Sustained prognostic implications of newly detected glucose abnormalities in patients with acute myocardial infarction: long-term follow-up of the Glucose Tolerance in Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction cohort

Dysglycaemia screening and its prognostic impact in patients with coronary artery disease: experiences from the EUROASPIRE IV and V cohort studies

BACKGROUND

Glucose perturbations can be detected by fasting plasma glucose (FPG), HbA1c, and the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The highest yield is provided by OGTT. HbA1c is considered more practical. We compare the diagnostic and predictive performance of these glycaemic indicators based on combined data from the EUROASPIRE IV (EAIV) and V (EAV) studies.

METHODS

This cohort study was conducted in 79 centres in 24 European countries (EAIV) and 131 centres in 27 European countries (EAV). Eligible patients were aged 18-80 years, did not have diabetes, and were diagnosed with coronary artery disease 6-36 months (EAIV) or 6-24 months (EAV) before the investigation. Patients were investigated with OGTT (FPG and 2 h post-load glucose [2-hPG]) and HbA1c. Follow-up of subsequent cardiovascular events was done by means of a questionnaire at least 1 year after the baseline investigation. Analyses were done in patients with both OGTT and HbA1c data available. Outcome analysis in these patients was restricted to those with valid follow-up data available.

FINDINGS

16 259 patients were interviewed in EAIV (2012-13) and EAV (2016-17). 8364 patients had both OGTT and HbA1C data and were included in the analysis population (3932 in EAIV and 4432 in EAV). Information on cardiovascular events was available in 7892 patients. Follow-up was for a median 1·6 years (IQR 1·2-2·0). The average patient age was 63·3 years (SD 9·8), and 6346 (75·9%) of 8364 patients were men. At baseline, 1856 (22·5%) of 8263 patients were determined to have newly detected type 2 diabetes using OGTT alone, compared with 346 (4·2%) using HbA1c alone. New dysglycaemia, defined as newly detected type 2 diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), was present in 3896 (47·1%) of the patients according to 2hPG. 2hPG 9 mmol/L or greater (162 mg/dL, adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 1·58; 95% CI 1·27-1·95, p<0·0001), and HbA1c 5·9% or greater (41 mmol/mol, aHR 1·48, 1·19-1·84; p=0·0010) were the strongest predictors of cardiovascular events, while FPG did not predict. A multivariable model showed that the effect of HbA1c on cardiovascular events was mainly explained by 2hPG (aHR for 1 unit increase in HbA1c 1·13, 0·98-1·30; p=0·11; and aHR for 1 unit increase in Ln[2hPG] 1·37, 1·08-1·74; p=0·0042).

INTERPRETATION

2hPG appears better than HbA1c in detecting dysglycaemia and predicting its impact on future cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease and should be recommended as the primary screening tool.

FUNDING

Swedish Heart-Lung Foundation, Region Stockholm (ALF), the Erling Persson Foundation, the Baltic Child Foundation.

Structured diabetes care routines in cardiac rehabilitation are associated with increased diabetes detection and improved treatment after myocardial infarction: a nationwide observational study

BACKGROUND

Despite the detrimental impact of abnormal glucose metabolism on cardiovascular prognosis after myocardial infarction (MI), diabetes is both underdiagnosed and undertreated. We investigated associations between structured diabetes care routines in cardiac rehabilitation (CR) and detection and treatment of diabetes at one-year post-MI.

METHODS

Center-level data was derived from the Perfect-CR survey, which evaluated work routines applied at Swedish CR centers (n = 76). Work routines involving diabetes care included: (1) routine assessment of fasting glucose and/or HbA1c, (2) routine use of oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), (3) having regular case rounds with diabetologists, and (4) whether glucose-lowering medication was adjusted by CR physicians. Patient-level data was obtained from the national MI registry SWEDEHEART (n = 7601, 76% male, mean age 62.6 years) and included all post-MI patients irrespective of diabetes diagnosis. Using mixed-effects regression we estimated differences between patients exposed versus. not exposed to the four above-mentioned diabetes care routines. Outcomes were newly detected diabetes and the proportion of patients receiving oral glucose-lowering medication at one-year post-MI.

RESULTS

Routine assessment of fasting glucose/HbA1c was performed at 63.2% (n = 48) of the centers, while 38.2% (n = 29) reported using OGTT for detecting glucose abnormalities. Glucose-lowering medication adjusted by CR physicians (n = 13, 17.1%) or regular case rounds with diabetologists (n = 7, 9.2%) were less frequently reported. In total, 4.0% of all patients (n = 304) were diagnosed with diabetes during follow-up and 17.9% (n = 1361) were on oral glucose-lowering treatment one-year post-MI. Routine use of OGTT was associated with a higher rate of newly detected diabetes at one-year (risk ratio [95% confidence interval]: 1.62 [1.26, 1.98], p = 0.0007). At one-year a higher proportion of patients were receiving oral glucose-lowering medication at centers using OGTT (1.22 [1.07, 1.37], p = 0.0046) and where such medication was adjusted by CR physicians (1.31 [1.06, 1.56], p = 0.0155). Compared to having none of the structured diabetes care routines, the more routines implemented the higher the rate of newly detected diabetes (from 0 routines: 2.7% to 4 routines: 6.3%; p for trend = 0.0014).

CONCLUSIONS

Having structured routines for diabetes care implemented within CR can improve detection and treatment of diabetes post-MI. A cluster-randomized trial is warranted to ascertain causality.

Low Levels of Adropin Predict Adverse Clinical Outcomes in Outpatients with Newly Diagnosed Prediabetes after Acute Myocardial Infarction

Adropin-a multifunctional peptide with tissue-protective capacity that regulates energy homeostasis, sensitivity to insulin and inflammatory response-seems to show an inverse association with the presence of cardiovascular and renal diseases, obesity and diabetes mellitus in the general population. The purpose of the study is to elucidate whether adropin may be a plausible predictive biomarker for clinical outcomes in post-ST elevation of myocardial infarction (STEMI) patients with newly diagnosed prediabetes according to the American Diabetes Association criteria. A total of 1214 post-STEMI patients who received percutaneous coronary intervention were identified in a local database of the private hospital "Vita Center" (Zaporozhye, Ukraine). Between November 2020 and June 2024, we prospectively enrolled 498 patients with prediabetes in this open prospective cohort study and followed them for 3 years. The combined clinical endpoint at follow-up was defined as cardiovascular death due to acute myocardial infarction, heart failure, sudden death due to arrhythmia or cardiac surgery, and/or all-cause death. We identified 126 clinical events and found that serum levels of adropin < 2.15 ng/mL (area under the curve = 0.836; 95% confidence interval = 0.745-0.928; sensitivity = 84.9%; specificity = 72.7%; likelihood ratio = 3.11; p = 0.0001) predicted clinical outcomes. Multivariate logistic regression showed that a Gensini score ≥ 32 (Odds ratio [OR] = 1.07; p = 0.001), adropin ≤ 2.15 ng/mL (OR = 1.18; p = 0.001), use of SGLT2i (OR = 0.94; p = 0.010) and GLP-1 receptor agonist (OR = 0.95; p = 0.040) were independent predictors of clinical outcome. Kaplan-Meier plots showed that patients with lower adropin levels (≤2.15 ng/mL) had worse clinical outcomes compared to patients with higher adropin levels (>2.15 ng/mL). In conclusion, low levels of adropin (≤2.15 ng/mL) independently predicted clinical outcomes in post-STEMI patients with newly detected prediabetes and improved the discriminative ability of the Gensini score for 3-year follow-up events. Future clinical studies are needed to clarify whether adropin is a promising molecule to be incorporated into conventional risk scores for the prediction of MACCEs after STEMI.

Influence of prediabetes on the prognosis of patients with myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous studies evaluating the association between prediabetes the prognosis of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) showed inconsistent results. The aim of the meta-analysis was to compare the long-term incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs) between AMI patients with prediabetes and normoglycemia.

METHODS

Relevant prospective cohort studies were obtained by searching Medline, Web of Science, and Embase databases. Only studies with follow-up duration of at least one year were included. A random-effects model was utilized to pool the results by incorporating the influence of heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Twelve studies with 6972 patients with AMI were included. Among them, 2998 were with prediabetes and 3974 were with normoglycemia. During a mean follow-up of 52.6 months, 2100 patients developed MACEs. Compared to those with normoglycemia, AMI patients with prediabetes were associated with a higher incidence of MACEs (risk ratio [RR]: 1.30, 95% confidence interval: 1.07 to 1.58, p = 0.008; I2 = 67%). Subgroup analysis showed a stronger association between prediabetes and MACEs in studies of patients with mean age ≥ 60 years compared to < 60 years (RR: 1.66 versus 1.10, p for subgroup difference = 0.04), with proportion of men < 75% compared to ≥ 75% (RR: 1.87 versus 1.08, p for subgroup difference = 0.01), and in prediabetes evaluated at or after discharge compared to that evaluated within three days of AMI onset (RR: 1.39 versus 0.78, p for subgroup difference = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Prediabetes may be associated with a higher risk of MACEs in patients with AMI.

Design and rationale of the myocardial infarction and new treatment with metformin study (MIMET) - Study protocol for a registry-based randomised clinical trial

AIMS

To investigate if addition of metformin to standard care (life-style advice) reduces the occurrence of cardiovascular events and death after myocardial infarction (MI) in patients with newly detected prediabetes.

METHODS

The Myocardial Infarction and new treatment with Metformin study (MIMET) is a large multicentre registry-based randomised clinical trial (R-RCT) within the SWEDEHEART registry platform expected to include 5160 patients with MI and newly detected prediabetes (identified with fasting blood glucose, HbA1c or 2-h glucose on oral glucose tolerance test) at ∼20 study sites in Sweden. Patients 18-80 years, without known diabetes and naïve to glucose lowering therapy, will be randomised 1:1 to open-label metformin therapy plus standard care or standard care alone.

OUTCOMES

Patients will be followed for 2 years for the primary outcome new cardiovascular event (first of death, non-fatal MI, hospitalisation for heart failure or non-fatal stroke). Secondary endpoints include individual components of the primary endpoint, diabetes diagnosis, initiation of any glucose lowering therapy, cancer, and treatment safety. Events will be collected from national healthcare registries.

CONCLUSIONS

The MIMET study will investigate if metformin is superior to standard care after myocardial infarction in preventing cardiovascular events in patients with prediabetes (Clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT05182970; EudraCT No: 2019-001487-30).

Effects of Prediabetes on Long-term Risk of Developing Cardiac Events in Patients Presenting With Acute Coronary Syndrome

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this work was to identify the long-term risk associated with prediabetes and developing subsequent cardiac events in patients presenting with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) at a tertiary health-care centre.

METHODS

In this retrospective cohort study, we analyzed patients admitted with ACS between January and December 2013. Two hundred thirty patients with prediabetes were matched to a comparison cohort of patients with no diabetes based on age, sex, and diagnosis code of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems---10th revision. The primary outcome was incidence of ACS readmission over a 5-year period.

RESULTS

There were 46 (20%) readmissions for ACS in the prediabetes cohort and 33 (14.3%) in the no-diabetes cohort. Univariable conditional logistic regression showed that prediabetes was not a significant risk factor for ACS readmission (odds ratio, 1.481; 95% confidence interval, 0.909 to 2.414; p=0.115). After accounting for other major risk factors for coronary disease, prediabetes was not shown to be a significant risk factor for ACS readmission (odds ratio, 1.333; 95% confidence interval, 0.795 to 2.233; p=0.276).

CONCLUSIONS

Among patients presenting with ACS, prediabetes was not associated with increased risk of readmission for subsequent cardiac events compared with patients with no diabetes after 5 years of follow-up. A longer follow-up duration is needed.

SOdium-glucose CO-transporter inhibition in patients with newly detected Glucose Abnormalities and a recent Myocardial Infarction (SOCOGAMI)

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Established dysglycaemia (impaired glucose tolerance [IGT] or type 2 diabetes [T2DM]) is a risk factor for further cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors reduce this risk. The aim of the present investigation was to test the hypothesis that empagliflozin exerts beneficial effects on myocardial function in patients with a recent acute coronary syndrome and newly detected dysglycaemia.

METHODS

Forty-two patients (mean age 67.5 years, 81 % male) with recent myocardial infarction (n = 36) or unstable angina (n = 6) and newly detected IGT (n = 27) or T2DM (n = 15) were randomised to 25 mg of empagliflozin daily (n = 20) or placebo (n = 22) on top of ongoing therapy. They were investigated with oral glucose tolerance tests, stress-perfusion cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) and echocardiography at three occasions: before randomisation, after seven months on study drug and three months following cessation of such drug. Primary outcome was a change in left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic volume (LVEDV) and secondary outcomes were a change in a) systolic and diastolic LV function; b) coronary flow reserve; c) myocardial extracellular volume (ECV) in non-infarcted myocardium; d) aortic pulse wave velocity.

RESULTS

Empagliflozin induced a significant decrease in fasting and post load glucose (p < 0.05) and body weight (p < 0.01). Empagliflozin did not influence LVEDV, LV systolic or mass indexes, coronary flow reserve, ECV or aortic pulse wave velocity. Echocardiographic indices of LV diastolic function (E/e' and mitral E/A ratio) were not influenced. No safety concerns were identified.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Empagliflozin had predicted effects on the dysglycaemia but did not influence variables expressing LV function, coronary flow reserve and ECV. An explanation may be that the LV function of the patients was within the normal range.

Measures of Insulin Resistance as a Screening Tool for Dysglycemia in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease: A Report From the EUROASPIRE V Population

OBJECTIVE

The optimal screening strategy for dysglycemia (including type 2 diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance) in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) is debated. We tested the hypothesis that measures of insulin resistance by HOMA indexes may constitute good screening methods.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Insulin, C-peptide, glycated hemoglobin A1c, and an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were centrally assessed in 3,534 patients with CAD without known dysglycemia from the fifth European Survey of Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Diabetes (EUROASPIRE V). Three different HOMA indexes were calculated: HOMA of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), HOMA2 based on insulin (HOMA2-ins), and HOMA2 based on C-peptide (HOMA2-Cpep). Dysglycemia was diagnosed based on the 2-h postload glucose value obtained from the OGTT. Information on study participants was obtained by standardized interviews. The optimal thresholds of the three HOMA indexes for dysglycemia diagnosis were obtained by the maximum value of Youden's J statistic on receiver operator characteristic curves. Their correlation with clinical parameters was assessed by Spearman coefficients.

RESULTS

Of 3,534 patients with CAD (mean age 63 years; 25% women), 41% had dysglycemia. Mean insulin, C-peptide, and HOMA indexes were significantly higher in patients with versus without newly detected dysglycemia (all P < 0.0001). Sensitivity and specificity of the three HOMA indexes for the diagnosis of dysglycemia were low, but their correlation with BMI and waist circumference was strong.

CONCLUSIONS

Screening for dysglycemia in patients with CAD by HOMA-IR, HOMA2-ins, and HOMA2-Cpep had insufficient diagnostic performance to detect dysglycemia with reference to the yield of an OGTT, which should still be prioritized despite its practical drawbacks.

Glucose tolerance and markers of myocardial injury after an acute coronary syndrome: predictive role of the 1-h plus 2-h plasma glucose at the oral glucose tolerance test

Objective

Impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) has been related to adverse cardiovascular outcomes. We investigated the added value of 1-h plasma glucose (PG) at the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in predicting admission and peak cardiac high-sensitivity troponin T (hs-TnT) and NT-proBNP values in IGT patients admitted for an acute coronary syndrome (ACS).

Research design and methods

Among 192 consecutive ACS patients, 109 had Hb1Ac and fasting plasma glucose negative for newly diagnosed diabetes. Upon OGTT performed > 96 h after admission, 88, conventionally diagnosed as IGT, were divided into: “full glucose tolerance” (1-h PG-OGTT < 155 mg/dL and 2-h PG-OGTT < 140 mg/dL, N = 12);”early IGT” (1 h-PG-OGTT ≥ 155 mg/dL and 2-h PG-OGTT < 140 mg/dL, N = 33);”late IGT” (1-h PG-OGTT < 155 mg/dL and 2-h PG-OGTT ≥ 140 mg/dL, N = 8); and “full IGT” (1-h PG-OGTT ≥ 155 mg/dL and 2-h PG-OGTT ≥ 140 mg/dL, N = 35). The 4 groups were compared for cardiac markers.

Results

The first three groups had similar cardiac marker values, but only full IGT patients had significantly higher admission hs-TnT compared with the 3 other groups [median (interquartile range): 911 (245-2976) vs 292 (46-1131), P < 0.001]. Full IGT patients also had higher hs-TnT peak compared with fully glucose tolerant and early IGT patients. Only full IGT patients had longer hospitalization and higher NT-proBNP vs fully glucose tolerant patients (P = 0.005).

Conclusions

Among non-diabetic ACS patients, only those with both 1-h PG ≥ 155 mg/dL and 2-h PG ≥ 140 mg/dL had more severe myocardial injury and longer hospitalization. One-h PG-OGTT importantly contributes to assessing post-ACS cardiac risk.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12933-022-01590-w.

Mannose-binding lectin does not explain the dismal prognosis after an acute coronary event in dysglycaemic patients. A report from the GAMI cohort

Background

Mannose binding lectin (MBL) has been suggested to be associated with an impaired cardiovascular prognosis in dysglycaemic conditions, but results are still contrasting.

Our aims are (i) to examine whether MBL levels differ between patients with an acute myocardial infarction (MI) and healthy controls and between subgroups with different glucose tolerance status, and (ii) to investigate the relation between MBL and future cardiovascular events.

Methods

MBL levels were assessed at discharge and after 3 months in 161 AMI patients without any previously known glucose perturbations and in 183 age- and gender-matched controls from the Glucose metabolism in patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction (GAMI) study. Participants were classified as having dysglycaemia, i.e. type 2 diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance, or not by an oral glucose tolerance test. The primary outcome was a composite of cardiovascular events comprising cardiovascular death, AMI, stroke or severe heart failure during 11 years of follow-up. Total and cardiovascular mortality served as secondary outcomes.

Results

At hospital discharge patients had higher MBL levels (median 1246 μg/L) than three months later (median 575 μg/L; p < 0.01), the latter did not significantly differ from those in the controls (801 μg/L; p = 0.47). MBL levels were not affected by dysglycaemia either in patients or controls. Independent of glycaemic state, increasing MBL levels did not predict any of the studied outcomes in patients. In unadjusted analyses increasing MBL levels predicted cardiovascular events (hazard ratio HR: 1.67, 95% confidence interval CI 1.06–2.64) and total mortality (HR 1.53, 95% CI 1.12–2.10) in the control group. However, this did not remain in adjusted analyses.

Conclusions

Patients had higher MBL levels than controls during the hospital phase of AMI, supporting the assumption that elevated MBL reflects acute stress. MBL was not found to be independently associated with cardiovascular prognosis in patients with AMI regardless of glucose state.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12933-022-01562-0.

Saving time by replacing the standardised two-hour oral glucose tolerance test with a one-hour test: Validation of a new screening algorithm in patients with coronary artery disease from the ESC-EORP EUROASPIRE V registry

AIMS

An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) combining fasting (FPG) and 2-hour plasma glucose (2hPG) is the most sensitive method for detecting type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Since it is considered time-consuming, we aim at validating a previously proposed screening algorithm based on a 1-hour plasma glucose (1hPG) with a 12 mmol/L threshold.

METHODS

Nine-hundred-eighteen patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) without known T2DM from the EUROASPIRE V cross-sectional survey underwent an OGTT. The reference for T2DM was 2hPG ≥ 11.1 mmol/L. T2DM diagnosis by HbA1c ≥ 6.5%(48 mmol/mol), FPG ≥ 7.0 mmol/L, and 1hPG ≥ 12 mmol/L were compared with the outcome of 2hPG.

RESULTS

Mean FPG, HbA1c and 2hPG were 6.1 mmol/L, 5.6%(38 mmol/mol) and 7.8 mmol/L respectively. Ninety-six patients (10%) were diagnosed with T2DM according to 2hPG. Using this definition, in the group with FPG < 6.5 mmol/L and 1hPG < 12 only 5 (1%) were misdiagnosed as false negatives. All patients with a FPG > 8.0 mmol/L and 1hPG > 15.0 mmol/L were identified as having T2DM. According to the algorithm, in 79% of patients T2DM could be excluded by combining FPG < 6.5 mmol/L and 1hPG < 12 mmol/L.

CONCLUSIONS

T2DM Screening by means of an algorithm combining FPG and 1hPG limits the demand of a 2hOGTT in 79% of CAD patients without known T2DM. HbA1c did not add to the information derived from this algorithm.

Admission Glucose Levels and Associated Risk for Heart Failure After Myocardial Infarction in Patients Without Diabetes

Background

Dysglycemia at acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is common and is associated with mortality. Information on other outcomes is less well explored in patients without diabetes in a long‐term perspective. We aimed to explore the relationship between admission glucose level and long‐term outcomes in patients with AMI without diabetes in a nationwide setting.

Methods and Results

Patients without diabetes (n=45 468) with AMI registered in SWEDEHEART (Swedish Web–System for Enhancement and Development of Evidence‐Based Care in Heart Disease Evaluated According to Recommended Therapies) and admission glucose ≤11 mmol/L (≤198 mg/dL) were followed for outcomes (AMI, heart failure, stroke, renal failure, and death) between 2012 and 2017 (mean follow‐up time 3.3±1.7 years). The association between categorized glucose levels and outcomes was assessed in adjusted Cox proportional hazards regression analyses (glucose levels 4.0–6.0 mmol/L [72–109 mg/dL] as reference). Further nonfatal complications and their associated mortality were explored (patients without events served as a reference). A glucose level of 7.8–11.0 mmol/L (140–198 mg/dL) was associated with hospitalization for heart failure (hazard ratio [HR] 1.40 [95% CI, 1.30–1.51], P<0.001), renal failure (1.17; 1.04–1.33, P=0.009), and death (1.31; 1.20–1.43, P<0.001), but not with recurrent myocardial infarction (0.99; 0.92–1.07, P=0.849) or stroke (1.03; 0.88–1.19, P=0.742). Renal failure had the strongest association with future mortality (age‐adjusted HR 4.93 [95% CI, 4.34–5.60], P<0.001), followed by heart failure (3.71; 3.41–4.04, P<0.001), stroke (3.39; 2.94–3.91, P<0.001), and myocardial infarction (2.08; 1.88–2.30, P<0.001).

Conclusions

Elevated glucose levels at AMI admission identifies patients without diabetes at increased risk of long‐term complications: in particular, hospitalization for heart and renal failure. These results emphasize that glucose levels at admission could be useful in risk assessment after myocardial infarction.

Long term prognostic implication of newly detected abnormal glucose tolerance among patients with stable cardiovascular disease: a population-based cohort study

Background

Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and 2-h post challenge plasma glucose (2 h-PCPG), whether as continuous or categorical variables, are associated with incident cardiovascular disease (CVD) and diabetes; however, their role among patients with existing CVD is a matter of debate. We aimed to evaluate associations of different glucose intolerance states with recurrent CVD and incident diabetes among subjects with previous CVD.

Methods

From a prospective population-based cohort, 408 Iranians aged  ≥  30 years, with history of CVD and without known diabetes were included. Associations of impaired fasting glucose (IFG) according to the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and World Health Organization (WHO) criteria, impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), newly diagnosed diabetes (NDM) with outcomes of interest were determined by multivariable Cox proportional hazard models after adjustment for traditional risk factors. Furthermore, FPG and 2 h-PCPG were entered as continuous variables.

Results

Over a decade of follow-up, 220 CVD events including 89 hard events (death, myocardial infarction and stroke) occurred. Regarding prediabetes, only IFG-ADA was associated with increased risk of hard CVD [hazard ratio(HR), 95%CI: 1.62,1.03–2.57] in the age-sex adjusted model. In patients with NDM, those with FPG ≥ 7 mmol/L were at higher risk of incident CVD/coronary heart disease(CHD) and their related hard outcomes (HR ranged from 1.89 to 2.84, all P < 0.05). Moreover, those with 2 h-PCPG ≥ 11.1 mmol/L had significant higher risk of CVD (1.46,1.02–2.11), CHD (1.46,1.00–2.15) and hard CHD (1.95:0.99–3.85, P = 0.05). In the fully adjusted model, each 1 SD increase in FPG was associated with 20, 27, 15 and 25% higher risk of CVD, hard CVD, CHD and hard CHD, respectively; moreover each 1 SD higher 2 h-PCPG was associated with 21% and 16% higher risk of CVD, and CHD, respectively. Among individuals free of diabetes at baseline (n = 361), IFG-ADA, IFG-WHO and IGT were significantly associated with incident diabetes (all P < 0.05); significant associations were also found for FPG and 2 h-PCPG as continuous variables (all HRs for 1-SD increase > 2, P < 0.05).

Conclusions

Among subjects with stable CVD, NDM whether as high FPG or 2 h-PCPG, but not pre-diabetes status was significantly associated with CVD/CHD and related hard outcomes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-021-02950-y.

Long-term prognosis in patients with acute myocardial infarction and newly detected glucose abnormalities: predictive value of oral glucose tolerance test and HbA1c

BACKGROUND

Disturbances of glucose metabolism can be diagnosed by an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and by glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c). The aim of this study was to investigate the association between newly detected disturbances of glucose metabolism and long-term prognosis after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and to compare the predictive value of an OGTT and HbA1c.

METHODS

Patients under the age of 80 years with no known history of diabetes admitted for AMI at the Department of Cardiology, Danderyd University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden, from January 1st, 2006 until December 31st, 2013, were investigated with an OGTT and a HbA1c before discharge and were classified as having normal glucose tolerance (NGT), prediabetes or diabetes according to American Diabetes Association (ADA) criteria. Using nationwide, all-inclusive registers, patients were followed for the incidence of combined event [CE (first of myocardial infarction, heart failure, ischaemic stroke or mortality)] for a mean follow-up time of 4.8 years. Cox regression analysis was used to calculate Hazard Ratios (HR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Of the 841 patients who were investigated with both an OGTT and a HbA1c, 139 (17%) patients had NGT, 398 (47%) had prediabetes and 304 (36%) had diabetes according to OGTT. The corresponding figures using HbA1c were 320 (38%), 461 (55%) and 60 (7%). Patients with newly discovered diabetes were older and had a higher body mass index compared to those with NGT. OGTT was not predictive for CE. In contrast, prediabetes identified by a HbA1c was associated with an increased risk for CE (HR 1.31; 95% CI 1.05-1.63) compared to normoglycaemia. When comparing the prognostic value of different glucose and HbA1c cut-offs, only a HbA1c ≥ 39 mmol/mol was significantly associated with CE (HR 95% CI; 1.30:1.05-1.61).

CONCLUSION

In this single-centre study, in a recent contemporary cohort, we found that around two thirds of the patients admitted with AMI with no known history of diabetes had disturbed glucose metabolism, in accordance with previous studies. HbA1c in the prediabetes range, but not OGTT, added predictive value on the long-term outcome, in a cohort to whom a pathologic OGTT result was communicated with lifestyle advice.

Postload glucose spike but not fasting glucose determines prognosis after myocardial infarction in patients without known or newly diagnosed diabetes

BACKGROUND

The effect of postload glucose spikes (PGS), the difference between 2 hour post-load plasma glucose (2hPLPG) and fasting plasma glucose (FPG), on post-myocardial infarction (post-MI) prognosis in nondiabetic patients is unexplored.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort analysis of 847 nondiabetic post-MI survivors who underwent a predischarge oral glucose tolerance test (median PGS: 2.4 mmol/L). Patients were divided into the unmatched groups 1 and 2 (PGS ≤ and > 2.4 mmol/L) and the propensity score-matched groups 1M and 2M (355 pairs assembled from the overall cohort), and these groups were compared. Major adverse cardiac events (MACE: death and nonfatal reinfarction) were recorded during follow-up (median: 3.4 years). Event-free survival was compared by the Kaplan-Meier method. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression determined the predictors of MACE. C-statistics (change in area under the curve, δAUC), continuous net reclassification improvement (NRI^>0 ), and integrated discrimination improvement (IDI) were used to compare models.

RESULTS

The number of MACE was higher in groups 2 (27.3% vs 14.2%, P < .001) and 2M (24.5% vs 15.5%, P < .001). Event-free survival was worse in groups 2 (hazard ratio [HR] 2.01; 95% CI, 1.49-2.71; P < .001) and 2M (HR 1.63; 95% CI, 1.17-2.27; P = .004). PGS independently predicted MACE-free survival in the whole (HR 1.16; 95% CI, 1.06-1.26; P = .002) and matched cohort (HR 1.12; 95% CI, 1.02-1.24; P = .021). PGS, but not FPG or 2hPPG, improved the predictive performance of the base model (δAUC 0.013, P = .046), with greater improvement seen when PGS was added and compared to 2hPPG (δAUC 0.005, P = .034; NRI^>0 0.2107, P = .013; IDI 0.0042, P = .046).

CONCLUSION

PGS is a better predictor of post-MI prognosis than 2hPPG in nondiabetic patients.

Heart failure is a common complication after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes: A nationwide study in the SWEDEHEART registry

Background

Several glucose lowering drugs with preventive effects on heart failure and death have entered the market, however, still used in low proportions after acute myocardial infarction. We explored the complication rates of heart failure and death after acute myocardial infarction in patients with and without diabetes.

Methods

All patients (N = 73,959) with acute myocardial infarction admitted for coronary angiography included in the SWEDEHEART registry during the years 2012–2017 were followed for heart failure (until 31 December 2017) and mortality (until 30 June 2018); mean follow-up time 1223 (SD ± 623) days.

Results

Mean age was 69 years (SD ± 12), 69% were male and 24% had diabetes. Heart failure occurred more often in diabetes (22% vs. 12% if no diabetes), especially if previous MI (33% vs. 23%). Patients with diabetes had increased risk of HF regardless of previous myocardial infarction (MI); with previous MI adjusted hazard ratio 2.09 (95% confidence interval 1.96–2.20) and without MI 1.52 (1.44–1.61) respectively when non-diabetes patients with first MI served as reference. In patients with no previous heart failure or MI and discharged with left ventricular ejection fraction ≥50% the risk of heart failure was particularly high in those with diabetes (1.56; 1.39–1.76) when compared with those without. Similar findings were seen for death and combined event (heart failure and death).

Conclusions

Heart failure is a common complication after acute myocardial infarction in diabetes, increasing the risk by 50–60% regardless of previous heart failure or MI. This risk is present even with normal reported left ventricular ejection fraction, indicating the existence of a large diabetes population at heart failure risk after acute myocardial infarction.

Diabetes, metformin and glucose lowering therapies after myocardial infarction: Insights from the SWEDEHEART registry

OBJECTIVE

To explore real-life use of glucose lowering drugs and prognosis after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) with a special focus on metformin.

METHODS

Patients (n = 70270) admitted for AMI 2012-2017 were stratified by diabetes status and glucose lowering treatment and followed for mortality and MACE+ (AMI, heart failure (HF), stroke, mortality) until end of 2017 (mean follow-up time 3.4 ± 1.4 years) through linkage with national registries and SWEDEHEART. Hazard ratios (HR) were calculated in adjusted Cox proportional hazard regression models.

RESULTS

Mean age was 68 ± 11 years and 70% were male. Of patients with diabetes (n = 16356; 23%), a majority had at least one glucose lowering drug (81%) of whom 51% had metformin (24% monotherapy), 43% insulin and a minority any SGLT2i/GLP-1 RA (5%). Adjusted HR for patients with versus without diabetes was 1.31 (95% CI 1.27-1.36) for MACE+ and 1.48 (1.41-1.56) for mortality. Adjusted HR for MACE+ for diabetes patients on metformin was 0.92 (0.85-0.997), p = 0.042 compared to diet treated diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Diabetes still implies a high complication risk after AMI. Metformin and insulin were the most common treatment used in almost half of the diabetes population. Furthermore, patients treated with metformin had a lower cardiovascular risk after AMI and needs to be confirmed in prospective controlled trials.

A Decision Support Method for Prehospital Emergency Care Based on Ranking the Importance of Physiological Variables

To the on-site nursing staff or field management in prehospital emergency care, it seems baffling to conduct more targeted checklist tests for a specific disease. To address this problem, we proposed a decision support method for prehospital emergency care based on ranking the importance of physiological variables. We used multiple logistic regression models to explore the effects of various physiological variables on diseases based on the area under the curve (AUC) value. We implemented the method on the intensive care database (i.e., the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care (MIMIC-III) database) and explored the importance of 17 physiological variables for 24 diseases, both chronic and acute. We included 33,798 adult patients, using the full physiological dataset as experiment data. We ranked the importance of the physiological variables related to the diseases according to the experiments’ AUC value. We discussed which physiological variables should be considered more important in adult intensive care units (ICUs) for prehospital emergency care conditions. We also discussed the relationships among the diseases based on ranking the importance of physiological variables. We used large-scale ICU patient data to obtain a cohort of physiological variables related to specific diseases. Ranking a cohort of physiological variables is a cost-effective means of reducing morbidity and mortality under prehospital emergency care conditions.

Newly Discovered Abnormal Glucose Tolerance in Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction and Cardiovascular Outcomes: A Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of unrecognized abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT) and the incidence of recurrent cardiovascular (CV) events in patients with acute myocardial infarction (MI) has not been systematically evaluated.

PURPOSE

The purposes of this study were to define the prevalence of newly discovered AGT and examine the risk of recurrent major adverse cardiac events (MACE) and mortality in patients with acute MI.

DATA SOURCES

Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar were searched for relevant articles.

STUDY SELECTION

Inclusion criteria included prospective studies in patients with acute MI without known history of diabetes; AGT diagnosed using fasting plasma glucose, 2-h oral glucose tolerance test, or HbA_1c; and incidence of MACE and/or all-cause mortality in newly discovered AGT.

DATA EXTRACTION

Two investigators extracted the data. Pooled prevalence, incidence rate ratios, and hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated using random-effects models.

DATA SYNTHESIS

In 19 studies (n = 41,509, median follow-up 3.1 years), prevalence of newly discovered AGT was 48.4% (95% CI 40.2-56.6). Prediabetes had a higher mortality risk than normal glucose tolerance (NGT) (HR 1.36 [95% CI 1.13-1.63], P < 0.001) and MACE (1.42 [1.20-1.68], P < 0.001). Newly diagnosed diabetes had higher mortality risk than NGT (1.74 [1.48-2.05], P < 0.001) and MACE (1.54 [1.23-1.93], P < 0.001).

LIMITATIONS

This is not a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Time-to-event analysis and covariate-adjusted analysis cannot be conducted to examine heterogeneity reliably. Few studies reported CV death and heart failure hospitalizations.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with acute MI have a high prevalence of newly discovered AGT. Aggressive risk reduction strategies in this population, especially in those with prediabetes, are warranted.

Risk factor reduction in type 2 diabetes demands a multifactorial approach

Dysglycaemia (i.e. type 2 diabetes mellitus or impaired glucose tolerance) is not only common in patients with cardiovascular disease but increases the risk for future cardiovascular complications. Hyperglycaemia, the hallmark of diabetes, has since long been considered to be the link between diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Diabetes is, however, a complex, multifactorial disorder to which, for example, insulin resistance, endothelial dysfunction and factors such as increased thrombogenicity, hypertension and dyslipidaemia contribute. Thus, treatment needs to be multifactorial and to take cardiovascular aspects into account. Life-style adjustments are, together with blood pressure, lipid and glucose control, important parts of such management. Recent trial data reveal a beneficial effect on cardiovascular prognosis and mortality of blood glucose lowering agents belonging to the classes: sodium-glucose-transporter 2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide 1 agonists. The precise mechanisms by which certain sodium-glucose-transporter 2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide receptor agonists lead to these beneficial effects are only partly understood. An important impact of the benefits of sodium-glucose-transporter 2 inhibitors is a reduction in heart failure while glucagon-like peptide receptor agonists may retard the development of atherosclerotic vascular disease or stabilising plaques. Although there has been a considerable improvement in the prognosis for people with atherosclerotic diseases over the last decades there is still a gap between those with dysglycaemia, who are at higher risk, than those without dysglycaemia. This residual risk is reasonably related to two major factors: a demand for improved management and a need for new and improved therapeutic opportunities of type 2 diabetes, both routes to an improved prognosis that are at hands. This review is a comprehensive description of the possibilities to improve the prognosis for patients with dysglycaemia by a multifactorial management according to the most recent European guidelines issued in 2019 by the European Society of Cardiology in collaboration with the European Association for the Study of Diabetes.

Pre-diabetes mellitus newly diagnosed after myocardial infarction adversely affects prognosis in patients without known diabetes

BACKGROUND

Effect of pre-diabetes mellitus on post-myocardial infarction prognosis is unclear.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort analysis of 1056 myocardial infarction survivors with fasting plasma glucose and 2-h post-load plasma glucose measured. Major adverse cardiovascular events included death, non-fatal reinfarction and ischaemic stroke. Cox proportional hazard regression identified predictors of event-free survival. Continuous net reclassification improvement and integrated discrimination improvement determined the added predictive value of glycaemic indices.

RESULTS

Major adverse cardiovascular events occurred in 25.1% and 16.4% patients with and without pre-diabetes mellitus (hazard ratio with pre-diabetes mellitus: 1.56; 95% confidence interval: 1.17-2.08; p = 0.003) in the whole cohort and in 24.1% and 17.2% patients (hazard ratio with pre-diabetes mellitus, 1.43; 95% confidence interval: 1.03-1.98; p = 0.033) in the matched cohort, respectively. Pre-diabetes mellitus predicted major adverse cardiovascular events-free survival in whole (hazard ratio: 1.39; 95% confidence interval: 1.03-1.89; p = 0.033) and matched cohorts (hazard ratio: 1.42; 95% confidence interval: 1.01-1.99; p = 0.043). The 2-h post-load plasma glucose, but not fasting plasma glucose, predicted major adverse cardiovascular events-free survival in the whole (hazard ratio: 1.16; 95% confidence interval: 1.07-1.26; p < 0.0001) and matched cohorts (hazard ratio: 1.20; 95% confidence interval: 1.09-1.31; p < 0.0001). Adding 2-h post-load plasma glucose to models containing fasting plasma glucose, significantly improved net reclassification improvement and integrated discrimination improvement for both cohorts, but not vice versa.

CONCLUSION

Pre-diabetes mellitus predicts major adverse cardiovascular events after myocardial infarction. The 2-h post-load plasma glucose predicts prognosis better than fasting plasma glucose in these patients.

Prediabetes and Risk for Cardiac Death Among Patients With Coronary Artery Disease: The ARTEMIS Study

OBJECTIVE

To compare cardiac mortality in patients with CAD and prediabetes with that in CAD patients with normal glycemic status and type 2 diabetes.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

The Innovation to Reduce Cardiovascular Complications of Diabetes at the Intersection (ARTEMIS) study included patients with CAD after revascularization (79%), optimal medical therapy, or both. Patients had type 2 diabetes (n = 834), impaired glucose tolerance (IGT; n = 314), impaired fasting glucose (IFG; n = 103), or normal glycemic status (n = 697) as defined on the basis of the results of an oral glucose tolerance test. The primary end point was cardiac death. Major adverse cardiac event (MACE: cardiac death, heart failure, or acute coronary syndrome) and all-cause mortality were secondary end points.

RESULTS

During a mean ± SD follow-up of 6.3 ± 1.6 years, 101 cardiac deaths, 385 MACEs, and 208 deaths occurred. Patients with IGT tended to have 49% lower adjusted risk for cardiac death (P = 0.069), 32% lower adjusted risk for all-cause mortality (P = 0.076), and 36% lower adjusted risk for MACE (P = 0.011) than patients with type 2 diabetes. The patients with IFG had 82% lower adjusted risk for all-cause mortality (P = 0.015) than the patients with type 2 diabetes, whereas risks for cardiac death and MACE did not differ significantly between the two groups. The adjusted risks for cardiac death, MACE, and all-cause mortality among patients with IGT and IFG did not significantly differ from those risks among patients with normal glycemic status.

CONCLUSIONS

Cardiac mortality or incidence of MACE in patients with CAD with prediabetes (i.e., IGT or IFG after revascularization, optimal medical therapy, or both) does not differ from those values in patients with normal glycemic status.

The prognostic effect of known and newly detected type 2 diabetes in patients with acute coronary syndrome

BACKGROUND

Dysglycemia is a well-established risk factor of coronary artery disease. Less is known of the prognostic effect of dysglycemia in acute coronary syndromes (ACSs). The aim of this study was to evaluate the long-term outcome of patients with ACSs according to glucometabolic categories.

METHODS

Patients with ACSs were consecutively included in the study. Among those with no previous history of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) glucose metabolism was evaluated with fasting glucose in plasma, glycated hemoglobin and a standard 2-h oral glucose tolerance test. Patients were classified having normal glucose metabolism, prediabetes, newly detected T2DM (nT2DM) and previously known T2DM (kT2DM). The clinical outcome parameters were death or myocardial infarction and other major adverse cardiac events (MACEs).

RESULTS

A total of 372 ACS patients (male 75.8%, 65.1 years (SD: 11.8)) constituted the study population. The proportion diagnosed with normal glucose metabolism, prediabetes, nT2DM and kT2DM was 20.7%, 46.5%, 6.2% and 26.6%, respectively. The mean follow-up period was 2.9 years. Patients with prediabetes, nT2DM and kT2DM had a hazard ratio of 5.8 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.8-44.6), 10.9 (95% CI 1.2-98.3) and 14.9 (95% CI 2.0-113.7), respectively, for death/myocardial infarction and 1.4 (95% CI 0.6-3.1), 2.9 (95% CI 1.1-8.0) and 3.3 (95% CI 1.5-7.6), respectively, for a composite of MACEs.

CONCLUSION

Patients with ACS and nT2DM or kT2DM were at increased risk of death/myocardial infarction and MACE compared with patients with normal glucose metabolism after approximately three years of follow-up.

Dysglycemia and increased left ventricle mass in normotensive patients admitted with a first myocardial infarction: prognostic implications of dysglycemia during 14 years of follow-up

Background

Left ventricle mass (LVM) can be influenced by various conditions including hypertension and/or inherent cardiomyopathies. Dysglycemia is also thought to exert an anabolic effect on heart tissue by hyperinsulinemia and thereby promoting increased LVM. The primary aim of this study was to assess the influence of dysglycemia on LVM evaluated by an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in patients admitted with a first myocardial infarction (MI) without hypertension. The secondary aim was to assess the impact of dysglycemia on major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and all-cause mortality during long-term follow-up.

Methods

Patients admitted with a first MI without known history of hypertension were included. All patients without previously known type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) had a standardized 2-hour OGTT performed and were categorized as: normal glucose tolerance (NGT), impaired fasting glucose (IFG)/impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and newly detected T2DM (new T2DM). LVM was measured by echocardiography using Devereaux formula and indexed by body surface area. Multivariate linear regression analysis was used to assess the impact of confounders (dysglycemia by OGTT, known T2DM, age, sex and type of MI) on LVM. Cox proportional hazard model was used to assess the impact of dysglycemia on all-cause mortality and a composite endpoint of MACE (all-cause mortality, MI, revascularisation due to stable angina, coronary artery bypass graft, ischemic stroke or hemorrhagic stroke).

Results

Two-hundred-and-five patients were included and followed up to 14 years. In multivariate regression analysis, LVM was only significantly increased in patients categorized as new T2DM (β = 25.3; 95% CI [7.5–43.0]) and known T2DM (β = 37.3; 95% CI [10.0-64.5]) compared to patients with NGT. Patients with new T2DM showed higher rates of MACE and all-cause mortality compared to patients with IFG/IGT and NGT; however no significantly increased hazard ratio was detected.

Conclusions

Dysglycemia is associated with increasing LVM in normotensive patients with a first acute myocardial infarction and the strongest association was observed in patients with new T2DM and patients with known T2DM. Dysglycemia in normotensive patients with a first MI is not an independent predictor of neither MACE nor all-cause mortality during long-term follow-up compared to normotensive patients without dysglycemia.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12872-019-1084-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

An Overall Glance of Evidence Supportive of One-Hour and Two-Hour Postload Plasma Glucose Levels as Predictors of Long-Term Cardiovascular Events

This review summarizes the vast literature describing the long-term epidemiological studies with emphasis on postprandial glucose as a stronger predictor of cardiovascular complications as compared to fasting glucose and HbA1c. Many molecular studies also supported this fact by illustrating that postchallenge hyperglycemia is associated with elevated biomarkers of systemic inflammation in the plasma and thus increasing the chances of vascular damage. Large-scale studies have proved that vascular stiffness, brachial-ankle pulse-wave velocity, carotid intima thickness, and left ventricular hypertrophy have been associated with postprandial glucose as compared to fasting glucose or glycosylated hemoglobin.

The role of newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus for poor in-hospital prognosis of coronary artery bypass grafting

Background: The management of coronary artery disease in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) who need myocardial revascularization is a great challenge. Aims: To study the role of newly diagnosed T2DM in the development of in-hospital adverse outcomes after coronary artery surgery (CABG). Methods: 708 consecutive patients underwent CABG were included. All patients without history of T2DM and with border fasting hyperglycemia underwent an oral glucose tolerance test. Results: The screening allowed to diagnose T2DM in 8.9% and prediabetes in 10.4% of the study population. The the number of patients with T2DM increased from 15.2% to 24.1%, and with prediabetes from 3.0% to 13.4%. The total number of patients with carbohydrate metabolism disorders increased from 18.2% to 37.5%. The trend towards higher rate of in-hospital complications after CABG was defined among patients with newly diagnosed and previously diagnosed T2DM. The regression analysis demonstrated the presence of the relationships between the previously diagnosed T2DM and the total number of significant complications (odds ratio (OR) 1.350, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.0571.723, p=0.020) and prolonged in-hospital stay (OR 1.609, 95%CI 1.2022.155, p=0.001). The significance of these relationships increased with the addition of newly diagnosed T2DM to the regression model (for in-hospital complications: OR 1.731, 95% CI 1.1312.626, p=0.012; for prolonged in-hospital stay: OR 2.229, 95%CI 1.4123.519, p0.001). Moreover, additional associations between T2DM and the risk of developing multiple organ dysfunction (OR 2.911, 95% CI 1.0727.901, p=0.039), urgent lower extremity surgery (OR 1.638, 95%CI 1.00915.213, p=0.020) and the need for extracorporeal correction of hemostasis (OR 3.472, 95%CI 1.04211.556, p=0.044) have been defined. Importantly, the presence of these associations would not have been identified without including newly diagnosed DM in the regression model. Conclusion: The newly diagnosed T2DM affects the prognosis of CABG as well as the previously diagnosed T2DM. The obtained results suggest the importance of active preoperative T2DM screening.

Dynamics of testosterone levels in patients with newly detected glucose abnormalities and acute myocardial infarction

OBJECTIVE

Low testosterone has been associated with increased cardiovascular risk and glucose abnormalities. This study explored the prevalence of low testosterone, dynamics over time and prognostic implications in acute myocardial infarction patients with or without glucose abnormalities.

METHODS

Male acute myocardial infarction patients (n = 123) and healthy controls (n = 124) were categorised as having normal or abnormal glucose tolerance (impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes) by oral glucose tolerance testing. Testosterone was measured at hospital admission, discharge, 3 and 12 months thereafter in patients. Patients and controls were followed for 11 years for major cardiovascular events (cardiovascular death/acute myocardial infarction/stroke/severe heart failure).

RESULTS

At hospital admission, more patients had low testosterone (⩽300 ng/dl) and lower median levels than controls (64 vs 28%; p < 0.001 and 243 vs 380 ng/dl; p < 0.01). At the subsequent time points, testosterone had increased to 311, 345 and 357 ng/dl. Patients with abnormal glucose tolerance had the highest prevalence (75%) of low levels. In adjusted Cox regression models, neither total nor free testosterone predicted major cardiovascular events.

CONCLUSION

Low testosterone levels were common in male acute myocardial infarction patients in the acute phase, especially in the presence of abnormal glucose tolerance, but increased over time indicating that testosterone measured in close proximity to acute myocardial infarction should be interpreted with caution.

Elevated levels of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 predict outcome after acute myocardial infarction: A long-term follow-up of the glucose tolerance in patients with acute myocardial infarction (GAMI) cohort

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the long-term prognostic value of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 in patients with acute myocardial infarction.

METHODS

Patients ( n = 180) with admission glucose < 11 mmol/L without previously known diabetes admitted for an acute myocardial infarction in 1998-2000 were followed for mortality and cardiovascular events (first of cardiovascular mortality/acute myocardial infarction/stroke/severe heart failure) until the end of 2011 (median 11.6 years). Fasting levels of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 at day 2 were related to outcome in Cox proportional hazard regression analyses.

RESULTS

Median age was 64 years, 69% were male and median insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 was 20 µg/L. Total mortality was 34% ( n = 61) and 44% ( n = 80) experienced a cardiovascular event during a median follow-up time of 11.6 years. After age adjustment, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 was associated with all-cause (1.40; 1.02-1.93, p = 0.039) and cancer mortality (2.09; 1.15-3.79, p = 0.015) but not with cardiovascular death ( p = 0.29) or cardiovascular events ( p = 0.57). After adjustments also for previous myocardial infarction, previous heart failure and body mass index, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 was still associated with all-cause mortality (1.38; 1.01-1.89, p = 0.046).

CONCLUSION

In patients with acute myocardial infarction without previously known diabetes, high insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 1 was associated with long-term all-cause and cancer mortality but not with cardiovascular events.

Two-hour post-challenge glucose is a better predictor of adverse outcome after myocardial infarction than fasting or admission glucose in patients without diabetes

AIMS

We evaluate prevalence of new abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT) in post-MI survivors without known diabetes (DM) if guidelines are followed and compare the ability of admission (APG), fasting (FPG) and 2-h post-load plasma glucose (2h-PG) to predict prognosis.

METHODS

A total of 674 patients were followed up for 4 years for incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) of cardiovascular death, non-fatal re-infarction or non-haemorrhagic stroke. Ability of models including APG, FPG and 2h-PG to predict MACE was compared.

RESULTS

Of the total, 93-96% of impaired glucose tolerance and 64-75% of DM would be missed with current guidelines. MACE was higher in the upper quartiles of 2h-PG. When 2h-PG and FPG were included simultaneously in models, only 2h-PG predicted MACE (HR 1.12, CI 1.04-1.20, p = 0.0012), all cause mortality (HR 1.17, CI 1.05-1.30, p = 0.0039), cardiovascular mortality (HR 1.17, CI 1.02-1.33, p = 0.0205) and non-fatal MI (HR 1.10, CI 1.01-1.20, p = 0.0291). Adding 2h-PG significantly improved ability of models including FPG (χ² = 16.01, df = 1, p = 0.0001) or FPG and APG (χ² = 17.36, df = 1, p = 0.000) to predict MACE. Model including 2h-PG only had the lowest Akaike's information criteria and highest Akaike weights suggesting that this was the best in predicting events. Adding 2h-PG to models including FPG or APG with other co-variates yielded continuous net reclassification improvement (NRI) of 0.22 (p = 0.026) and 0.27 (p = 0.005) and categorical NRI of 0.09 (p = 0.032) and 0.12 (p = 0.014), respectively. Adding 2 h-PG to models including only FPG, only APG and both yielded integrated discrimination improvement of 0.012 (p = 0.015), 0.022 (p = 0.001) and 0.013 (p = 0.014), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

AGT is under-diagnosed on current guidelines. 2h-PG is a better predictor of prognosis compared to APG and FPG.

Diabetes: Prevalence, prognosis and management of a potent cardiovascular risk factor

This review highlights the increased risk of cardiovascular disease and the dismal prognosis after acute coronary events when diabetes is present. Although there have been improvements in this area, diabetes still confers an increased risk. In order to achieve successful outcomes in individuals with diabetes, extensive treatment of risk factors and the use of all available evidence-based therapies are needed. In this context, glucose-lowering therapies and antithrombotic and revascularisation strategies are detailed in this review. Emerging data indicate that novel glucose-lowering drugs may impact cardiovascular outcome with mechanisms that are beyond glucose control. In addition, this review addresses hidden diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance in patients with acute and stable coronary artery disease and how they influence future cardiovascular risk.

Undetected dysglycaemia common in primary care patients treated for hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia: on the need for a screening strategy in clinical practice. A report from EUROASPIRE IV a registry from the EuroObservational Research Programme of the European Society of Cardiology

Background

Dysglycaemia defined as type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). The negative impact is more apparent in the presence of hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia. Thus, it seems reasonable to screen for dysglycaemia in patients treated for hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia. A simple screening algorithm would enhance the adoption of such strategy in clinical practice.

Objectives

To test the hypotheses (1) that dysglycaemia is common in patients with hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia and (2) that initial screening with the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score (FINDRISC) will decrease the need for laboratory based tests.

Methods

2395 patients (age 18–80 years) without (i) a history of CVD or TDM2, (ii) prescribed blood pressure and/or lipid lowering drugs answered the FINDRISC questionnaire and had an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and HbA1c measured.

Results

According to the OGTT 934 (39%) had previously undetected dysglycaemia (T2DM 19%, IGT 20%). Of patients, who according to FINDRISC had a low, moderate or slightly elevated risk 20, 34 and 41% and of those in the high and very high-risk category 49 and 71% had IGT or T2DM respectively. The OGTT identified 92% of patients with T2DM, FPG + HbA1c 90%, FPG 80%, 2hPG 29% and HbA1c 22%.

Conclusions

(1) The prevalence of dysglycaemia was high in patients treated for hypertension and/or dyslipidaemia. (2) Due to the high proportion of dysglycaemia in patients with low to moderate FINDRISC risk scores its initial use did not decrease the need for subsequent glucose tests. (3) FPG was the best test for detecting T2DM. Its isolated use is limited by the inability to disclose IGT. A pragmatic strategy, decreasing the demand for an OGTT, would be to screen all patients with FPG followed by OGTT in patients with IFG.

Effects of acarbose on cardiovascular and diabetes outcomes in patients with coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance (ACE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The effect of the α-glucosidase inhibitor acarbose on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance is unknown. We aimed to assess whether acarbose could reduce the frequency of cardiovascular events in Chinese patients with established coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance, and whether the incidence of type 2 diabetes could be reduced.

METHODS

The Acarbose Cardiovascular Evaluation (ACE) trial was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 4 trial, with patients recruited from 176 hospital outpatient clinics in China. Chinese patients with coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance were randomly assigned (1:1), in blocks by site, by a centralised computer system to receive oral acarbose (50 mg three times a day) or matched placebo, which was added to standardised cardiovascular secondary prevention therapy. All study staff and patients were masked to treatment group allocation. The primary outcome was a five-point composite of cardiovascular death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, non-fatal stroke, hospital admission for unstable angina, and hospital admission for heart failure, analysed in the intention-to-treat population (all participants randomly assigned to treatment who provided written informed consent). The secondary outcomes were a three-point composite outcome (cardiovascular death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, and non-fatal stroke), death from any cause, cardiovascular death, fatal or non-fatal myocardial infarction, fatal or non-fatal stroke, hospital admission for unstable angina, hospital admission for heart failure, development of diabetes, and development of impaired renal function. The safety population comprised all patients who received at least one dose of study medication. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00829660, and the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number registry, number ISRCTN91899513.

FINDINGS

Between March 20, 2009, and Oct 23, 2015, 6522 patients were randomly assigned and included in the intention-to-treat population, 3272 assigned to acarbose and 3250 to placebo. Patients were followed up for a median of 5·0 years (IQR 3·4-6·0) in both groups. The primary five-point composite outcome occurred in 470 (14%; 3·33 per 100 person-years) of 3272 acarbose group participants and in 479 (15%; 3·41 per 100 person-years) of 3250 placebo group participants (hazard ratio 0·98; 95% CI 0·86-1·11, p=0·73). No significant differences were seen between treatment groups for the secondary three-point composite outcome, death from any cause, cardiovascular death, fatal or non-fatal myocardial infarction, fatal or non-fatal stroke, hospital admission for unstable angina, hospital admission for heart failure, or impaired renal function. Diabetes developed less frequently in the acarbose group (436 [13%] of 3272; 3·17 per 100 person-years) compared with the placebo group (513 [16%] of 3250; 3·84 per 100 person-years; rate ratio 0·82, 95% CI 0·71-0·94, p=0·005). Gastrointestinal disorders were the most common adverse event associated with drug discontinuation or dose changes (215 [7%] of 3263 patients in the acarbose group vs 150 [5%] of 3241 in the placebo group [p=0·0007]; safety population). Numbers of non-cardiovascular deaths (71 [2%] of 3272 vs 56 [2%] of 3250, p=0·19) and cancer deaths (ten [<1%] of 3272 vs 12 [<1%] of 3250, p=0·08) did not differ between groups.

INTERPRETATION

In Chinese patients with coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance, acarbose did not reduce the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events, but did reduce the incidence of diabetes.

FUNDING

Bayer AG.

The Prognostic Value of Fasting Plasma Glucose, Two-Hour Postload Glucose, and HbA1c in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease: A Report From EUROASPIRE IV: A Survey From the European Society of Cardiology

OBJECTIVE

Three tests are recommended for identifying dysglycemia: fasting glucose (FPG), 2-h postload glucose (2h-PG) from an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), and glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). This study explored the prognostic value of these screening tests in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

FPG, 2h-PG, and HbA1c were used to screen 4,004 CAD patients without a history of diabetes (age 18-80 years) for dysglycemia. The prognostic value of these tests was studied after 2 years of follow-up. The primary end point included cardiovascular mortality, nonfatal myocardial infarction, stroke, or hospitalization for heart failure and a secondary end point of incident diabetes.

RESULTS

Complete information including all three glycemic parameters was available in 3,775 patients (94.3%), of whom 246 (6.5%) experienced the primary end point. Neither FPG nor HbA1c predicted the primary outcome, whereas the 2h-PG, dichotomized as <7.8 vs. ≥7.8 mmol/L, was a significant predictor (hazard ratio 1.38, 95% CI 1.07-1.78; P = 0.01). During follow-up, diabetes developed in 78 of the 2,609 patients (3.0%) without diabetes at baseline. An FPG between 6.1 and 6.9 mmol/L did not predict incident diabetes, whereas HbA1c 5.7-6.5% and 2h-PG 7.8-11.0 mmol/L were both significant independent predictors.

CONCLUSIONS

The 2h-PG, in contrast to FPG and HbA1c, provides significant prognostic information regarding cardiovascular events in patients with CAD. Furthermore, elevated 2h-PG and HbA1c are significant prognostic indicators of an increased risk of incident diabetes.

Copeptin in patients with acute myocardial infarction and newly detected glucose abnormalities - A marker of increased stress susceptibility? A report from the Glucose in Acute Myocardial Infarction cohort

OBJECTIVE

To characterize copeptin levels and to explore its prognostic importance in patients with acute myocardial infarction with newly detected glucose abnormalities.

METHODS

Copeptin was measured in 166 patients with acute myocardial infarction without known diabetes and in 168 age- and gender-matched controls. Participants were classified as having normal glucose tolerance or abnormal glucose tolerance (impaired glucose tolerance + type 2 diabetes mellitus) by oral glucose tolerance test. Study participants were followed over a decade for major cardiovascular event (acute myocardial infarction/stroke/congestive heart failure/cardiovascular death), cardiovascular and total death.

RESULTS

Median copeptin level was higher in patients (10.5 pmol/L) than controls (5.9 pmol/L; p < 0.01). Patients with abnormal glucose tolerance had higher copeptin (12.2 pmol/L) than those with normal glucose tolerance (7.9 pmol/L; p < 0.01) but levels of copeptin did not differ in controls with abnormal glucose tolerance or normal glucose tolerance. Copeptin predicted major cardiovascular events [ n = 64; hazard ratio = 1.15 (1.01-1.32; p = 0.04)], cardiovascular mortality [ n = 29; hazard ratio = 1.24 (1.06-1.46; p = 0.01)] and total death [ n = 51; hazard ratio = 1.21 (1.05-1.40; p = 0.01)] in unadjusted Cox regression analyses in the patient cohort. In controls, copeptin predicted major cardiovascular events [ n = 26; hazard ratio = 1.17 (1.01-1.36; p = 0.03)].

CONCLUSION

Copeptin levels are highest among acute myocardial infarction patients with glucose disturbances and predict an adverse prognosis in unadjusted analyses. These findings imply that raised copeptin reflects stress rather than acting as a pathogenic factor for glucose abnormalities.

Elevated levels of adipokines predict outcome after acute myocardial infarction: A long-term follow-up of the Glucose Tolerance in Patients with Acute Myocardial Infarction cohort

OBJECTIVE

Adiponectin and leptin are associated with insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease. Information on the prognostic value after an acute myocardial infarction is still conflicting.

METHODS

Patients (n = 180) without known diabetes and with admission glucose of <11 mmol/L admitted for an acute myocardial infarction in 1998-2000 were followed for mortality and cardiovascular events (first of cardiovascular mortality/acute myocardial infarction/stroke/heart failure) until the end of 2011 (median: 11.6 years). Plasma adiponectin and leptin were related to outcome in Cox proportional-hazard regression analyses.

RESULTS

Median age was 64 years and 69% were male. Total mortality was 34% (n = 61) and 44% (n = 80) experienced a cardiovascular event. Adiponectin at discharge predicted cardiovascular events (hazard ratio; 95% confidence interval; 1.45; 1.02-2.07, p = 0.038), total mortality (2.53; 1.64-3.91, p < 0.001) and cancer mortality (3.64; 1.51-8.74, p = 0.004). After adjustment for age, sex, body mass index, previous myocardial infarction and heart failure, adiponectin predicted total mortality (1.79; 1.07-3.00, p = 0.027) but not cardiovascular events. High levels of leptin were associated with cardiovascular events during the first 7 years, after which the association was attenuated. Leptin did not predict total mortality.

CONCLUSION

In patients with acute myocardial infarction but without previously known diabetes, high levels of adiponectin at discharge predicted total mortality. The present results support the hypothesis that high rather than low levels of adiponectin predict mortality after acute myocardial infarction.

Time-saving screening for diabetes in patients with coronary artery disease: a report from EUROASPIRE IV

BACKGROUND

WHO advocates 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) for detecting diabetes mellitus (DM). OGTT is the most sensitive method to detect DM in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). Considered time consuming, the use of OGTT is unsatisfactory. A 1-hour plasma glucose (1hPG) test has not been evaluated as an alternative in patients with CAD.

OBJECTIVES

To create an algorithm based on glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting plasma glucose (FPG) and 1hPG limiting the need of a 2-hour plasma glucose (2hPG) in patients with CAD.

METHODS

951 patients with CAD without DM underwent OGTT. A 2hPG≥11.1 mmol/L was the reference for undiagnosed DM. The yield of HbA1c, FPG and 1hPG was compared with that of 2hPG.

RESULTS

Mean FPG was 6.2±0.9 mmol/L, and mean HbA1c 5.8±0.4%. Based on 2hPG≥11.1 mmol/L 122 patients (13%) had DM. There was no value for the combination of HbA1c and FPG to rule out or in DM (HbA1c≥6.5%; FPG≥7.0 mmol/L). In receiver operating characteristic analysis a 1hPG≥12 mmol/L balanced sensitivity and specificity for detecting DM (both=82%; positive and negative predictive values 40% and 97%). A combination of FPG<6.5 mmol/L and 1hPG<11 mmol/L excluded 99% of DM. A combination of FPG>8.0 mmol/L and 1hPG>15 mmol/L identified 100% of patients with DM.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on its satisfactory accuracy to detect DM an algorithm is proposed for screening for DM in patients with CAD decreasing the need for a 2-hour OGTT by 71%.

Clinical Implications of Cardiovascular Outcome Trials in Type 2 Diabetes: From DCCT to EMPA-REG

Cardiovascular disease is a major threat to people with diabetes. Attempts have long been made to lower cardiovascular risk by means of glucose-lowering treatment. Initially, it seemed that was an option, but subsequent trials could not verify the original observations and there was concern that some glucose-lowering drugs can actually cause cardiovascular harm. This led medical product agencies in the United States and Europe to require major outcomes trials before accepting new glucose-lowering drugs. The least requirement was noninferiority compared with existing treatment modalities. A large number of such trials have been performed or are ongoing, including >100,000 patients. The drug classes investigated are basal insulin, glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 inhibitors, and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors. This commentary discusses these trials and their outcomes, the reasons why several of them ended with neutral results (noninferiority), and that the likelihood for showing cardiovascular benefit was minor or even nonexistent. The surprising and highly rewarding impact of the SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin is described and potential mechanisms for cardiovascular benefits are discussed.

Long-term clinical outcome in patients with acute coronary syndrome and dysglycaemia

Background

Diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) are major risk factors for atherosclerosis including coronary artery disease (CAD). The present study’s aim was to investigate the importance of glucose tolerance for long-term clinical outcome in patients with acute coronary syndrome (ACS).

Methods

A total 1062 consecutive patients, 781 men and 281 women, aged 32–80 years, admitted to the coronary care unit at Danderyd University Hospital, Stockholm, for ACS from 2006 to 2008 were included. At discharge, the patients were categorized according to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) as having normal glucose tolerance (NGT), n = 295 (28 %); impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and IGT, n = 299 (28 %); diabetes discovered by OGTT, n = 156 (15 %); or known diabetes at admission, n = 312 (29 %). Mortality and reinfarction rates were studied during a mean follow-up time of 4.0 (±0.8) years. Clinical outcome data were obtained from the Swedish Coronary Angiography and Angioplasty Registry and the Swedish National Registry.

Results

There was significantly higher (p < 0.001) mortality within, 30 days, 1 and 3 years in patients with known diabetes as compared to the other groups. During the follow-up, 86 patients (28 %) with known diabetes had reinfarction as compared to 36 patients (12 %) with NGT and 79 patients (17 %) with dysglycaemia (IFG, IGT and diabetes) discovered by OGTT.

Conclusion

A majority (72 % in this study) of patients admitted for ACS have disturbed glucose metabolism, including diabetes, with high prevalence of previously undiagnosed dysglycaemia. Both patients with known diabetes and dysglycaemia discovered by OGTT show a high risk for poor clinical prognosis.