Lifetime sexual victimization and poor risk perception: does emotion dysregulation account for the links?

Sexual Victimization, Emotion Dysregulation, and Sexual Consent Feelings and Communication During a Recent Sexual Encounter

Sexual consent has been a major focus of campus campaigns to reduce sexual violence (SV). However, these campaigns often educate students about consent with little attention to the complex ways consent can be experienced, expressed, and interpreted by others. Further, little research has focused on the consent feelings and communication cues of students who have a history of SV, nor have studies examined how the ability to attend to and regulate emotions relates to internal feelings or external communication of consent. This secondary analysis examined SV histories, emotion dysregulation, and internal and external consent cues in a sample of 610 college students (72% women) who completed an online self-report survey. Findings revealed that students with SV histories (n = 257) reported greater emotion dysregulation, lower internal consent, and greater use of passive external consent cues compared to students without SV histories; greater emotion dysregulation was associated with lower internal consent. In a path model, SV history was indirectly related to use of direct nonverbal and passive consent cues through greater emotion dysregulation and lower internal consent. Contrary to expectations, higher internal consent was associated with greater use of passive external consent cues. Consent programming could be augmented to encourage attention to and regulation of emotions in sexual situations to improve communication and sexual well-being.

Role of Alexithymia in the Association Between Childhood Abuse and Risk Perception for Sexual Victimization in College Women

Sexual victimization is prevalent among college women with a history of childhood abuse (CA), which some research suggests is linked to impaired risk perception for sexual victimization or difficulties identifying and responding to unwanted sexual advances. Alexithymia is one construct yet to be examined in the association between CA and risk perception for sexual victimization. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the associations between CA, alexithymia, and risk perception for sexual victimization in a sample of college women with a history of CA. Participants included 294 undergraduate women with a history of childhood emotional, physical, and/or sexual abuse (Mage = 20.6, 80.6% White). An a priori path analysis was conducted to examine whether alexithymia indirectly explains the association between CA and risk perception for sexual victimization (i.e., comprising two related constructs, including threat detection and behavioral response to threat). Supplementary analyses were conducted post hoc to examine potential differences across CA subtypes (emotional, physical, and sexual). Alexithymia indirectly explained the relationship between CA and threat detection, and behavioral response to threat. However, indirect effects were negative, suggesting that undergraduate women with more severe CA and alexithymia identify sexual assault threat cues and intentions to "leave" a hypothetical sexual assault scenario sooner rather than later. The same pattern of results was observed for emotional and physical (but not sexual) CA when examining their indirect effects on threat detection, and for emotional CA when examining behavioral response to threat. Findings contribute to the literature on sexual victimization by clarifying the role of alexithymia in risk perception for sexual victimization. Results also highlight the potential utility of increasing emotional literacy among college women with a history of CA (and especially emotional abuse) to facilitate adaptive responding to unwanted sexual advances.

The effect of individual characteristics on susceptibility to aggressive and/or intimidating approaches: quantifying probability pathways by creating a victimization model

Background: A significant body of literature has identified multiple factors that contribute to established victimization by aggressive and/or intimidating behaviours. These studies primarily originate from the fields of intimate partner violence (IPV), bullying, sexual abuse, and/or commercial sexual exploitation (CSE), and generally focus on female victims. It appears, however, complicated to quantify the cumulative contribution of these factors on susceptibility to intimidating and/or hostile engagements on an individual level.Objective: To develop a comprehensive risk model to quantify, on an individual level, the cumulative effects of previously reported characteristics on susceptibility to aggressive/intimidating approaches, leading to victimization (e.g. in the context of IPV/sexual abuse).Methods: A Bayesian belief network was developed using data from previous studies, capturing the multivariate contribution of previously reported characteristics on the likelihood of becoming victimized by aggressive and/or intimidating approaches (e.g. in the IPV/CSE context) in female victims aged 12-24 years.Results: The model showed that specific combinations of characteristics may contribute to an increased likelihood of victimization (e.g. in the context of IPV/bullying/sexual abuse or CSE). This likelihood could be quantified and categorized into specific clusters of factors differentiating between victimization by physically violent, non-physical, and/or sexual aggressive/intimidating approaches.Conclusion: The present model appears to be the first to successfully quantify the cumulative contribution of individual characteristics on the likelihood of becoming victimized by aggressive and/or intimidating approaches, typically leading to victimization. Moreover, the present scientific effort and resulting model suggest that there may be a latent variable mediating between the implemented factors and overall outcome, i.e. the susceptibility to aggressive and/or intimidating approaches. From that perspective, the model may also be considered as an initial outline to effectively indicate susceptibility to such approaches.

Emotion regulation and cognitive function as mediating factors for the association between lifetime abuse and risky behaviors in women of color

BACKGROUND

The relationship between lifetime abuse (i.e., childhood abuse, intimate partner violence) and risky behaviors is well established. One proposed mechanism is poor emotion regulation and executive functioning, as a potential mechanism that may explain the relationship between lifetime abuse and risky behaviors. However, research on executive functioning and emotion regulation as mediators of this relationship has been limited. In the present study, we examined this association. We hypothesized that lifetime abuse would be significantly associated with executive function and emotion regulation which in turn would be associated with greater alcohol use and risky sex.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 150 women with a history of lifetime abuse who were assessed for hazardous alcohol use using the AUDIT Score; emotion regulation was measured using the Difficulties with Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS); risky sex was measured using the question: "in the last 90 days, how many people did you have anal or vaginal sex without using a condom? Executive function was assessed using the NIH Toolbox.

RESULTS

The mediation model followed the self-regulation theory, which proposes executive function as the higher-order cognitive process. Results showed that executive function deficit and poor emotion regulation significantly mediated the relationship between lifetime abuse and hazardous alcohol use (indirect effect = .097, SE .031, 95% CI = .035 to .158).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest a higher-order cognitive process with executive function promoting emotion regulation as a potential mechanism for alcohol problems in women of color who experienced lifetime abuse.

Revictimization Risk Factors Following Childhood Maltreatment: A Literature Review

Revictimization research, to date, has primarily focused on sexual revictimization (i.e., child sexual abuse and adult sexual assault), which has resulted in a lack of understanding of trauma revictimization more generally. Specifically, it is unclear what factors are placing individuals with a history of child maltreatment (i.e., sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessing intimate partner violence [IPV]) at greater risk for subsequent adult victimization (i.e., sexual assault and IPV). Existing theoretical and empirical work on revictimization suggest that multiple risk factors are likely present within this framework (e.g., posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS], emotion dysregulation, and risk-taking behaviors). Prior research has suggested that PTSS are often linked with these other risk factors, and it is possible that the development of PTSS following child maltreatment may be related to the development or maintenance of additional factors that increase the likelihood of revictimization. The purpose of this review was to synthesize findings regarding risk factors that place maltreated individuals at greater risk for adult revictimization. Approximately 228 studies were identified following a thorough search of the peer-reviewed literature using multiple databases (PsycINFO, PILOTS, and Google Scholar). Each study was critically analyzed for relevance. The included studies were used in our review of prevalence, specific risk factors that have been identified, and unanswered questions in this literature. PTSS were noted to be particularly important in the revictimization framework, and thus, a novel model of revictimization was also proposed where PTSS are illustrated as being associated with the development and maintenance of other factors within the revictimization framework.

Preliminary Efficacy of a Web-Based Alcohol and Emotion Regulation Intervention on Intimate Partner Aggression Among College Women

Objective

Intimate partner aggression (IPA), encompassing psychological and physical aggression, is a public health concern due to its high rates among young adults. Research and theory connect heavy drinking and emotion regulation (ER) difficulties to IPA and highlight their potential role in reducing IPA. A web-based intervention combining alcohol reduction strategies with ER skills demonstrated initial efficacy at reducing heavy drinking and improving ER abilities among college women with sexual assault victimization histories.

Method

The present study represents a secondary analysis of this brief web-based intervention to evaluate its preliminary efficacy on IPA. The sample comprised 200 heavy drinking college women with histories of sexual assault victimization randomized to an assessment only control or the intervention consisting of 14 brief online alcohol reduction and ER skill building modules administered daily over a two-week period. The analytic sample included 103 women who reported their psychological and physical IPA at both the 1- and 6-month follow-up surveys.

Results

After controlling for alcohol use, repeated measures mixed models examining changes from baseline to 6-month follow-up by condition revealed a significant time-by-intervention interaction effect on psychological IPA. Women who received the intervention had a significant decrease in psychological IPA from baseline to 6-month follow-up; there was no change in psychological IPA among women in the control condition. There was no significant effect of the intervention on physical IPA.

Conclusion

Reducing alcohol use and improving ER skills may be beneficial in helping women cope with relational conflict, thereby decreasing their use of psychological IPA.

The Role of Dimensions of Emotion Dysregulation Following Exposure to Maltreatment and Adult Victimization

Child maltreatment is related to a host of negative consequences, including difficulties with emotion regulation (ER), posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), and greater risk for revictimization. Yet, the literature has largely focused on sexual revictimization, while relations between maltreatment and other adult victimization types (e.g., intimate partner violence [IPV]) are less clear. Further, associations between emotion dysregulation and both child and adult trauma exposure have been identified, but aspects of dysregulation (i.e., nonacceptance of emotional responses, difficulties engaging in goal-directed behavior, impulsivity, lack of emotional awareness, limited access to ER strategies, and lack of emotional clarity) have received less attention. This study aimed to: (1) investigate the associations between maltreatment and adult victimization and the six ER dimensions while accounting for PTSS, and (2) determine whether there are indirect effects between maltreatment and adult victimization through each ER component. Seven hundred and forty-four undergraduates from two universities participated in the study (M_age = 21.48, SD = 4.12; 80.9% women; 56.2% white). Maltreatment and PTSS were directly linked with adult victimization (B = 0.14, B = 0.01, respectively). PTSS was inversely associated with each ER aspect (Bs = 0.02-0.10). Unexpectedly, neither maltreatment nor adult victimization was related to the ER dimensions, and no indirect effects were observed between maltreatment and adult victimization through emotion dysregulation. These findings suggest that specific components of emotion dysregulation may not be tied to trauma exposure outside of PTSS. Further, it may be that the ER dimensions are not differentially related to increased risk for adult victimization.

An Exploration of Factors that Mediate the Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Sexual Assault Victimization Among LGBTQ+ College Students

Despite alarming rates of sexual assault on college campuses, little research has examined risk factors for sexual victimization among LGBTQ+ college students. This exploratory study aims to examine adolescent sexual assault, internalized homonegativity, and problematic alcohol use as mediators linking several types of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs; i.e., childhood sexual abuse, parental abuse, and household disorder) to collegiate sexual assault. Utilizing data from 241 LGBTQ+ college students, path analysis findings demonstrated that these proposed mediators increased risk for sexual assault and that various types of ACEs exerted differential impacts on sexual re-victimization, internalized homonegativity, and problematic alcohol use. Practice-based implications are offered, including the need for affirming programming that includes problem drinking prevention components and considers the role of ACEs and internalized homonegativity in increasing risk for sexual assault during college as well as the need for LGBTQ+ resource centers on campus.

Changes in Risk Perception After Sexual Victimization: Are We Following the Right Track?

Sexual abuse is a major public health concern with detrimental effects on both mental and physical health. Several studies have reported that victims of sexual abuse have a decreased ability to recognize risk in potentially threatening situations compared with nonvictims, although others were not able to replicate this finding. In addition, although emotion dysregulation has been linked to risk perception and sexual victimization, results have been contradictory. To strengthen the theoretical framework needed for the development of interventions to reduce women's likelihood of sexual assault, it is crucial to further examine the role of emotion dysregulation in relation to sexual victimization history and risk perception. The aim of the current study was to examine cross-sectional associations between sexual victimization, emotion regulation difficulties, and risk perception. In our sample of 276 female college students, 40% reported lifetime sexual victimization, 14% reported recent sexual victimization, and 12% reported childhood sexual abuse. In contrast to our hypothesis, we did not find risk perception to be related to lifetime sexual victimization, childhood sexual victimization, or recent sexual victimization. In addition, we did not find evidence for the expected relationship between sexual victimization, risk perception, and emotion regulation difficulties. The discussion of the current study specifically highlights the need for a clear conceptualization of risk perception and provides recommendations for future studies. More sophisticated measurement methods could lead to a higher applicability of findings to real-life situations. The potential relationships between victimization, risk perception, and emotion dysregulation need further clarification to reach the ultimate goal of contributing to the prevention of victimization.

Laboratory models of post-traumatic stress disorder: The elusive bridge to translation

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental illness composed of a heterogeneous collection of symptom clusters. The unique nature of PTSD as arising from a precipitating traumatic event helps simplify cross-species translational research modeling the neurobehavioral effects of stress and fear. However, the neurobiological progress on these complex neural circuits informed by animal models has yet to produce novel, evidence-based clinical treatment for PTSD. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of popular laboratory models of PTSD and provide concrete ideas for improving the validity and clinical translational value of basic research efforts in humans. We detail modifications to simplified animal paradigms to account for myriad cognitive factors affected in PTSD, which may contribute to abnormalities in regulating fear. We further describe new avenues for integrating different areas of psychological research underserved by animal models of PTSD. This includes incorporating emerging trends in the cognitive neuroscience of episodic memory, emotion regulation, social-emotional processes, and PTSD subtyping to provide a more comprehensive recapitulation of the human experience to trauma in laboratory research.

Appraisal and Coping Link Sexual Victimization History to Emotional Experience: A Multilevel Daily Diary Study

Sexual victimization (SV) history is common among college students and has many adverse effects on health, but little is known about whether these effects are explained by everyday stress and coping. Further, most studies conflate between- and within-person effects, limiting our understanding of distinct trait- versus state-level pathways. To address these gaps, we examined the multilevel association of SV history with contemporary positive and negative affect and somatic symptoms via daily control appraisals and coping (problem-focused, meaning-focused, and avoidance) with daily stressors. Online daily diary surveys assessed stress, appraisals, coping, affect, and somatization among 261 undergraduates with and without SV history over 11 consecutive days. Between- and within-person differences in appraisals, coping, affect, and somatic symptoms were examined using multilevel covariance modeling in a causal system, testing daily stressor type as a moderator of within-person effects. Across days, SV history was indirectly linked only to average positive affect via meaning-focused coping, with no other between-person indirect effects. At the within-person level, greater negative affect was experienced in the context of interpersonal stress, driven by greater problem-focused coping, greater positive affect was experienced in the context of academic stress, driven by greater control appraisals, and less positive and negative affect were experienced in the context of intrapersonal stress, driven by lower control appraisals and less problem-focused coping. SV may influence daily stress processes at multiple levels, depending on stressor type. Appraised control and active coping are potentially important but understudied ways in which SV history informs contemporary stress management.

Emotional Responses to a Sexual Assault Threat: A Qualitative Analysis Among Women With Histories of Sexual Victimization

Sexual assaults against women are a leading threat to human rights and public health in the United States. Considering the high rates of sexual revictimization among women and the limited understanding of the mechanisms which fuel this phenomenon, the goal of the present study was to investigate the role of emotion in coping with a hypothetical threat of sexual assault for previously sexually victimized college women. A total of 114 college women with a history of sexual victimization listened to an audio-recording describing a sexual assault scenario and then described how they felt. A qualitative analysis paradigm was used to capture participants' responses in an open-ended, real-time, experiential manner. Data were analyzed using Consensual Qualitative Research-Modified methodology. Four main themes emerged (Negative Reactions, Indifferent Evaluations, Active Responses, and Cognitive Appraisal of the Situation), along with various subcategories, demonstrating the variability of women's responses to a sexual assault threat. Many women experienced uncomfortable or distressing emotional reactions to the vignette, primarily through discomfort, but also through anger, anxiety, and being upset. Few women reported experiencing fear, and a small number reported experiencing self-blame. The low endorsement of fear and anger in our high-risk sample indicates emotional dysregulation as a potential mechanism of repeated sexual victimization and a promising target for clinical intervention. Overall, results may inform sexual assault risk reduction efforts and the empowerment of women who have experienced sexual victimization.

Sexual victimization and disordered eating among community individuals: The influence of negative and positive emotion dysregulation

OBJECTIVE

Individuals with a history of sexual victimization are at increased odds of developing an eating disorder in their lifetime. Emotion dysregulation has been identified as an outcome of sexual victimization and a vulnerability factor in the emergence and maintenance of disordered eating. However, research in this area has been limited by its narrow focus on dysregulation stemming from negative emotions. The aim of the current study was to explore the potential moderating roles of negative and positive emotion dysregulation in the relations between sexual victimization and disordered eating.

METHOD

Study participants included 473 community individuals who endorsed a history of sexual assault (M_age = 34.66; 44.8% male; 78.4% White). Participants completed measures assessing sexual victimization, negative and positive emotion dysregulation, and disordered eating. Data was collected from January to April of 2020 via Amazon's Mechanical Turk.

RESULTS

Results indicated significant positive relations among sexual victimization, negative and positive emotion dysregulation, and disordered eating. Sexual victimization was found to be more strongly associated with disordered eating at high (vs. low) levels of negative and positive emotion dysregulation.

DISCUSSION

This study provides evidence for the strengthening roles of both high negative and positive emotion dysregulation in the relation between sexual victimization and disordered eating, suggesting the potential utility of targeting both negative and positive emotion dysregulation in disordered eating interventions among individuals with a history of sexual victimization.

Social Trust and Reciprocity Among Adolescent Girls Exposed to Interpersonal Violence

Trauma research has traditionally focused on altered emotion regulation and its role in psychopathology, whereas mechanisms of social behavior remain comparatively unexplored, particularly among adolescents. It has been previously reported that adolescents with histories of interpersonal violence (IV) demonstrate disrupted social learning, and the degree to which they are impaired during social interactions requiring trustful behaviors may be associated with their levels of anxiety. In the present study, 52 adolescent females (n = 26 control; n = 26 IV-exposed) between ages of 11 and 17 completed a multi-round adaptation of the Trust Game in which they interacted with a confederate peer run by a computer program, alternating between the roles of investor and investee. The task was designed to operationalize the social behaviors of trust and trust reciprocity, where the magnitude of the participants' monetary investment in the confederate during the investor role represented trust while the proportion of investment returned to the confederate in the investee role represented trust reciprocity. IV-exposed and control participants did not differ in trust (i.e., as investors); however, IV-exposed participants without anxiety diagnoses demonstrated lower trust than those with anxiety diagnoses. For trust reciprocity (i.e., as investees), there were again no differences between IV-exposed participants and controls; however, IV-exposed participants with anxiety diagnoses had increased trust reciprocity compared with both other groups. Similarly, caregiver-reported anxiety symptoms were associated with trust reciprocity behaviors among the IV-exposed adolescents. Findings suggest that IV exposure and associated anxiety impacts adolescents' trust behaviors, demonstrating potential mechanisms for maladaptive social behavior among trauma-exposed youth.

Child Sexual Abuse and Adult Sexual Assault among Emerging Adults: Exploring the Roles of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, Emotion Regulation, and Anger

Child sexual abuse (CSA) has been previously linked with a risk for adult sexual assault (ASA) and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). Yet, the relations between CSA, ASA, and other psychological outcomes that may contribute to increased risk for ASA are less clear. This study aims to: 1) examine the links between CSA and ASA and potential risk factors (i.e., PTSS, emotion dysregulation, anger), 2) determine whether there are indirect effects between CSA and ASA through each factor, and 3) investigate whether there are indirect effects between CSA and ASA through the DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom clusters. The sample included 567 undergraduates (M_age = 20.84, SD = 4.10; 81.1% women; 56.6% white) from two universities. Both CSA and ASA were related to PTSS, emotion dysregulation, and anger. There were indirect effects of CSA on ASA through PTSS and anger (B = .04, B = .01, respectively). CSA was associated with each of the PTSD symptom clusters, but only marked alterations in arousal and reactivity were linked with ASA (B = .01). The clusters had no indirect effects on the relation between CSA and ASA. These findings revealed several factors that may be linked with increased risk for sexual victimization.

Extending the ACEs Framework: Examining the Relations Between Childhood Abuse and Later Victimization and Perpetration With College Men

Research has revealed that forms of violence are interconnected, but less work focuses on the interconnection of victimization and perpetration, particularly with men. Subsequently, our understanding of the complexities of violence exposure in men's lives and related policies and treatments remains limited. The present study utilizes a sample of at-risk for violence involvement, college men, to examine the relationships between childhood victimization, adulthood victimization, and adulthood perpetration. Participants are 423 college men receiving course credit who completed a battery of standardized questionnaires via an anonymous web survey. Logistic regression is used. Results indicate that 27% of the men report polyperpetration (two or more types of perpetration), 43.5% report polyvictimization (two or more types of victimization), and 60% report experiencing both forms of victimization and perpetration in the past year. Childhood physical abuse has predictive power for perpetration (psychological aggression and polyperpetration) and victimization (sexual violence, psychological aggression, and polyvictimization) for the men in the past year. Childhood sexual abuse has strong predictive power for perpetration (physical violence, sexual violence, and polyperpetration) and victimization (physical violence and sexual violence) with the men in the past year. Finally, emotional abuse has predictive power for victimization (physical violence and psychological aggression), but not perpetration, for the men in the past year. Developmental psychopathology and the adverse childhood experiences frameworks are used to posit potential pathways explaining the relation between childhood abuse and the overlap between victimization and perpetration in adulthood for men. Implications of this study include the use of trauma-informed models of care with men and expanding the scope of study to examine experiences of both victimization and perpetration, and various types of violence, among men.

Safe schools for teens: preventing sexual abuse of urban poor teens, proof-of-concept study - Improving teachers' and students' knowledge, skills and attitudes

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is a difficult form of abuse to detect, with the peak age of reports from 13 to 15 years old. The recent revision of the Philippine school curriculum provided an opportunity to incorporate an educational intervention for prevention of CSA. This study aimed to improve the teachers' and students' knowledge, skills and attitudes on disclosure, identification, and reporting of CSA. This research is a two-phase proof-of-concept cross-sectional study of 237 teachers and 1,458 Grade 7 students from 2 public high schools in metro Manila over a two-year period. Phase 1 involved in-service training curriculum for all teachers on the recognizing, recording, reporting, and referral (4R's) of child abuse and establishment of a referral and support system. Outcome measures included pre- and post-tests and number of CSA reports. Phase 2 involved implementation of eight student modules through the Health and Values Education subjects of the curriculum. Outcome measures were pre- and post-intervention measurement of abuse and module content. Training of teachers resulted in an increase in confidence for identifying CSA from 25% to 57%, and a decrease in apprehension of reporting CSA from 40% to 33%. The Safe Schools for Teens intervention significantly improved self-reported knowledge on abuse, dating violence, and how to help friends as well as on adolescent's impulse control and emotional clarity. There was a significant decline from pre- to post-intervention in self-reported experiences of dating violence which includes physical, sexual and emotional violence, t(793) = 3.363, p = 001 as well as a significant decline in self-reported experiences of emotional abuse from a dating partner, t(837) = 2.693, p = 0.008. The Safe Schools for Teens intervention increases awareness and reporting of child sexual abuse. The intervention also reduces dating violence highlighting that the mindfulness focused approach in connection with systems strengthening is useful for addressing adolescent violence.

Polyvictimization, Related Symptoms, and Familial and Neighborhood Contexts as Longitudinal Mediators of Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Violence Exposure Across Adolescence

African American and Hispanic adolescent experience more violence exposure relative to White youth. The present study examined the mediating role of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), delinquency, earlier victimization, and familial and neighborhood factors in disparities in future victimization. The study utilized data from the National Survey of Adolescents-Replication (N = 3,312), which consists of three waves of data collected approximately 1 year apart. A series of path models, tested polyvictimization, PTSS, delinquency, familial socioeconomic factors, and neighborhood safety as mediators of disparities in new polyvictimization. All cross-lagged and autoregressive paths positively predicted past-year polyvictimization and mediated longitudinal disparities. Familial socioeconomic variables and neighborhood safety mediated initial violence exposure disparities. Overall, results indicate that prior violence exposure, related mental health symptoms, and familial and neighborhood factors account for significant portions of disparities in new violence exposure across adolescence.

Understanding School Sabotage Among Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence From Diverse Populations

Higher education is an important pathway to safety for survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV). Recent work documents tactics of school sabotage (behaviors aimed at sabotaging educational efforts) identified by school staff and IPV advocates. However, the perspectives of current students who are IPV survivors are unexplored. As part of a multiphasic study, 20 semi-structured qualitative interviews with community college students who reported current or recent IPV were conducted. Identified tactics included disrupting child care, emotional abuse tied to school, and using manipulation to limit access to campus or resources. Identified impacts include preventing focus, diminished academic achievement, emotional or mental health challenges, and instilling a desire to overcome.

Sexual Victimization and Benefit Expectations of Risky Behavior Among Female College Students

Sexual victimization has been shown to positively relate to both engagement in risky behavior and subsequent sexual victimization. Research has focused on the degree to which women consider the risks or costs of engaging in risky behaviors. The purpose of the current study was to examine the degree to which women weigh the costs and benefits of engaging in risky behaviors. Using self-report data from 113 female undergraduates, two separate hierarchical regression analyses were performed to examine the contributions of number of sexual victimization experiences, emotion dysregulation, cost expectations of risky behavior, and benefit expectations of risky behavior to latency to exit a risk perception vignette involving a stranger and frequency of engagement in risky behavior. Regression analyses revealed that the full set of predictors accounted for 13% of the variance in latency to exit the risk perception vignette involving a stranger, with emotion dysregulation and benefit expectations making significant and independent contributions. Regression analyses revealed that the same set of predictors accounted for 34% of the variance in frequency of engagement in risky behavior, with number of sexual victimization experiences and benefit expectations making significant and independent contributions. The current findings suggest that sexual victimization risk may be influenced by perceived benefits of risky behavior. Implications of the current findings will be discussed in the context of sexual victimization risk reduction.

Intimate partner violence, trauma, and mental health need among female community college students

OBJECTIVE

The impact of interpersonal violence on college students has received considerable attention, yet no studies have been conducted among community college students, who comprise 40% of all American college students, and have unique risk factors and needs. Community College students are more likely to be women, people of color, working, parenting, and first generation college students.

PARTICIPANTS

Data were collected from a simple random sample from four community colleges (n=435).

METHODS

A cross-sectional quantitative survey was used to assess the extent of intimate partner violence, trauma exposure, sexual violence, and associated mental health consequences among female students.

RESULTS

Over 27% of participants reported IPV in the past year, while 25% reported sexual assault and 34% reported other uncomfortable sexual experiences in their lifetime. Nearly 20%of participants were currently reporting PTSD symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Community Colleges should work with service providers to build their capacity to respond to students' needs.

Prevalence and predictors of violent victimization in remitted patients with recurrent depression

BACKGROUND

Depressed patients are at increased risk to fall victim to a violent crime compared to the general population. It remains unknown whether their increased risk persists after remission. This study compared victimization rates of remitted patients with both a random general population sample and a group of currently depressed patients. Furthermore, this study aimed to identify predictors of future violent victimization.

METHODS

In this longitudinal study conducted in the Netherlands, 12-month prevalence rates of sexual assaults, physical assaults, and threats were assessed with the Safety Monitor in 140 currently remitted patients with recurrent depression, and compared to those of a weighted general population sample (N = 9.175) and a weighted sample of currently depressed outpatients (N = 102) using Chi-square tests. Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify baseline predictors of future victimization.

RESULTS

The prevalence of violent victimization did not differ between remitted patients and the general population (12.1 vs. 11.7%). Remitted patients were significantly less likely to have been victimized over the past 12 months than currently depressed patients (12.1 vs. 35.5%). In remitted patients, living alone and low sense of mastery at baseline predicted future violent victimization. However, when combined in a multiple model, only living alone was independently associated with violent victimization (χ² = 16.725, df = 2, p < .001, R² = 0.221).

LIMITATIONS

Our comparison of victimization rates across samples was cross-sectional.

CONCLUSIONS

Since the increased risk of victimization appears to be specific for the acute depressive state, preventive interventions should target victimization in currently depressed patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Netherlands Trial Register (NTR): 2599.

Sexual health prevention for incarcerated women: eroticising safe sex during re-entry to the community

INTRODUCTION

In the USA, incarcerated women are disproportionately affected by sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV. Transitioning from incarceration into the community is accompanied by elevated risk behaviours related to acquisition of STIs, yet few efficacious interventions address sexual health prevention among incarcerated women.

METHODS

We conducted an exploratory qualitative study with 21 incarcerated women at four women's state prison facilities in two Northeastern states in the USA. Qualitative data were gathered from four focus groups to guide future intervention development. Focus group discussions were guided by a semi-structured protocol exploring perceptions of sexual health prevention methods, experience with implementing prevention technologies and protective behaviours, and strategies to overcome challenges in implementing sexual health prevention behaviours. Focus groups were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Women described challenges in uptake of existing low-cost sexual health prevention strategies such as condoms. They identified strategies to facilitate use of prevention tools, and to increase protective behaviours relating to sexual health during the transition from incarceration to the community. For example, women described methods for eroticising male and female condoms, including selecting condoms with novel features, explaining to partners that condoms could increase sexual pleasure, and incorporating condom application into foreplay and/or oral sex.

CONCLUSION

Incorporating these insights, including how to eroticise safe sex, can inform the design of future preventive interventions tailored to meet the urgent sexual health needs of incarcerated women preparing for reintegration into the community.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT01907126.

Prevention of violent revictimization in depressed patients with an add-on internet-based emotion regulation training (iERT): study protocol for a multicenter randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Psychiatric patients are at high risk of becoming victim of a violent crime compared to the general population. Although most research has focused on patients with severe mental illness, depressed patients have been demonstrated to be prone to victimization as well. Victimization is associated with more severe symptomatology, decreased quality of life, and high risk of revictimization. Hence, there is a strong need for interventions that focus on preventing violent revictimization. Since emotion dysregulation is associated with both victimization and depression, we developed an internet-based Emotion Regulation Training (iERT) to reduce revictimization in depressed patients. This study aims to evaluate the clinical and cost-effectiveness of iERT added to Treatment As Usual (TAU) in reducing incidents of violent revictimization among depressed patients with a recent history of victimization. Furthermore, this study aims to examine secondary clinical outcomes, and moderators and mediators that may be associated with treatment outcomes.

METHODS

In a multicenter randomized controlled trial with parallel group design, patients with a major depressive disorder and a history of violent victimization over the past three years (N = 200) will be allocated to either TAU + iERT (N = 100) or TAU only (N = 100), based on computer-generated stratified block randomization. Assessments will take place at baseline, 8 weeks, 14 weeks, and 6 months after start of treatment, and 12, 24, and 36 months after baseline. The primary outcome measure is the total number of violent victimization incidents at 12 months after baseline, measured with the Safety Monitor: an adequate self-report questionnaire that assesses victimization over the preceding 12 months. Secondary outcome measures and mediators include emotion dysregulation and depressive symptomatology. An economic evaluation with the societal perspective will be performed alongside the trial.

DISCUSSION

This study is the first to examine the effectiveness of an intervention aimed at reducing violent revictimization in depressed patients. If effective, iERT can be implemented in mental health care, and contribute to the well-being of depressed patients. Furthermore, the results will provide insight into underlying mechanisms of revictimization.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study is registered at the Netherlands Trial Register ( NTR5822 ). Date of registration: 4 April 2016.

How Qualitative Methods Contribute to Intervention Adaptation: An HIV Risk Reduction Example

This paper describes how to use qualitative data for adapting an existing behavioral intervention to a new population using a specific illustration-the adaptation of the Women's CoOp HIV intervention to the needs of women prisoners who have experienced interpersonal violence. We describe and illustrate how we conducted each step in the adaptation process, including (1) choosing a well-matched intervention to adapt, (2) setting specific goals for the adaptation, (3) writing a focus group agenda that will collect the data you need for the adaptation, (4) recruiting participants and conducting the focus groups, (5) using debriefs to assess the data as you gather them, (6) coding, (7) analysis, (8) using the qualitative data to guide the intervention adaptation, (9) conducting additional groups and making final revisions, and (10) pilot testing the intervention. These steps provide an effective model for how to collect and analyze qualitative data that support behavioral intervention development.

Social Support of Adolescent Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse and Sexual Revictimization in Turkey

Sexual revictimization refers to having a history of child sexual abuse and an experience of being assaulted again in adolescence or adulthood. This descriptive study examined perceived social support of nonvictim adolescents and adolescents who had survived single sexual abuse and sexual revictimization. Participants were 210 adolescent girls, all aged between 15 and 18, selected by a convenience sampling method; 70 had survived sexual revictimization, 70 had survived single sexual abuse, and 70 were nonvictims. The Perceived Social Support Scale was administered, and a one-way ANOVA was conducted for data analysis. Perceived social support from the community was lower in the sexual revictimization group than in the single sexual abuse and comparison groups. Family social support did not differ between the sexual revictimization and single sexual abuse groups but was lower in both than in the comparison group. These results indicate that victims of sexual revictimization need social support, and both sexual revictimization and single sexual abuse victims need familial support.

Victimization and Perpetration Experiences of Adults With Autism

This study aimed to describe the self-reported experiences of childhood and adult victimization and perpetration in adults with autism spectrum conditions (ASC) compared to a matched sample, and how victimization and perpetration are associated with autism-related difficulties. Forty-five adults with ASC and 42 adults without ASC completed questionnaires regarding violence victimization and perpetration, emotion regulation, and sociocommunicative competence. Participants with ASC reported experiencing, as children, more overall victimization; specifically, more property crime, maltreatment, teasing/emotional bullying, and sexual assault by peers, compared to participants without ASC. Participants with ASC also reported experiencing more teasing/emotional bullying in adulthood and greater sexual contact victimization. No significant differences were found between groups on perpetration. Sociocommunicative ability and emotion regulation deficits did not explain the heightened risk for victimization. Individuals with ASC have an increased vulnerability to violence victimization, which speaks to the need for interventions, and proactive prevention strategies.

Facial emotion identification and sexual assault risk detection among college student sexual assault victims and nonvictims

OBJECTIVE

High rates of sexual victimization among college students necessitate further study of factors associated with sexual assault risk detection. The present study examined how social information processing relates to sexual assault risk detection as a function of sexual assault victimization history.

PARTICIPANTS

225 undergraduates (M_age = 19.12, SD = 1.44; 66% women).

METHODS

Participants completed an online questionnaire assessing victimization history, an emotion identification task, and a sexual assault risk detection task between June 2013 and May 2014.

RESULTS

Emotion identification moderated the association between victimization history and risk detection such that sexual assault survivors with lower emotion identification accuracy also reported the least risk in a sexual assault vignette.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that differences in social information processing, specifically recognition of others' emotions, are associated with sexual assault risk detection. College prevention programs could incorporate emotional awareness strategies, particularly for men and women who are sexual assault survivors.

Unacknowledged Rape and Re-Victimization Risk

The majority of college women who experience rape do not conceptualize their experience as a victimization, that is, they are unacknowledged victims. There is some initial evidence that unacknowledged victims are at elevated re-victimization risk relative to acknowledged victims. In the current study, we sought to identify mediators of the association between acknowledgment of rape and re-victimization in a sample of 319 college rape victims; 187 (58.6%) participants completed a 2-month follow-up study. We examined regular drinking, number of sexual partners, and continuing a relationship with the assailant as potential mediators of the relation between acknowledgment and re-victimization. At follow-up, unacknowledged victims reported higher rates of new attempted (16.2%) and completed rape (11.9%), relative to acknowledged victims (attempted: 7.9%; completed: 3.0%). Number of sexual partners mediated the relation between acknowledgment and attempted rape. Both number of partners and regular drinking mediated the relation between acknowledgment and completed rape. Thus, not acknowledging rape may be associated with re-victimization in part because unacknowledged victims may be more likely to engage in behaviors that increase vulnerability. We believe there is a need for longitudinal, theoretically grounded research examining risky behaviors, victimization, and acknowledgment status over time to delineate the relations among these variables. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ' s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index

Predicting Sexual Assault Revictimization in a Longitudinal Sample of Women Survivors: Variation by Type of Assault

This study used a large community sample of women sexual assault survivors to prospectively assess 17 theorized predictors across four types of sexual assault revictimization: unwanted contact, coercion, substance-involved assault (SIA), and force. Results indicated that predictors varied across types of revictimization: Unwanted contact and coercion appeared more common in social contexts more hostile toward survivors, whereas forcible assaults and SIAs occurred in circumstances where survivors were vulnerable to being targeted by perpetrators. Overall, the strongest predictors were social environments hostile to survivors, race, childhood sexual abuse, decreased refusal assertiveness, and having more sexual partners. We discuss implications for intervention and research.

Self-wise, Other-wise, Streetwise (SOS) training: a novel intervention to reduce victimization in dual diagnosis psychiatric patients with substance use disorders: protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Psychiatric patients are more likely to be victims of crime than others in the community. Dual diagnosis patients with comorbid psychiatric and substance use disorders are especially prone to victimization. Victimization is associated with substance abuse, more severe symptomatology and homelessness. There is a strong need for interventions to reduce victimization in this population. We developed the Self-wise, Other-wise, Streetwise (SOS) training to reduce victimization in patients with dual diagnosis.

METHODS/DESIGN

This study is a randomized controlled trial using a parallel group design to determine the effectiveness of adding the SOS training to care as usual. Patients with dual diagnosis (N = 250) will be allocated to either care as usual plus SOS training (N = 125) or care as usual only (N = 125) using computer-generated stratified block randomization. To compare effectiveness participants will be interviewed at baseline and 2, 8 and 14 months follow-up. The primary outcome measure is treatment response (yes/no), defined as either no victimization at 14 months follow-up or at least a 50% reduction in incidents of victimization at 14 months follow-up compared to baseline assessment. Victimization is measured with the Safety Monitor, an adequate self-report instrument used by Statistics Netherlands to measure victimization on a large scale in the Netherlands. Outcome assessors are blind to treatment allocation. An economic evaluation will be performed alongside the randomized controlled trial and will take the societal perspective.

DISCUSSION

This study is the first randomized controlled trial to examine the effectiveness of an intervention that aims to reduce victimization in patients with dual diagnosis. If the intervention is effective it can be implemented in mental health care and contribute to the safety and well-being of patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Dutch Trial Register (NTR): 4472, date of registration: 24-03-2014.

Does drinking to cope explain links between emotion-driven impulse control difficulties and hazardous drinking? A longitudinal test

Difficulty controlling impulsive behaviors when experiencing negative emotions is a prominent risk factor for hazardous alcohol use, and prior research suggests that drinking to cope may mediate this association. The present study examines this possibility prospectively in a sample of 490 young adult women between the ages of 18 and 25. Participants completed measures of emotion-driven impulse control difficulties, drinking to cope, and hazardous alcohol use at 6 time points over the course of approximately 20 months (i.e., 1 assessment every 4 months). Multilevel structural equation modeling revealed that drinking to cope fully mediated the relationship between emotion-driven impulse control difficulties and hazardous alcohol use when examining these relationships between individuals and partially mediated this relation when examining these relationships within individuals. These findings suggest that drinking to cope is a key mechanism in the relationship between emotion-driven impulse control difficulties and hazardous drinking. Results highlight the importance of targeting both emotion dysregulation and drinking to cope when treating young women for alcohol use problems.

Childhood maltreatment and risk of intimate partner violence: A national study

OBJECTIVE

Prior research indicates that different types of childhood maltreatment frequently co-occur and confer risk for adulthood intimate partner violence (IPV). However, it is unknown whether the risk of IPV is due to specific type(s) of maltreatment or to their shared association or both. Although these competing explanations have different implications for intervention, they have never been evaluated empirically.

METHOD

Data were drawn from a nationally representative survey of 34,653 US adults, the 2004-2005 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Structural equation modeling was used to simultaneously examine the shared and specific effects of five types of childhood maltreatment (i.e., sexual abuse, physical and emotional abuse and neglect) on the risk of different IPV behaviors (i.e., perpetration, victimization and reciprocal violence). Analyses were stratified by sex and adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics (i.e., age, personal income, educational background and race/ethnicity).

RESULTS

Most types of childhood maltreatment increased the risk of victimization, perpetration and reciprocal violence. Effects of maltreatment types on each IPV behavior were exerted mostly through a latent factor representing the shared effect across all different types of maltreatment in both sexes (CFI = 0.990, TLI = 0.990, RMSEA = 0.023), although sexual abuse had an additional effect on victimization.

CONCLUSIONS

Because childhood maltreatment types increase the risk of each intimate partner violence behavior mainly through a general maltreatment dimension, underlying biological and developmental-ecological mechanisms should be considered important targets of prevention for both victimization and perpetration of abuse in adult relationships.

The Importance of Substance-Related Sexual Victimization: Impact on Substance Use and Risk Perception in Female College Students

Data on risk perception, sexual victimization, and substance use were obtained via surveys from 496 female college students to determine what factors influence risk perception using a written vignette in which participants make a hypothetical decision to leave a potentially risky situation. Experiences of substance-related (SR) victimization, rather than forcible victimization, were associated with significantly delayed risk perception. SR victimization victims reported feeling uncomfortable significantly later and leaving the scenario significantly later than non-victims. SR victimization victims also had significantly higher scores on heavy episodic drinking (HED), marijuana use, alcohol-related tolerance, and blackouts. Both substance use (HED and marijuana use) and alcohol-related problems (tolerance and blackouts) mediated the link between SR victimization and risk perception in the form of behavioral leave response. In contrast, only HED and tolerance mediated the link between SR victimization and risk recognition. Findings suggest the importance of differentiating types of victimization in predicting risk perception and of addressing substance use in sexual victimization risk reduction interventions.

Brain and behavioral evidence for altered social learning mechanisms among women with assault-related posttraumatic stress disorder

Current neurocircuitry models of PTSD focus on the neural mechanisms that mediate hypervigilance for threat and fear inhibition/extinction learning. Less focus has been directed towards explaining social deficits and heightened risk of revictimization observed among individuals with PTSD related to physical or sexual assault. The purpose of the present study was to foster more comprehensive theoretical models of PTSD by testing the hypothesis that assault-related PTSD is associated with behavioral impairments in a social trust and reciprocity task and corresponding alterations in the neural encoding of social learning mechanisms. Adult women with assault-related PTSD (n = 25) and control women (n = 15) completed a multi-trial trust game outside of the MRI scanner. A subset of these participants (15 with PTSD and 14 controls) also completed a social and non-social reinforcement learning task during 3T fMRI. Brain regions that encoded the computationally modeled parameters of value expectation, prediction error, and volatility (i.e., uncertainty) were defined and compared between groups. The PTSD group demonstrated slower learning rates during the trust game and social prediction errors had a lesser impact on subsequent investment decisions. PTSD was also associated with greater encoding of negative expected social outcomes in perigenual anterior cingulate cortex and bilateral middle frontal gyri, and greater encoding of social prediction errors in the left temporoparietal junction. These data suggest mechanisms of PTSD-related deficits in social functioning and heightened risk for re-victimization in assault victims; however, comorbidity in the PTSD group and the lack of a trauma-exposed control group temper conclusions about PTSD specifically.

A prospective investigation of emotion dysregulation as a moderator of the relation between posttraumatic stress symptoms and substance use severity

Despite strong evidence for an association between the experience of posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms and substance use, little is known about the particular individuals most at-risk for problematic substance use in response to PTS symptoms. Consequently, the goal of this study was to conduct a prospective investigation of the moderating role of emotion dysregulation (assessed through self-report and behavioral measures) in the relation between PTS symptoms and substance use 8-months later within a sample of 106 young adult women. No main effect of PTS symptoms on substance use was found. Instead, PTS symptoms were only associated with later substance use in the context of heightened emotion dysregulation. Results provide support for emotion dysregulation as a key factor that may increase risk for substance use among women experiencing PTS symptoms and highlight a target for future interventions aimed at reducing risk for the development of maladaptive behaviors stemming from PTS symptoms.

Using cognitive theory and methodology to inform the study of sexual victimization

Sexual victimization is a prevalent problem among college-aged women. In order to investigate the mechanisms underlying sexual victimization, researchers have focused on the role of cognitive processes such as perception of sexual victimization risk, positing that difficulties with risk perception heighten women's risk for victimization. However, researchers generally have not conceptualized risk perception in the context of a comprehensive cognitive model or utilized tasks and stimuli that allow them to examine specific cognitive processes linked to increased risk for sexual victimization. This review examines the research on sexual victimization risk perception, citing benefits and limitations to the extant literature, and discusses how a promising hybrid approach using cognitive theory and methodology can be applied to this area to better understand women's risk for sexual victimization.

Bidirectional relationships between trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress: a longitudinal study of Detroit residents

Previous research has documented bidirectional relationships between trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress (PTS), such that individuals who are exposed to more traumatic events are at increased risk of developing PTS, and more severe PTS is associated with more subsequent trauma exposure. However, the empirical literature is limited by a lack of longitudinal studies that include continuous measures of PTS, differentiate between assaultive (e.g., sexual assault, being held up or mugged) and nonassaultive (e.g., serious illness, natural disaster) trauma, and focus on urban contexts. The purpose of this study was to fill these gaps through testing 3-wave cross-lagged panel models of exposure to assaultive and nonassaultive traumatic events and PTS among a large sample of urban-dwelling adults (N = 1,360; 84.4% non-Hispanic Black). In the model including assaultive trauma, more Wave 2 assaultive events were associated with significantly higher Wave 3 PTS. In contrast, in the model including nonassaultive trauma, higher Wave 1 and Wave 2 PTS were associated with more nonassaultive events at Waves 2 and 3, respectively. Taken together, the findings suggest a cycle of adversity wherein urban residents who have experienced assaultive trauma are at risk of more severe PTS, which in turn increases risk for exposure to nonassaultive trauma. This cycle could be tested directly in future studies through models including both types of events. Additional research on the mechanisms that underlie the pathways between PTS and traumatic events could also have implications for policy and practice.

Emotional dysregulation and risky sex among incarcerated women with a history of interpersonal violence

Incarcerated women, in comparison to nonincarcerated women, are at high risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and many have experienced interpersonal violence. The psychological construct of emotional dysregulation-which includes heightened intensity of emotions, poor understanding of emotions, negative reactivity to emotion state, inability to control behaviors when experiencing emotional distress, and maladaptive emotion management responses-is a possible pathway to explain the link between interpersonal violence exposure and STI risk. The present study examined maladaptive emotion management responses for emotional dysregulation (i.e., avoidance and numbing, and dissociation) occurring in the context of risky sexual behavior. We collected qualitative data from 4 focus groups with a sample of n = 21 incarcerated women (aged 18+ years) from urban facilities in New England. Qualitative data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. Findings indicated that incarcerated women reported engaging in a variety of maladaptive responses for emotion management during sexual encounters. These maladaptive responses for emotion management appear to increase sexual risk behaviors and alter women's ability to implement STI protective behaviors, such as sexual negotiation and condom use. Preventive interventions to reduce sexual risk behaviors should incorporate strategies to promote emotional regulation among incarcerated women with histories of interpersonal violence.

Child maltreatment, personality pathology, and stalking victimization among male and female college students

Self-report college student surveys on childhood maltreatment, and borderline and narcissistic personality features are examined to determine their influence on stalking victimization vulnerability. Stalking victimization was measured using Spitzberg and Cupach's (2008) Obsessive Relational Intrusion scale. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models were run separately for men (N = 677) and women (N = 1,017). Results indicated childhood sexual maltreatment and borderline traits were associated with stalking victimization among both men and women. These were the only significant relationships for men (R2 = .10). For women, stalking victimization was also associated with narcissistic grandiosity and vulnerability and with a child sexual abuse by borderline features interaction (R2 = .13), demonstrating women reporting prior sexual abuse and borderline personality pathology are especially vulnerable. Methodological and policy implications are discussed.

Ovulation, in vivo emotion regulation problems, and sexual risk recognition deficits

OBJECTIVE

To examine associations between menstrual cycle phase, negative mood, sexual risk recognition deficits (assessed via an analogue risk vignette), and in vivo emotion dysregulation.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were 714 college women recruited between February 2007 and December 2009.

METHODS

Participants were randomly assigned to a negative or neutral mood induction and instructed to identify sexual risk during an audiotaped sexual coercion vignette. Participants reported menstrual cycle information, in vivo emotional nonacceptance, and attention during the vignette.

RESULTS

In the negative mood condition, ovulation was associated with longer risk recognition latencies relative to the luteal and follicular phases of the menstrual cycle. Increased in vivo emotional nonacceptance and decreased attention to the vignette mediated associations between ovulation and risk recognition deficits in the negative mood condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Sexual assault risk reduction programs could provide psychoeducation regarding negative mood during ovulation and emphasize emotional acceptance and attention to external stimuli when distressed.