated in different arrested cell cycle phase.

Comparative Response of the Hepatic Transcriptomes of Domesticated and Wild Turkey to Aflatoxin B₁

The food-borne mycotoxin aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) poses a significant risk to poultry, which are highly susceptible to its hepatotoxic effects. Domesticated turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) are especially sensitive, whereas wild turkeys (M. g. silvestris) are more resistant. AFB₁ toxicity entails bioactivation by hepatic cytochrome P450s to the electrophilic exo-AFB₁-8,9-epoxide (AFBO). Domesticated turkeys lack functional hepatic GST-mediated detoxification of AFBO, and this is largely responsible for the differences in resistance between turkey types. This study was designed to characterize transcriptional changes induced in turkey livers by AFB₁, and to contrast the response of domesticated (susceptible) and wild (more resistant) birds. Gene expression responses to AFB₁ were examined using RNA-sequencing. Statistically significant differences in gene expression were observed among treatment groups and between turkey types. Expression analysis identified 4621 genes with significant differential expression (DE) in AFB₁-treated birds compared to controls. Characterization of DE transcripts revealed genes dis-regulated in response to toxic insult with significant association of Phase I and Phase II genes and others important in cellular regulation, modulation of apoptosis, and inflammatory responses. Constitutive expression of GSTA3 was significantly higher in wild birds and was significantly higher in AFB₁-treated birds when compared to controls for both genetic groups. This pattern was also observed by qRT-PCR in other wild and domesticated turkey strains. Results of this study emphasize the differential response of these genetically distinct birds, and identify genes and pathways that are differentially altered in aflatoxicosis.

The mitochondrial and death receptor pathways involved in the thymocytes apoptosis induced by aflatoxin B1

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a potent immunosuppressive agent in endotherms, which can be related to the up-regulated apoptosis of immune organs. In this study, we investigated the roles of the mitochondrial, death receptor, and endoplasmic reticulum pathways in Aflatoxin B₁ induced thymocytes apoptosis. Chickens were fed an aflatoxin B₁ containing diet (0.6 mg/kg AFB₁) for 3 weeks. Our results showed that (1) AFB₁ diet induced the decrease of T-cell subsets, morphological changes, and excessive apoptosis of thymus. (2) The excessive apoptosis involved the mitochondrial pathway (up-regulation of Bax, Bak, cytC and down-regulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL) and death receptor pathway (up-regulation of FasL, Fas and FADD). (3) Oxidative stress, an apoptosis inducer, was confirmed in the thymus. In conclusion, this is the first study to demonstrate that mitochondrial and death receptor pathways involved in AFB₁ induced thymocytes apoptosis in broilers.

Aflatoxin B1 affects apoptosis and expression of death receptor and endoplasmic reticulum molecules in chicken spleen

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a natural product of the Aspergillus genus of molds, which grow on several foodstuffs stored in hot moist conditions, and is among the most potent hepatocarcinogens and immunosuppression presently known. The latter was related to the up-regulated apoptosis of immune organs. However, the effect of expression of death receptor and endoplasmic reticulum molecules in AFB₁-induced apoptosis of chicken splenocytes was largely unknown. The objective of this study was to investigate this unknown field. One hundred and forty four one-day-old chickens were randomly divided into control group (0 mg/kg AFB₁) and AFB₁ group (0.6 mg/kg AFB₁), respectively and fed with AFB₁ for 21 days. Histological observation demonstrated that AFB₁ caused slight congestion and lymphocytic depletion in the spleen. TUNEL and flow cytometry assays showed the excessive apoptosis of splenocytes provoked by AFB₁. Moreover, quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that AFB₁ induced the elevated mRNA expression of Fas, FasL, TNF-α, TNF-R₁, Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-10, Grp78 and Grp94 in the spleen. These findings suggested that AFB₁ could lead the excessive apoptosis and alter the expression of death receptor and endoplasmic reticulum molecules in chicken spleen.

Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Change in Meat Quality of the Breast Muscle of Broilers Is Mediated by ROS Generation, Apoptosis, and Autophagy in the NF-κB Signal Pathway

We investigated the relationship between meat quality and oxidative damage caused by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the breast muscle of broilers. Moreover, we explored the occurrence of apoptosis and autophagy, as well as the expression of NF-κB in these signaling pathways to provide evidence of possible oxidative damage mechanisms. The broilers received a basal diet and were randomly divided into five treatments (noninjected control, 0.75% saline-injected, and 2.5%, 5.0%, or 10.0% H₂O₂-injected treatments; 1.0 mL/kg in body weight). The results showed that oxidative stress induced by H₂O₂ had a negative effect on relative muscle weight, histomorphology, and redox status, while the underlying oxidative damage caused a decline in meat quality (decrease of pH_24h, 10% H₂O₂ treatment; increase of shear force, 5% and 10% H₂O₂ treatments) of broilers. This could be attributed to the apoptosis and autophagy processes triggered by excessive reactive oxygen species that suppress the NF-κB signaling pathway.