Roles of suprachiasmatic nuclei and intergeniculate leaflets in mediating the phase-shifting effects of a serotonergic agonist and their photic modulation during subjective day

Effects of prenatal exposure to fluoxetine on circadian rhythmicity in the locomotor activity and neuropeptide Y and 5-HT expression in male and female adult Wistar rats

Serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors, such as fluoxetine, are the most prescribed antidepressant for maternal depression. In this sense, it exposes mothers and the brains of infants to increased modulatory and trophic effects of serotonergic neurotransmission. 5-HT promotes essential brain changes throughout its development, which include neuron migration, differentiation, and organization of neural circuitries related to emotional, cognitive, and circadian behavior. Early exposure to the SSRIs induces long-term effects on behavioral and neural serotonergic signalization. We have aimed to evaluate the circadian rhythm of locomotor activity and the neurochemical content, neuropeptide Y (NPY) and 5-HT in three brain areas: intergeniculate leaflet (IGL), suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) and raphe nuclei (RN), at two zeitgebers (ZT6 and ZT18), in male and female rat's offspring early exposed (developmental period GD13-GD21) to fluoxetine (20mg/kg). First, we have conducted daily records of the locomotor activity rhythm using activity sensors coupled to individual cages over four weeks. We have lastly evaluated the immunoreactivity of NPY in both SCN and IGL, and as well the 5-HT expression in the dorsal and medial RN. In summary, our results showed that (1) prenatal fluoxetine affects phase entrainment of the rest/activity rhythm at ZT6 and ZT18, more in male than female specimens, and (2) modulates the NPY and 5-HT expression. Here, we show male rats are more susceptible to phase entrainment and the NPY and 5-HT misexpression compared to female ones. The sex differences induced by early exposure to fluoxetine in both the circadian rhythm of locomotor activity and the neurochemical expression into SCN, IGL, and midbrain raphe are an important highlight in the present work. Thus, our results may help to improve the knowledge on neurobiological mechanisms of circadian rhythms and are relevant to understanding the "broken brains" and behavioral abnormalities of offspring early exposed to antidepressants.

Distinct feedback actions of behavioural arousal to the master circadian clock in nocturnal and diurnal mammals

The master clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus provides a temporal pattern of sleep and wake that - like many other behavioural and physiological rhythms - is oppositely phased in nocturnal and diurnal animals. The SCN primarily uses environmental light, perceived through the retina, to synchronize its endogenous circadian rhythms with the exact 24 h light/dark cycle of the outside world. The light responsiveness of the SCN is maximal during the night in both nocturnal and diurnal species. Behavioural arousal during the resting period not only perturbs sleep homeostasis, but also acts as a potent non-photic synchronizing cue. The feedback action of arousal on the SCN is mediated by processes involving several brain nuclei and neurotransmitters, which ultimately change the molecular functions of SCN pacemaker cells. Arousing stimuli during the sleeping period differentially affect the circadian system of nocturnal and diurnal species, as evidenced by the different circadian windows of sensitivity to behavioural arousal. In addition, arousing stimuli reduce and increase light resetting in nocturnal and diurnal species, respectively. It is important to address further question of circadian impairments associated with shift work and trans-meridian travel not only in the standard nocturnal laboratory animals but also in diurnal animal models.

Circadian Rhythm Disturbances in Mood Disorders: Insights into the Role of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

Circadian rhythm disturbances are a common symptom among individuals with mood disorders. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), in the ventral part of the anterior hypothalamus, orchestrates physiological and behavioral circadian rhythms. The SCN consists of self-sustaining oscillators and receives photic and nonphotic cues, which entrain the SCN to the external environment. In turn, through synaptic and hormonal mechanisms, the SCN can drive and synchronize circadian rhythms in extra-SCN brain regions and peripheral tissues. Thus, genetic or environmental perturbations of SCN rhythms could disrupt brain regions more closely related to mood regulation and cause mood disturbances. Here, we review clinical and preclinical studies that provide evidence both for and against a causal role for the SCN in mood disorders.

Serotonin, a possible intermediate between disturbed circadian rhythms and metabolic disease

It is evident that eating in misalignment with the biological clock (such as in shift work, eating late at night and skipping breakfast) is associated with increased risk for obesity and diabetes. The biological clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus dictates energy balance including feeding behavior and glucose metabolism. Besides eating and sleeping patterns, glucose metabolism also exhibits clear diurnal variations with higher blood glucose concentrations, glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity prior to waking up. The daily variation in plasma glucose concentrations in rats, is independent of the rhythm in feeding behavior. On the other hand, feeding itself has profound effects on glucose metabolism, but differential effects occur depending on the time of the day. We here review data showing that a disturbed diurnal eating pattern results in alterations in glucose metabolism induced by a disrupted circadian clock. We first describe the role of central serotonin on feeding behavior and glucose metabolism and subsequently describe the effects of central serotonin on the circadian system. We next explore the interaction between the serotonergic system and the circadian clock in conditions of disrupted diurnal rhythms in feeding and how this might be involved in the metabolic dysregulation that occurs with chronodisruption.

Circadian rhythmicity in serotonin transporter knockout mice

AIMS

Serotonin transporter knockout (5-HTT KO) mice exhibit elevated basal extracellular serotonin, increased depressive-like behaviors and increased rapid eye movement sleep. Because abnormalities of circadian rhythms are associated with mood disorders, we tested the hypothesis that 5-HTT KO mice would have altered circadian rhythmicity.

MAIN METHODS

Homecage locomotor activity was recorded in wild-type (WT) and KO mice under a standard 12:12 light-dark cycle. After 4weeks of recording, mice received a one-hour light pulse at circadian time (CT) 14 and then were kept under constant darkness for 3weeks.

KEY FINDINGS

There were no significant differences in amplitude, period, acrophase or total home cage locomotor activity between WT and KO mice during the 12:12 light-dark cycle or during constant darkness. The mean phase delay to a CT 14 light pulse was significantly attenuated in KO compared to WT mice.

SIGNIFICANCE

Acute increases in serotonin have been reported to attenuate photic phase shifts. The current study demonstrates that this effect is maintained in the face of a lifelong absence of 5-HTT.

Cocaine modulates pathways for photic and nonphotic entrainment of the mammalian SCN circadian clock

Cocaine abuse is highly disruptive to circadian physiological and behavioral rhythms. The present study was undertaken to determine whether such effects are manifest through actions on critical photic and nonphotic regulatory pathways in the master circadian clock of the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Impairment of SCN photic signaling by systemic (intraperitoneal) cocaine injection was evidenced by strong (60%) attenuation of light-induced phase-delay shifts of circadian locomotor activity during the early night. A nonphotic action of cocaine was apparent from its induction of 1-h circadian phase-advance shifts at midday. The serotonin receptor antagonist, metergoline, blocked shifting by 80%, implicating a serotonergic mechanism. Reverse microdialysis perfusion of the SCN with cocaine at midday induced 3.7 h phase-advance shifts. Control perfusions with lidocaine and artificial cerebrospinal fluid had little shifting effect. In complementary in vitro experiments, photic-like phase-delay shifts of the SCN circadian neuronal activity rhythm induced by glutamate application to the SCN were completely blocked by cocaine. Cocaine treatment of SCN slices alone at subjective midday, but not the subjective night, induced 3-h phase-advance shifts. Lidocaine had no shifting effect. Cocaine-induced phase shifts were completely blocked by metergoline, but not by the dopamine receptor antagonist, fluphenazine. Finally, pretreatment of SCN slices for 2 h with a low concentration of serotonin agonist (to block subsequent serotonergic phase resetting) abolished cocaine-induced phase shifts at subjective midday. These results reveal multiple effects of cocaine on adult circadian clock regulation that are registered within the SCN and involve enhanced serotonergic transmission.

Feedback actions of locomotor activity to the circadian clock

The phase of the mammalian circadian system can be entrained to a range of environmental stimuli, or zeitgebers, including food availability and light. Further, locomotor activity can act as an entraining signal and represents a mechanism for an endogenous behavior to feedback and influence subsequent circadian function. This process involves a number of nuclei distributed across the brain stem, thalamus, and hypothalamus and ultimately alters SCN electrical and molecular function to induce phase shifts in the master circadian pacemaker. Locomotor activity feedback to the circadian system is effective across both nocturnal and diurnal species, including humans, and has recently been shown to improve circadian function in a mouse model with a weakened circadian system. This raises the possibility that exercise may be useful as a noninvasive treatment in cases of human circadian dysfunction including aging, shift work, transmeridian travel, and the blind.

Chronic unpredictable stress induces a reversible change of PER2 rhythm in the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Many clinical studies have shown that circadian rhythm abnormalities are strongly associated with major depression. The master clock of the circadian system in mammals is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) within the anterior hypothalamus, where Per1 and Per2 are essential core components of circadian rhythm oscillation. Chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) is a reliable animal model of depression with good face, predictive, and constructive validity. In the present study, we investigated the effects of CUS on the circadian expression of PER1 and PER2 in the SCN. We found that CUS led to depressive-like behavior and reduced the amplitude of PER2 oscillation in the SCN, which were blocked by 3 weeks of desipramine (DMI) treatment. 2 weeks after termination of CUS, the decreased peak of PER2 expression returned to control levels, whereas depressive-like behavior remained unchanged. Our findings suggest that the dampened amplitude of PER2 expression in the SCN may participate in the development of depressive-like behavior induced by CUS but is unlikely involved in the long-lasting effects of CUS on depressive-like behavior.

Acute ethanol disrupts photic and serotonergic circadian clock phase-resetting in the mouse

BACKGROUND

Alcohol dependence is associated with impaired circadian rhythms and sleep. Ethanol administration disrupts circadian clock phase-resetting, suggesting a mode for the disruptive effect of alcohol dependence on the circadian timing system. In this study, we extend previous work in C57BL/6J mice to: (i) characterize the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) pharmacokinetics of acute systemic ethanol administration, (ii) explore the effects of acute ethanol on photic and nonphotic phase-resetting, and (iii) determine if the SCN is a direct target for photic effects.

METHODS

First, microdialysis was used to characterize the pharmacokinetics of acute intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of 3 doses of ethanol (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g/kg) in the mouse SCN circadian clock. Second, the effects of acute i.p. ethanol administration on photic phase delays and serotonergic ([+]8-OH-DPAT-induced) phase advances of the circadian activity rhythm were assessed. Third, the effects of reverse-microdialysis ethanol perfusion of the SCN on photic phase-resetting were characterized.

RESULTS

Peak ethanol levels from the 3 doses of ethanol in the SCN occurred within 20 to 40 minutes postinjection with half-lives for clearance ranging from 0.6 to 1.8 hours. Systemic ethanol treatment dose-dependently attenuated photic and serotonergic phase-resetting. This treatment also did not affect basal SCN neuronal activity as assessed by Fos expression. Intra-SCN perfusion with ethanol markedly reduced photic phase delays.

CONCLUSIONS

These results confirm that acute ethanol attenuates photic phase-delay shifts and serotonergic phase-advance shifts in the mouse. This dual effect could disrupt photic and nonphotic entrainment mechanisms governing circadian clock timing. It is also significant that the SCN clock is a direct target for disruptive effects of ethanol on photic shifting. Such actions by ethanol could underlie the disruptive effects of alcohol abuse on behavioral, physiological, and endocrine rhythms associated with alcoholism.

On the intrinsic regulation of neuropeptide Y release in the mammalian suprachiasmatic nucleus circadian clock

Timing of the circadian clock of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is regulated by photic and non-photic inputs. Of these, neuropeptide Y (NPY) signaling from the intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) to the SCN plays a prominent role. Although NPY is critical to clock regulation, neither the mechanisms modulating IGL NPY neuronal activity nor the nature of regulatory NPY signaling in the SCN clock are understood, as NPY release in the SCN has never been measured. Here, microdialysis procedures for in vivo measurement of NPY were used in complementary experiments to address these questions. First, neuronal release of NPY in the hamster SCN was rhythmic under a 14L : 10D photocycle, with the acrophase soon after lights-on and the nadir at midday. No rhythmic fluctuation in NPY occurred under constant darkness. Second, a behavioral phase-resetting stimulus (wheel-running at midday that induces IGL serotonin release) acutely stimulated SCN NPY release. Third, bilateral IGL microinjection of the serotonin agonist, (+/-)-2-dipropyl-amino-8-hydroxyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronapthalene (8-OH-DPAT) (another non-photic phase-resetting stimulant), at midday enhanced SCN NPY release. Conversely, similar application of the serotonin antagonist, metergoline, abolished wheel-running-induced SCN NPY release. IGL microinjection of the GABA agonist, muscimol, suppressed SCN NPY release. These results support an intra-IGL mechanism whereby behavior-induced serotonergic activity suppresses inhibitory GABAergic transmission, promoting NPY activity and subsequent phase resetting. Collectively, these results confirm IGL-mediated NPY release in the SCN and verify that its daily rhythm of release is dependent upon the 14L : 10D photocycle, and that it is modulated by appropriately-timed phase-resetting behavior, probably mediated by serotonergic activation of NPY units in the IGL.

Phenotype and function of raphe projections to the suprachiasmatic nucleus

The circadian clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), receives a major afferent from the median raphe nucleus (MRN). In the Syrian hamster, only about 50% of the cells giving rise to this afferent contain serotonin. There is mixed evidence as to whether the serotonergic portion of this projection is involved in non-photic phase shifting of circadian locomotor rhythms. In order to better characterize the non-serotonergic projections, we conducted retrograde tract tracing using the beta subunit of cholera toxin combined with multi-label immunohistochemistry. Similar to previous findings, almost half of the retrogradely labeled cells contained serotonin. Additionally, approximately 30% of the retrogradely labeled cells contained vesicular glutamate transporter 3 (VGLUT3), but not serotonin. Surprisingly, some dorsal raphe cholera toxin labeling was also noted, particularly in animals with central-SCN injections. To determine if the non-serotonergic projections were important for non-photic phase shifts elicited by MRN stimulation, the MRN was electrically stimulated in animals pretreated with SCN injection of either the serotonin neurotoxin 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine or vehicle control. Intact animals phase advanced to midday electrical stimulation of the raphe while lesioned animals did not. Together, these results show that although some of the non-serotonergic raphe projections to the SCN contain VGLUT3, it is the serotonergic raphe innervation of the SCN that is critical for non-photic phase shifting elicited by MRN stimulation.

Circadian clock resetting by behavioral arousal: neural correlates in the midbrain raphe nuclei and locus coeruleus

Some procedures for stimulating arousal in the usual daily rest period (e.g., gentle handling, novel wheel-induced running) can phase shift circadian rhythms in Syrian hamsters, while other arousal procedures are ineffective (inescapable stress, caffeine, modafinil). The dorsal and median raphe nuclei (DRN, MnR) have been implicated in clock resetting by arousal and, in rats and mice, exhibit strong regionally specific responses to inescapable stress and anxiogenic drugs. To examine a possible role for the midbrain raphe nuclei in the differential effects of arousal procedures on circadian rhythms, hamsters were aroused for 3 h in the mid-rest period by confinement to a novel running wheel, gentle handling (with minimal activity) or physical restraint (with intermittent, loud compressed air stimulation) and sacrificed immediately thereafter. Regional expression of c-fos and tryptophan hydroxylase (TrpOH) were quantified immunocytochemically in the DRN, MnR and locus coeruleus (LC). Neither gentle handling nor wheel running had a large impact on c-fos expression in these areas, although the manipulations were associated with a small increase in c-Fos in TrpOH-like and TrpOH-negative cells, respectively, in the caudal interfascicular DRN region. By contrast, restraint stress significantly increased c-Fos in both TrpOH-like and TrpOH-negative cells in the rostral DRN and LC. c-Fos-positive cells in the DRN did not express tyrosine hydroxylase. These results reveal regionally specific monoaminergic correlates of arousal-induced circadian clock resetting, and suggest a hypothesis that strong activation of some DRN and LC neurons by inescapable stress may oppose clock resetting in response to arousal during the daily sleep period. More generally, these results complement evidence from other rodent species for functional topographic organization of the DRN.

Functional neuroanatomy of sleep and circadian rhythms

The daily sleep-wake cycle is perhaps the most dramatic overt manifestation of the circadian timing system, and this is especially true for the monophasic sleep-wake cycle of humans. Considerable recent progress has been made in elucidating the neurobiological mechanisms underlying sleep and arousal, and more generally, of circadian rhythmicity in behavioral and physiological systems. This paper broadly reviews these mechanisms from a functional neuroanatomical and neurochemical perspective, highlighting both historical and recent advances. In particular, I focus on the neural pathways underlying reciprocal interactions between the sleep-regulatory and circadian timing systems, and the functional implications of these interactions. While these two regulatory systems have often been considered in isolation, sleep-wake and circadian regulation are closely intertwined processes controlled by extensively integrated neurobiological mechanisms.

New light on the serotonergic paradox in the rat circadian system

The main mammalian circadian clock, localized in the suprachiasmatic nuclei can be synchronized not only with light, but also with serotonergic activation. Serotonergic agonists and serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine) have a non-photic influence (shifting effects during daytime and attenuation of photic resetting during nighttime) on hamsters' and mice' main clock. Surprisingly, in rats serotonergic modulation of the clock shows essentially photic-like features in vivo (shifting effects during nighttime). To delineate this apparent paradox, we analyzed the effects of fluoxetine and serotonin agonists on rats' clock. First, fluoxetine induced behavioral phase-advances associated with down-regulated expression of the clock genes Per1 and Rorbeta and up-regulated expression of Rev-erbalpha during daytime. Moreover, fluoxetine produced an attenuation of light-induced phase-advances in association with altered expression of Per1, Per2 and Rorbeta during nighttime. Second, we showed that 5-HT(1A) receptors -maybe with co-activation of 5-HT(7) receptors- were implicated in non-photic effects on the main clock. By contrast, 5-HT(3) and 5-HT(2C) receptors were involved in photic-like effects and, for 5-HT(2C) subtype only, in potentiation of photic resetting. Thus this study demonstrates that as for other nocturnal rodents, a global activation of the serotonergic system induces non-photic effects in the rats' clock during daytime and nighttime.

Brief constant light accelerates serotonergic re-entrainment to large shifts of the daily light/dark cycle

Brief ( approximately 2 day) constant light exposure (LL(b)) in hamsters dramatically enhances circadian phase-resetting induced by the 5-HT receptor agonist, (+/-)-2-dipropyl-amino-8-hydroxyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronapthalene (8-OH-DPAT) and other nonphotic stimuli. The present study was undertaken to determine if LL(b) can also amplify phase-resetting responses to endogenous 5-HT and accelerate re-entrainment to large-magnitude advance and delay shifts of the light/dark (LD) cycle. First, central serotonergic activity was increased by i.p. injection of L-tryptophan+/-the 5-HT reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine. Hamsters under LD or exposed to LL(b) received vehicle or drugs during the early morning, and phase-shifts of the locomotor activity rhythm were measured after release to constant darkness. Neither drug phase-shifted animals not exposed to LL(b) (P>0.5 vs. vehicle); however in animals receiving LL(b,)L-tryptophan with and without fluoxetine produced large phase-advance shifts (means=2.5+/-0.4 h and 2.6+/-0.2 h, respectively; both P<0.035 vs. vehicle). Next, the effects of LL(b) combined with 8-OH-DPAT or L-tryptophan+fluoxetine on serotonergic re-entrainment to 10 h phase-advance and phase-delay shifts of the LD cycle were assessed. In groups not exposed to LL(b), vehicle controls re-entrained slowly to the advance and delay shifts (means=16+/-1 and 24+/-4 days, respectively), but those treated with 8-OH-DPAT re-entrained faster (means=11+/-2 and 9+/-2 days, respectively; both P<0.05 vs. vehicle). In groups exposed to LL(b), vehicle controls re-entrained slowly to the advance and delay shifts (means=15+/-2 and 25+/-3 days, respectively); however those receiving 8-OH-DPAT rapidly re-entrained to the delay and advance shifts, with the majority (75%) requiring only 1-2 days (means=2+/-1 and 4+/-2 days, respectively; both P<0.05 vs. vehicle). Animals exposed to LL(b) and treated with L-tryptophan+fluoxetine also exhibited accelerated re-entrainment to a 10 h advance shift (mean=5+/-2 days; P<0.05 vs. vehicle). Thus through enhancing serotonergic phase-resetting, LL(b) facilitates rapid re-entrainment to large shifts of the LD cycle which offers a potential approach for treating circadian-related desynchronies.

Altered photic and non-photic phase shifts in 5-HT(1A) receptor knockout mice

The mammalian circadian clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is thought to be modulated by 5-HT. 5-HT is though to inhibit photic phase shifts by inhibiting the release of glutamate from retinal terminals, as well as by decreasing the responsiveness of retinorecipient cells in the SCN. Furthermore, there is also evidence that 5-HT may underlie, in part, non-photic phase shifts of the circadian system. Understanding the mechanism by which 5-HT accomplishes these goals is complicated by the wide variety of 5-HT receptors found in the SCN, the heterogeneous organization of both the circadian clock and the location of 5-HT receptors, and by a lack of sufficiently selective pharmacological agents for the 5-HT receptors of interest. Genetically modified animals engineered to lack a specific 5-HT receptor present an alternative avenue of investigation to understand how 5-HT regulates the circadian system. Here we examine behavioral and molecular responses to both photic and non-photic stimuli in mice lacking the 5-HT(1A) receptor. When compared with wild-type controls, these mice exhibit larger phase advances to a short late-night light pulse and larger delays to long 12 h light pulses that span the whole subjective night. Fos and mPer1 expression in the retinorecipient SCN is significantly attenuated following late-night light pulses in the 5-HT(1A) knockout animals. Finally, non-photic phase shifts to (+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(dipropylamino)tetralin hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT) are lost in the knockout animals, while attenuation of the phase shift to the long light pulse due to rebound activity following a wheel lock is unaffected. These findings suggest that the 5-HT(1A) receptor plays an inhibitory role in behavioral phase shifts, a facilitatory role in light-induced gene expression, a necessary role in phase shifts to 8-OH-DPAT, and is not necessary for activity-induced phase advances that oppose photic phase shifts to long light pulses.

Serotonergic potentiation of dark pulse-induced phase-shifting effects at midday in hamsters

In mammals, resetting of the suprachiasmatic clock (SCN) by behavioral activation or serotonin (5-HT) agonists is mimicked by dark pulses, presented during subjective day in constant light (LL). Because behavioral resetting may be mediated in part by 5-HT inputs to the SCN, here we determined whether 5-HT system can modulate dark-induced phase-shifts in Syrian hamsters housed in LL. Two hours of darkness at mid-subjective day (circadian time 6; CT-6) resulted in increased concentrations of 5-HT in the SCN tissue and induction of c-FOS expression in the raphe nuclei. Injections of the 5-HT(1A/7) agonist +8-OH-DPAT or dark pulses at CT-6 induced phase-advances of the wheel-running activity rhythm and down-regulated the expression of the clock genes Per1-2 and c-FOS in the SCN in a similar way. The combination of both treatments [+8-OH-DPAT + dark pulses], however, resulted in larger phase-advances, while associated molecular changes were not significantly modified, except for the gene Dbp, in comparison to +8-OH-DPAT or dark pulses alone. Dark resetting was blocked by pre-treatment with a 5-HT(7) antagonist, but not with a 5-HT(1A) antagonist. The additive phase-shifts of two different cues to reset the SCN clock open wide the gateway for non-photic shifting, leading to new strategies in chronotherapy.

5-HT3 receptor-mediated photic-like responses of the circadian clock in the rat

Serotonin (5-HT) and 5-HT agonists have various resetting effects on the master clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), depending on the species. In rats, they induce photic-like effects on both locomotor activity rhythms and gene expression in the SCN. The 5-HT receptor(s) mediating these effects at circadian time 22 are localized in the SCN, most likely at a presynaptic level, on the retinohypothalamic terminals (RHT) known to convey photic information by releasing glutamate. Indeed, RHT degeneration blocks photic-like effects of a non-specific 5-HT agonist, quipazine. However, the 5-HT receptor subtype(s) involved is still unknown, although 5-HT(3) receptor activation is known to induce glutamate release. We thus analyzed the effects of selective 5-HT(3) agonist and antagonist, as well as a specific NMDA receptor antagonist, on different parameters of the clock. This study shows that the 5-HT(3) receptor mediates the resetting effects of quipazine on locomotor activity rhythms. The 5-HT(3) receptor is only partially implicated in quipazine-induced expression of c-FOS, while NMDA receptor inhibition blocks quipazine photic-like effects on both parameters. Taken together, photic-like responses produced by 5-HT stimulation in rats are likely mediated by (presynaptic?) 5-HT(3) receptor activation followed by NMDA receptor activation.

Serotonergic pre-treatments block in vitro serotonergic phase shifts of the mouse suprachiasmatic nucleus circadian clock

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) contains a circadian clock that maintains its time-generating and phase-modulating capacities in vitro. Previous studies report clear differences in the ability of serotonergic stimuli to phase-shift the SCN clock when applied directly to the SCN either in vivo or in vitro: while mice and rat circadian clocks are readily phase-shifted by serotonin (5-HT) or 5-HT agonists applied in vitro, hamster and mice circadian clocks respond inconsistently to 5-HT agonists injected directly into the SCN in vivo. Here we have investigated one possible explanation for these differences: that the SCN isolated in vitro experiences reduced endogenous 5-HT signaling, which increases clock sensitivity to subsequent 5-HT stimulation. For these experiments we treated mouse SCN brain slices with low concentrations of compounds that increase serotonin signaling: 5-HT, a 5-HT agonist (8-OH-DPAT), the 5-HT precursor, l-tryptophan, or the 5-HT re-uptake inhibitor, fluoxetine. Pretreatment with each of these substances completely blocked subsequent phase-shifts induced by mid-subjective day treatment with either 5-HT or 8-OH-DPAT, while they did not block phase-shifts induced by the adenylate cyclase activator, forskolin. Time-course data on l-tryptophan-induced inhibition are consistent with this treatment inducing receptor internalization, while timing of the recovery from inhibition is consistent with receptor reinsertion. Together these data support the hypothesis that SCN clock sensitivity to serotonergic phase modulation is affected by the amount of prior serotonin signaling present in the SCN, and that this signaling alters the density of surface 5-HT receptors on SCN clock neurons.

Serotonergic mediation of constant light-potentiated nonphotic phase shifting of the circadian locomotor activity rhythm in Syrian hamsters

Short-term (1–3 days) constant light exposure (brief LL) potentiates nonphotic phase shifting induced by sleep deprivation and serotonin (5-HT) agonist stimulation. The present assessments reveal that exposure to brief LL markedly alters the magnitude and shape of the 5-HT1A,7 receptor agonist, 8-(+)2-dipropyl-amino-8-hydroxyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahyronapthalene (8-OH-DPAT) phase-response curve, facilitating (∼12 h) phase-advance shifts during the early morning when serotonergics have no phase-shifting effect. Brief LL also reduces the threshold for 8-OH-DPAT shifting at midday, evidenced by 5- to 6-h phase-advance shifts elicited by dosages that have no effect without the LL treatment. The brief LL-potentiated phase advances to intraperitoneal 8-OH-DPAT at zeitgeber time 0 (ZT 0) were blocked by the 5-HT1A antagonists, pindolol and WAY 100635, indicating that this shifting is mediated by 5-HT1A receptors. Antagonists with action at 5-HT7 receptors, including ritanserin and metergoline, were without effect. Although autoradiographic analyses of [3H]8-OH-DPAT binding indicate that brief LL does not upregulate suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) 5-HT1A receptor binding, intra-SCN microinjection of 8-OH-DPAT at ZT 0 in brief LL-exposed hamsters induced shifts similar to those produced by intraperitoneal injection, suggesting that SCN 5-HT1A receptors mediate potentiated 8-OH-DPAT-induced shifts during the early morning. Lack of shifting by intra-SCN 8-OH-DPAT at ZT 6 or 18 (when intraperitoneal 8-OH-DPAT induces large shifts), further indicates that brief LL-potentiated shifts at these time points are mediated by 5-HT target(s) outside the SCN. Significantly, sleep deprivation-induced phase-advance shifts potentiated by brief LL (∼9 h) at ZT 0 were blocked by pindolol, suggesting that these behavioral shifts could be mediated by the same SCN 5-HT1A receptor phase-resetting pathway as that activated by 8-OH-DPAT treatment.

The circadian visual system, 2005

The primary mammalian circadian clock resides in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a recipient of dense retinohypothalamic innervation. In its most basic form, the circadian rhythm system is part of the greater visual system. A secondary component of the circadian visual system is the retinorecipient intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) which has connections to many parts of the brain, including efferents converging on targets of the SCN. The IGL also provides a major input to the SCN, with a third major SCN afferent projection arriving from the median raphe nucleus. The last decade has seen a blossoming of research into the anatomy and function of the visual, geniculohypothalamic and midbrain serotonergic systems modulating circadian rhythmicity in a variety of species. There has also been a substantial and simultaneous elaboration of knowledge about the intrinsic structure of the SCN. Many of the developments have been driven by molecular biological investigation of the circadian clock and the molecular tools are enabling novel understanding of regional function within the SCN. The present discussion is an extension of the material covered by the 1994 review, "The Circadian Visual System."

Cyclic AMP mediates circadian phase shifts induced by microinjection of serotonergic drugs in the hamster dorsal raphe nucleus

We have previously shown that pretreatment with a 5-HT(7) receptor antagonist, SB-269970-A, attenuated phase shifts induced by microinjections of serotonergic agonists in the hamster dorsal raphe (Duncan, M.J., Grear, K.E., Hoskins, M.A.; Brain Research 1008:40-48, 2004). Although SB-269970-A is highly selective for the 5-HT(7) receptors, it has moderate affinity for the 5-HT(5A) receptors, which are present in the hamster dorsal raphe. To further test whether the 5-HT(7) receptors mediate the phase shifting effect of serotonergic agonists in the dorsal raphe, we investigated the role of cAMP because this second messenger is increased by activation of the 5-HT(7) receptors but inhibited by activation of the 5-HT(5A) or 5-HT(1A) receptors. As an additional control experiment, the effect of WAY-100,635, an antagonist to the 5-HT(1A) receptors, was tested. The results showed that local administration of Rp-cAMPS (1 microM), a cAMP antagonist, significantly reduced the phase shift induced by the 5-HT(1A/5A/7) agonist, (R)-(+)8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (10 microM), microinjected into the dorsal raphe 6 h before lights off. Furthermore, microinjection of 8-bromo-cAMP (50 microM) induced significantly larger phase shifts than vehicle. In the last experiment, microinjection of the dorsal raphe with WAY-100,635 (50 nM) before the 5-HT(1A/5A/7) agonist, 5-carboxyamidotryptamine (100 nM), did not significantly affect the phase shift. These results show that activation of cAMP-dependent kinase by cAMP is necessary and sufficient for induction of phase shifts by serotonergic drugs in the hamster dorsal raphe. Furthermore, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the 5-HT(7) but not the 5-HT(5A) or 5-HT(1A) receptors mediate serotonergic phase shifts.

Aging and SB-269970-A, a selective 5-HT7 receptor antagonist, attenuate circadian phase advances induced by microinjections of serotonergic drugs in the hamster dorsal raphe nucleus

Aging leads to many changes in the circadian timekeeping system, including reduced sensitivity to phase-resetting signals such as systemic administration of the serotonergic agonist, 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)tetralin (8-OH-DPAT). In previous studies, we observed an age-related decrease in 5-HT7 receptor binding sites, one of the receptor subtypes that is activated by 8-OH-DPAT, in the dorsal raphe nucleus. In this study, we tested the hypotheses that (1) aging reduces circadian phase shifts induced by local administration of 8-OH-DPAT (30 microM, i.e., 1.97 ng) or 5-carboxamidotryptamine (5-CT, 100 nM, i.e., 6.39 pg), another serotonin agonist, into the dorsal raphe and (2) 5-HT7 receptors mediate the phase shifts induced by administration of 5-CT and 8-OH-DPAT into the dorsal raphe. Young (3-5 months), middle-aged (12-13 months) and old hamsters (17-19 months) were surgically implanted with chronic guide cannulae aimed at the dorsal raphe, and were housed in cages equipped with running wheels. Aging significantly inhibited (P<0.01) the phase advances in running-wheel rhythms induced by 8-OH-DPAT microinjected during the midsubjective day. 5-CT induced phase advances tended to decrease with aging, but this effect was not significant (P<0.12). Microinjection of the selective 5-HT7 receptor antagonist, SB-269970-A (50-5000 nM, i.e., 0.39-390 pg), 15 min before microinjection of 5-CT or 8-OH-DPAT into the dorsal raphe of young hamsters, significantly inhibited phase shifts. In conjunction with our previous study, these findings indicate that an age-related reduction in 5-HT7 receptors in the dorsal raphe nucleus is an important neurochemical mechanism leading to aging deficits in the circadian timekeeping system.

Regulation of serotonin release in the Syrian hamster intergeniculate leaflet region

In mammals, the thalamic intergeniculate leaflet (IGL) conveys behavioral (non-photic) phase-resetting information to the circadian clock of the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Here we report a 24 h fluctuation in in vivo serotonin release in the hamster IGL region, peaking at night. Novel wheel exposure at midday, a stimulus that can reset circadian phase, activates the release of serotonin in the IGL region. In addition, electrical stimulation of the dorsal raphe nucleus acutely increases serotonin release the IGL region, confirming a functional serotonergic projection from this nucleus to the IGL. Collectively, these findings suggest that behavioral and/or circadian changes in dorsal raphe nuclear activity could modulate serotonin-mediated activities of the IGL.

Reward and Aversive Stimuli Produce Similar Nonphotic Phase Shifts

Circadian rhythms in rodents respond to arousing, nonphotic stimuli that contribute to daily patterns of entrainment. To examine whether the motivational significance of a stimulus is important for eliciting nonphotic circadian phase shirts in Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), the authors compared responses to a highly rewarding stimulus (lateral hypothalamic brain stimulation reward [BSR]) and a highly aversive stimulus (footshock). Animals were housed on a 14:10-hr light-dark cycle until test day, when they were given a 1-hr BSR session (trained animals) or a 1-mA electric footshock at 1 of 8 circadian times, and were maintained in constant dark thereafter. Both BSR pulses and footshock produced nonphotic phase response curves. These results support the hypothesis that arousal resulting from the motivational significance of a stimulus is a major factor in nonphotic phase shifts.

Midbrain raphe modulation of nonphotic circadian clock resetting and 5-HT release in the mammalian suprachiasmatic nucleus

Serotonin (5-HT) is an important regulator of the mammalian circadian clock of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN); however, critical questions remain concerning the control of serotonergic activity in the SCN and how this relates to the putative clock-resetting actions of 5-HT. Previously, we reported that electrical stimulation of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) or median raphe nucleus (MRN) in hamsters evoked 5-HT release in the SCN. This DRN-stimulated 5-HT release was blocked by systemic injection of 5-HT antagonists, indicating a 5-HT receptor-mediated pathway from the DRN to the SCN. In the present study, targeted injections of the 5-HT1,2,7 antagonist metergoline or the selective 5-HT7 antagonist DR4004 into the DRN or MRN attenuated DRN-electrically stimulated SCN 5-HT release, supporting a multisynaptic DRN-->MRN-->SCN route. Intra-DRN and intra-MRN injections of the GABA(A) antagonist bicuculline significantly stimulated SCN 5-HT release, whereas intra-DRN or intra-MRN injections of the GABAA agonist muscimol suppressed this release. The 5-HT release induced by intra-DRN bicuculline was also blocked by co-injection of DR4004. In complementary behavioral trials, SCN 5-HT release associated with a phase-advancing sleep deprivation stimulus at midday was prevented by intra-DRN injection of metergoline. Also, phase-advance shifts induced by novel wheel access at midday were suppressed, but not blocked, by intra-DRN injection of DR4004 or muscimol. These results indicate that 5-HT7 and GABAergic receptors of the DRN and MRN regulate behaviorally induced 5-HT release in the SCN, and that DRN output modulates nonphotic phase-resetting responses.

Reciprocal serotonergic connections between the hamster median and dorsal raphe nuclei

The median (MnR), but not the dorsal (DR) raphe, sends a serotonergic projection to the suprachiasmatic (SCN) nucleus. Stimulation of either nucleus by electrode or serotonin agonist yields equivalent effects on circadian rhythmicity. This and other evidence suggests the existence of a functional serotonergic pathway from the DR to the MnR that may participate in circadian rhythm regulation. The present investigation was designed to identify such a connection. Tract tracer studies revealed cells in the DR that project to the MnR, as well as cells in the MnR that project to the DR. Double label immunofluorescence methods demonstrated that some of the cells projecting from either nucleus to the other contain serotonin immunoreactivity. The results support the existence of a reciprocal pathway between the DR and MnR that is at least partially serotonergic.

Serotonergic serotonin (1A) mixed agonists/antagonists elicit large-magnitude phase shifts in hamster circadian wheel-running rhythms

The biological clock that generates circadian rhythms in mammals is located within the suprachiasmatic nuclei at the base of the hypothalamus. The circadian clock is entrained to the daily light/dark cycle by photic information from the retina. The retinal input to the clock is inhibited by exogenously applied serotonin agonists, perhaps mimicking an endogenous inhibitory serotonergic input to the clock arriving from the midbrain raphe. In the present study, a unique class of serotonergic compounds was tested for its ability to modulate retinal input to the circadian clock. The serotonergic ligands 8-(2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)-1-piperazinyl]ethyl)-8-azaspiro(4.5)decane-7,9-dione dihydrochloride (BMY 7378), S 15535, and 8-[2-(1,4-benzodioxan-2-ylmethylamino)ethyl]-8-azaspiro[4.5]decane-7,9-dione hydrochloride (MDL 73005 EF) can all be classified as mixed agonists/antagonists at type 1A serotonin receptors. Circadian wheel-running activity rhythms were monitored in Syrian hamsters maintained in constant darkness. Dim white-light pulses administered to the hamsters at circadian time 19 advanced the phase of their running rhythms by 1-2 h. Injection of BMY 7378, S 15535, and to a lesser degree MDL 73005 EF, prior to the light pulses resulted in phase advances from 5 to 6 h, and by as much as 8 h. Neither BMY 7378 nor S 15535 had any effect on light-induced phase delays in hamster activity rhythms at circadian time 14. Further, BMY 7378 is able to phase advance circadian rhythms by approximately 1 h at night even without light exposure. Finally, the effects of BMY 7378 on circadian rhythms is opposite to that observed with the prototypical serotonin 1A agonist (+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(DI-n-propyl-amino)tetralin hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT) (8-OH-DPAT elicits non-photic phase advances in the day and inhibits photic-induced phase advances at night). These results suggest that pharmacologically blocking raphe input to the suprachiasmatic circadian clock results in substantially larger photically induced phase advances in wheel-running rhythms. This is further evidence that raphe input to the circadian clock is probably acting to dampen the clock's response to light under certain conditions. The large-magnitude phase shifts, and temporal-activity profile seen with BMY 7378 and S 15535, suggest that compounds with this unique pharmacological profile may be beneficial in the treatment of circadian phase delays recently reported to be a complication resulting from Alzheimer's disease.

Light exposure during daytime modulates expression of Per1 and Per2 clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of mice

The suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus contain the master circadian clock in mammals. Nocturnal light pulses that reset the circadian clock also lead to rapid increases in levels of Per1 and Per2 mRNA in the SCN, suggesting that these genes are involved in the synchronization to light. During the day, when light has no phase-shifting effects in nocturnal rodents, the consequences of light exposure for Per expression have been less thoroughly studied. Therefore, the effects of light exposure during the day were assessed on Per1 and Per2 mRNA in the SCN of mice. Expression of Per1 and Per2 was generally increased by 30-min light pulses during the subjective day, with more pronounced effects in the morning. One exception was noted for a transient decrease in Per2 expression after a short light pulse applied at midday. Prolonged light exposure (up to 3 hr) starting at midday markedly increased Per2 expression but not that of Per1. Moreover, the amplitude of the daily variations of both Per and the duration of Per1 peak was increased in mice exposed to a light-dark cycle compared with those transferred to constant darkness. Finally, the amplitude of the daily variations of both Per and the basal level of Per1 were increased in mice under a light-dark cycle compared with animals synchronized to a skeleton photoperiod (i.e., with daily dawn and dusk 1-hr exposures to light). Taken together, the results indicate that prolonged light exposure during daytime positively modulates daily levels of Per1 and Per2 mRNA in the SCN of mice.

Response of the mouse circadian system to serotonin 1A/2/7 agonists in vivo: surprisingly little

Serotonin (5-HT) is thought to play a role in regulating nonphotic phase shifts and modulating photic phase shifts of the mammalian circadian system, but results with different species (rats vs. hamsters) and techniques (in vivo vs. in vitro; systemic vs. intracerebral drug delivery) have been discordant. Here we examined the effects of the 5-HT1A/7 agonist 8-OH-DPAT and the 5-HT1/2 agonist quipazine on the circadian system in mice, with some parallel experiments conducted with hamsters for comparative purposes. In mice, neither drug, delivered systemically at a range of circadian phases and doses, induced phase shifts significantly different from vehicle injections. In hamsters, quipazine intraperitoneally (i.p.) did not induce phase shifts, whereas 8-OH-DPAT induced phase shifts after i.p. but not intra-SCN injections. In mice, quipazine modestly increased c-Fos expression in the SCN (site of the circadian pacemaker) during the subjective day, whereas 8-OH-DPAT did not affect SCN c-Fos. In hamsters, both drugs suppressed SCN c-Fos in the subjective day. In both species, both drugs strongly induced c-Fos in the paraventricular nucleus (within-subject positive control). 8-OH-DPAT did not significantly attenuate light-induced phase shifts in mice but did in hamsters (between-species positive control). These results indicate that in the intact mouse in vivo, acute activation of 5-HT1A/2/7 receptors in the circadian system is not sufficient to reset the SCN pacemaker or to oppose phase-shifting effects of light. There appear to be significant species differences in the susceptibility of the circadian system to modulation by systemically delivered serotonergics.

MDMA alters the response of the circadian clock to a photic and non-photic stimulus

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or 'Ecstasy') is a widely used recreational drug that damages serotonin 5-HT neurons in animals and possibly humans. Published literature has shown that the serotonergic system is involved in photic and non-photic phase shifting of the circadian clock, which is located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei. Despite the dense innervation of the circadian system by 5-HT and the known selective neurotoxicity of MDMA, little is known about the effects of MDMA on the circadian oscillator. This study investigated whether repeated exposure to the serotonin neurotoxin MDMA alters the behavioural response of the Syrian hamster to phase shift to the serotonin 5-HT1A/7 receptor agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT). This agonist was administered under an Aschoff Type I (CT8) and Aschoff Type II (ZT8) paradigm (5 mg/kg) and was given before and after treatment with MDMA (10, 15 and 20 mg/kg administered on successive days). Pre-treatment with MDMA significantly attenuated phase shifts to 8-OH-DPAT. We also tested the ability of the clock to phase shift to a photic stimulus after treatment with MDMA. A 15-min light pulse (mean lux 125 at CT14 or ZT14) was administered before and after treatment with MDMA. Phase shifts to a photic stimulus were significantly attenuated by pre-treatment with MDMA. Our study demonstrates that repeated exposure to MDMA may alter the ability of the circadian clock to phase shift to a photic and non-photic stimulus in the hamster. Disruption of circadian function has been linked with a variety of clinical conditions such as sleep disorders, mood, concentration difficulties and depression, consequently outlining the potential dangers of long-term ecstasy use.

A switch from diurnal to nocturnal activity in S. ehrenbergi is accompanied by an uncoupling of light input and the circadian clock

The subterranean mole rat Spalax ehrenbergi superspecies represents an extreme example of adaptive visual and neuronal reorganization. Despite its total visual blindness, its daily activity rhythm is entrainable to light-dark cycles, indicating that it can confer light information to the clock. Although most individuals are active during the light phase under laboratory conditions (diurnal animals), some individuals switch their activity period to the night (nocturnal animals). Similar to other rodents, the Spalax circadian clock is driven by a set of clock genes, including the period (sPer) genes. In this work, we show that diurnal mole rats express the Per genes sPer1 and sPer2 with a peak during the light period. Light can synchronize sPer gene expression to an altered light-dark cycle and thereby reset the clock. In contrast, nocturnal Spalax express sPer2 in the dark period and sPer1 in a biphasic manner, with a light-dependent maximum during the day and a second light-independent maximum during the night. Although sPer1 expression remains light inducible, this is not sufficient to reset the molecular clockwork. Hence, the strict coupling of light, Per expression, and the circadian clock is lost. This indicates that Spalax can dissociate the light-driven resetting pathway from the central clock oscillator.

Anterior paraventricular thalamus modulates light-induced phase shifts in circadian rhythmicity in rats

The reciprocal connections between the paraventricular thalamic nucleus (PVT) and the suprachiasmatic nuclei suggest that PVT may participate in the regulation of circadian rhythms. We studied in rats the effect of lesions of the anterior and midposterior regions of the PVT on phase shifts of drinking circadian rhythm induced by light pulses at circadian times 6, 12, and 23, as well as the phase shifts produced by electrical or glutamatergic stimulation of the anterior PVT at the same circadian times. Lesion of the anterior PVT abolishes the advances induced by light during late subjective night, whereas midposterior PVT lesions did not affect the phase shifts. Electrical stimulation or glutamate injections in the anterior PVT mimic the phase-shifting effects of light pulses. These results indicate the participation of the anterior PVT as a modulator of entrainment of circadian rhythms to light.

Is novel wheel inhibition of per1 and per2 expression linked to phase shift occurrence?

We studied whether access to a novel running wheel in vivo could reset the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) in vitro. Golden hamsters were transferred to dim red light at Zeitgeber time (ZT) 4, given their first exposure to a running wheel for 3 h, and killed at either ZT7 or ZT9. Using a brain slice preparation, the SCN firing rate rhythm in vitro was advanced relative to controls only in the slices prepared at ZT9 (phase shift: 2.36+/-0.06 h, n=4) but not ZT7 (-0.26+/-0.16 h, n=4). Transitions to dim red light or brain slice preparation at ZT7 or ZT9 alone do not shift the rhythm. Hamsters with wheels had significantly lower levels of SCN per1 mRNA compared with controls at ZT7, and lower per2 mRNA when examined at ZT9. We conclude that 3 h of novel wheel access appears to require some extended time in vivo in order for the SCN to be reset, even beyond the time when per1 mRNA levels have been altered.

Activity-induced circadian clock resetting in the Syrian hamster: effects of melatonin

Circadian rhythms in the Syrian hamster can be phase advanced by arousal during the mid-rest period. Similar phase shifts are induced by 5-HT(7) receptor activation in vivo and in vitro. Shifts in vitro are dependent on mobilization of intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP), and can be blocked by melatonin, which opposes cAMP accumulation. If phase shifts to arousal in vivo are also dependent on cAMP, then these shifts may also be attenuated by melatonin. Hamsters were confined to a novel running wheel for 1.5 or 3 h in the mid-rest period. Melatonin (1 mg/kg i.p.) as a single bolus did not induce phase shifts, and single or multiple doses did not affect shifts to arousal. These data suggest that stimulation of cAMP by 5-HT(7) receptor activation is not necessary for clock resetting by behavioral arousal.

Glutamate blocks serotonergic phase advances of the mammalian circadian pacemaker through AMPA and NMDA receptors

The phase of the mammalian circadian pacemaker, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), is modulated by a variety of stimuli, most notably the environmental light cycle. Light information is perceived by the circadian pacemaker through glutamate that is released from retinal ganglion cell terminals in the SCN. Other prominent modulatory inputs to the SCN include a serotonergic projection from the raphe nuclei and a neuropeptide Y (NPY) input from the intergeniculate leaflet. Light and glutamate phase-shift the SCN pacemaker at night, whereas serotonin (5-HT) and NPY primarily phase-shift the pacemaker during the day. In addition to directly phase-shifting the circadian pacemaker, SCN inputs have been shown to modulate the actions of one another. For example, 5-HT can inhibit the phase-shifting effects of light or glutamate applied to the SCN at night, and NPY and glutamate inhibit phase shifts of one another. In this study, we explored the possibility that glutamate can modulate serotonergic phase shifts during the day. For these experiments, we applied various combinations of 5-HT agonists, glutamate agonists, and electrical stimulation of the optic chiasm to SCN brain slices to determine the effect of these treatments on the rhythm of spontaneous neuronal activity generated by the SCN circadian pacemaker. We found that glutamate agonists and optic chiasm stimulation inhibit serotonergic phase advances and that this inhibition involves both AMPA and NMDA receptors. This inhibition by glutamate may be indirect, because it is blocked by both tetrodotoxin and the GABA(A) antagonist, bicuculline.

In vivo resetting of the hamster circadian clock by 5-HT7 receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus

Serotonin (5-HT) has been strongly implicated in the regulation of the mammalian circadian clock located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN); however, its role in behavioral (nonphotic) circadian phase resetting remains elusive. Central to this issue are divergent lines of evidence that the SCN may, or may not, be a target for the phase-resetting effects of 5-HT. We have addressed this question using a novel reverse-microdialysis approach for timed perfusions of serotonergic and other agents to the Syrian hamster SCN with durations equivalent to the increases in in vivo 5-HT release during phase-resetting behavioral manipulations. We found that 3 hr perfusions of the SCN with either 5-HT or the 5-HT(1A,7) receptor agonist 2-dipropylamino-8-hydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-naphthalene (8-OH-DPAT) at midday advanced the phase of the free-running circadian rhythm of wheel-running assessed using an Aschoff type II procedure. Phase shifts induced by 8-OH-DPAT were enhanced more than threefold by pretreatment with the 5-HT synthesis inhibitor para-chlorophenylalanine. Phase advances induced by SCN 8-OH-DPAT perfusion were significantly inhibited by the 5-HT(2,7) receptor antagonist ritanserin and by the more selective 5-HT(7) receptor antagonist DR4004, implicating the 5-HT(7) receptor in mediating this phase resetting. Concurrent exposure to light during the 8-OH-DPAT perfusion abolished the phase advances. Furthermore, coperfusion of the SCN with TTX, which blocked in vivo 5-HT release, did not suppress intra-SCN 8-OH-DPAT-induced phase advances. These results indicate that 5-HT(7) receptor-mediated phase resetting in the SCN is markedly influenced by the degree of postsynaptic responsiveness to 5-HT and by photic stimulation. Finally, 5-HT may act directly on SCN clock cells to induce in vivo nonphotic phase resetting.

WAY-100635, a specific 5-HT1A antagonist, can increase the responsiveness of the mammalian circadian pacemaker to photic stimuli

Mammalian circadian rhythms are synchronized daily to light-dark cycles in the environment. The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is the proposed site of the major circadian pacemaker. Daily entrainment is believed to be influenced by inputs to the SCN, one of these being the dense serotonergic (5-HT) projection from the raphe nuclei. WAY-100635 is a potent and selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist. In this study, the effects of WAY-100635 on phase-shifts of the hamster circadian pacemaker to light were investigated. Phase-delays after a light pulse administered during the early subjective night (15 min at CT14) were observed to be significantly greater following pre-treatment with WAY-100635 compared to light pulse alone (P < 0.05). However, pre-treatment with WAY-100635 had no effect on the magnitude of phase-shifts to light at CT18, late in the subjective night. Serotonin may influence the responsiveness of the circadian pacemaker to photic stimuli. Specifically, WAY-100635 administered at CT14 can augment phase-shifts to light.

Melatonin or a melatonin agonist corrects age-related changes in circadian response to environmental stimulus

The effects of a melatonin agonist, S-20098, included in the diet were tested on a specific effect of aging in hamsters: the marked decline in the phase shifting effects of a 6-h pulse of darkness on a background of constant light. In contrast to young hamsters, old hamsters fed with the control diet showed little or no phase shifts in response to a dark pulse presented in the middle of their inactive or active period. Old hamsters fed with S-20098 showed phase shifts that were ~70% of the ones in young animals and significantly greater than those in old controls. The phase advancing response to a dark pulse presented during the inactive period was dose dependent and reversed after S-20098 discontinuation. Melatonin included in the diet showed comparable restorative effects on the phase shifting response to a dark pulse in old hamsters. Replacement therapy with melatonin or melatonin-related compounds could prove useful in treating, preventing, or delaying disturbances of circadian rhythmicity and/or sleep in older people.

Inhibitory action of brotizolam on circadian and light-induced per1 and per2 expression in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus

Triazolam reportedly causes phase advances in hamster wheel-running rhythm after injection during subjective daytime. However, it is unclear whether benzodiazepine affects the PER: gene expression accompanying a behavioural phase shift. Brotizolam (0.5 - 10 mg kg(-1)) induced large phase advances in hamster rhythm when injected during mid-subjective daytime (circadian time 6 or 9), but not at circadian time 0, 3 or 15. Brotizolam (5 mg kg(-1)) significantly reduced the expression of PER:1 and PER:2 in the suprachiasmatic nucleus 1 and 2 h after injection at circadian time 6, and slightly reduced them at circadian time 20. Injection of 8-OH-DPAT (5 mg kg(-1)) at subjective daytime induced similar phase advances with a reduction of PER:1 and PER:2 expression. Co-administration of brotizolam with 8-OH DPAT failed to potentiate the 8-OH DPAT-induced phase advances and reduced PER: expression. Both phase advance and rapid induction of PER:1 and PER:2 in the suprachiasmatic nucleus after light exposure (5 lux, 15 min) at circadian time 20 was strongly attenuated by co-treatment with brotizolam 5 mg kg(-1). The present results strongly suggest that reduction of PER:1 and/or PER:2 expression during subjective daytime by brotizolam may be an important step in causing a behavioural phase advance. The co-administration experiment suggests that common mechanism(s) are involved in brotizolam- or 8-OH DPAT-induced phase advances and the reduction of PER: gene expression. These results suggest that brotizolam is not only a good drug for insomnia but also a drug capable of facilitating re-entrainment like melatonin.

Nonphotic entrainment by 5-HT1A/7 receptor agonists accompanied by reduced Per1 and Per2 mRNA levels in the suprachiasmatic nuclei

In mammals, the environmental light/dark cycle strongly synchronizes the circadian clock within the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) to 24 hr. It is well known that not only photic but also nonphotic stimuli can entrain the SCN clock. Actually, many studies have shown that a daytime injection of 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin (8-OH DPAT), a serotonin 1A/7 receptor agonist, as a nonphotic stimulus induces phase advances in hamster behavioral circadian rhythms in vivo, as well as the neuron activity rhythm of the SCN in vitro. Recent reports suggest that mammalian homologs of the Drosophila clock gene, Period (Per), are involved in photic entrainment. Therefore, we examined whether phase advances elicited by 8-OH DPAT were associated with a change of Period mRNA levels in the SCN. In this experiment, we cloned partial cDNAs encoding hamster Per1, Per2, and Per3 and observed both circadian oscillation and the light responsiveness of Period. Furthermore, we found that the inhibitory effect of 8-OH DPAT on hamster Per1 and Per2 mRNA levels in the SCN occurred only during the hamster's mid-subjective day, but not during the early subjective day or subjective night. The present findings demonstrate that the acute and circadian time-dependent reduction of Per1 and/or Per2 mRNA in the hamster SCN by 8-OH DPAT is strongly correlated with the phase resetting in response to 8-OH DPAT.

Effects of the 5HT1A agonist/antagonist BMY 7378 on light-induced phase advances in hamster circadian activity rhythms during aging

The entrainment of some circadian rhythms in rodents and humans to the environmental light-dark cycle deteriorates during aging. Recent evidence suggests that the time-keeping ability of the circadian pacemaker maintains its endogenous period in both hamsters and humans. This suggests that any changes in the coupling between environmental cues and the circadian pacemaker are not due to changes in "clock speed," but rather due to a weakened coupling between the afferent systems relaying environmental information and the circadian pacemaker located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. The suprachiasmatic nucleus receives serotonergic input from the raphe nuclei, and serotonergic 5HT1A,7 agonists have been reported to lose their circadian phase-adjusting efficacy during aging in hamsters. In the present study, the authors report the effects of a novel serotonergic agonist BMY 7378 on light-induced phase advances during aging in the hamster. The present report demonstrates that BMY 7378 is a highly efficacious chronobiotic that more than doubles the magnitude of light-induced phase shifts in hamster wheel-running activity rhythms. Light-induced phase advances in hamster wheel-running activity of at least 6 h following a single systemic dose of BMY 7378 are routinely observed. Furthermore, BMY 7378 potentiation of phase shifts is maintained in old hamsters, suggesting that BMY 7378 has a different site of activity than previously reported 5HT1A,7 agonists that have a diminished effect on circadian phase during aging.

Localization of serotonin(5A) receptors in discrete regions of the circadian timing system in the Syrian hamster

Endogenous serotonin and serotonergic drugs influence many aspects of circadian rhythms, including phase shifts, onset of locomotor activity, and period length and integrity of rhythms during exposure to constant light. The receptor subtype(s) mediating all of these circadian effects of serotonin has (have) not been identified. Immunoreactivity for the serotonin(5A) (5-HT(5A)) receptor has recently been identified in the rat suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). In this study, we investigated the distribution of the 5-HT(5A) receptors in four neural components of the circadian timing system (the SCN, the intergeniculate leaflet, and the median and dorsal raphe nuclei), in the Syrian hamster. Single and dual immunohistochemistry were conducted using an affinity-purified rabbit antibody generated against a peptide sequence unique to the 5-HT(5A) receptor, guinea pig anti-5-HT antisera and guinea pig anti-GABA antisera. For single labeling, immunoreactivity was visualized using DAB-nickel as the chromagen. All four regions showed strong, yet distinct, immunoreactivity for the 5-HT(5A) receptor. No specific labeling was present in the absorption or omission controls. For double labeling, immunoreactivity was visualized using immunofluorescence with Cy5- and FITC-labeled second antibodies followed by confocal microscopy. In the raphe nuclei, 5-HT-immunoreactivity and 5-HT(5A)-immunoreactivity were co-localized in cell bodies and axons. GABA-immunoreactive fibers surrounded some of the 5-HT(5A) receptor-immunoreactive cell bodies in the raphe nuclei. In conclusion, the 5-HT(5A) receptors are localized within several important neuroanatomical substrates of the circadian timekeeping system, and within the raphe nuclei, appear to be present on serotonin neurons. These findings suggest that some of the circadian effects of 5-HT may be mediated by the 5-HT(5A) receptor, which may function as a presynaptic autoreceptor.

Dorsal raphe nuclear stimulation of SCN serotonin release and circadian phase-resetting

Serotonin (5-HT) is strongly implicated in the regulation of mammalian circadian rhythms. However, little is known of the functional relationship between the circadian clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and its source of serotonergic innervation, the midbrain raphe nuclei. In previous studies, we reported that electrical stimulation of the dorsal or median raphe nuclei (DRN and MRN, respectively) induced 5-HT release in the SCN. Notably, DRN- but not MRN-stimulated 5-HT release was blocked by the 5-HT(1,2,7) antagonist, metergoline, suggesting that the DRN signals to the SCN indirectly via the activation of a 5-HT-responsive multisynaptic pathway. In the present study, pretreatment with the 5-HT(2,7) antagonist, ritanserin, also significantly inhibited DRN-electrically stimulated SCN 5-HT release. However, pretreatment with the 5-HT(1A) antagonist, NAN-190, or the 5-HT(2) antagonists ketanserin and cinanserin had little suppressive effect on this DRN-stimulated 5-HT release. In complementary behavioral trials, electrical stimulation of the DRN during subjective midday caused a 1.3-h advance in the free-running circadian activity rhythm under constant darkness, which was inhibited by metergoline. Collectively, these results are evidence that: (1) DRN-stimulated 5-HT release in the SCN requires the activation of an intermediate target with receptors having 5-HT(7) pharmacological characteristics; (2) electrical stimulation of the DRN induces phase-resetting of the circadian activity rhythm; and (3) activation of 5-HT receptors is necessary for this DRN-stimulated circadian phase-resetting. In view of the dynamic changes in DRN neuronal activity incumbent with the daily sleep-activity cycle, and its functional linkages to the SCN and intergeniculate leaflet, the DRN could serve to provide behavioral/arousal state information to various sites comprising the brain circadian system.

5-HT(1A) autoreceptor antagonist-induced 5-HT release in the hamster suprachiasmatic nuclei: effects on circadian clock resetting

Serotonin (5-HT) has been implicated in phase shifting of mammalian circadian rhythms by non-photic stimuli. This study tests whether pharmacological induction of endogenous 5-HT release can shift circadian phase in the Syrian hamster. Systemic injections of the 5-HT(1A) antagonist WAY100635 during the mid-subjective day significantly increased 5-HT in dialysate from the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) circadian pacemaker by approximately 50% for 40-60 min. However, this was not associated with phase shifts or with potentiation of phase shifts induced by a 3 h bout of running. These results indicate that enhanced 5-HT release in the SCN or possibly other regions is not sufficient to induce phase shifts in the subjective day.

Serotonergic modulation of astrocytic activity in the hamster suprachiasmatic nucleus

The present study was undertaken to explore the effects of central serotonin receptor activation on the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of Syrian hamsters. Immunoblot and immunohistochemical procedures were used to examine the effects of systemic application of the serotonin-1A and serotonin-7 receptor agonist, (+/-)-2-dipropyl-amino-8-hydroxyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene hydrobromide (8-OH-DPAT; 3.75 mg/kg) on the contents and distribution of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Administration of 8-OH-DPAT at midday caused a significant reduction in immunoreactive glial fibrillary acidic protein content within 1 h of injection, compared to vehicle controls. This effect was not evident 3 h after drug injection. Treatment with 8-OH-DPAT during the late dark phase had little effect on glial fibrillary acidic protein content. The 8-OH-DPAT-induced reduction in glial fibrillary acidic protein content seen at midday was blocked partially by pretreatment with the serotonin-2 and serotonin-7 receptor antagonist, ritanserin, and more substantially by pretreatment with the serotonin-1A receptor antagonist, NAN-190. Treatment with 8-OH-DPAT also caused a significant redistribution of immunoreactive glial fibrillary acidic protein, such that the dense mesh-like appearance seen in vehicle controls was significantly reduced. The 8-OH-DPAT treatment also significantly decreased expression of polysialic acid, a cell-surface molecule associated with neural plasticity. Immunoblot assessments of glial fibrillary acidic protein contents 2 h before and 1 h after lights off revealed a significant time-of-day difference in glial fibrillary acidic protein expression, with lowest levels occurring at the latter time-point, associated with maximal endogenous serotonin release in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Collectively, these results indicate that acute plastic changes in glial fibrillary acidic protein-related astrocytic activity in the suprachiasmatic nucleus can be induced in response to serotonin-7 or serotonin-1A receptor activation in a phase-dependent manner. It is interesting to speculate that circadian reorganizations in astrocytic activity could be regulated by the daily rhythm in serotonin release in the suprachiasmatic nucleus.