New Body Scales Reveal Body Dissatisfaction, Thin-Ideal, and Muscularity-Ideal in Males

Body Weight Perceptions Among Youth From 6 Countries and Associations With Social Media Use: Findings From the International Food Policy Study

BACKGROUND

Body dissatisfaction is associated with poor psychological and physical health, particularly among young people. However, limited data exist on body size perceptions across countries and factors associated with dissatisfaction.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined dissatisfaction prevalence and associations with sociodemographics and social media use among youth in 6 countries.

DESIGN

Repeat cross-sectional national online surveys were conducted as part of the 2019 and 2020 International Food Policy Study Youth Survey.

PARTICIPANTS

The sample included 21 277 youth aged 10 to 17 years from Australia, Canada, Chile, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Youth were recruited to complete the online survey through parents/guardians enrolled in the Nielsen Consumer Insights Global Panel and their partners' panels.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Figural drawing scales assessed self-perceived and ideal body images, with differences between scales representing body dissatisfaction.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Multinomial logistic regression models examined differences in body dissatisfaction by country, and associations with sociodemographics and either social media screen time or platforms used, including 2-way interactions with country.

RESULTS

Overall, approximately 45% of youth reported the same perceived and ideal body sizes, whereas 35% were "larger than ideal" (from 33% in Canada and Australia to 42% in Chile) and 20% were "thinner than ideal" (from 15% in Chile to 22% in Mexico). Greater social media screen time was associated with a higher likelihood of moderate-severe dissatisfaction for being "thinner than ideal" and at least mild dissatisfaction for being "larger than ideal" (P < .003 for all contrasts), with greater dissatisfaction among users of YouTube and Snapchat than nonusers (P ≤ .005 for both contrasts). Modest differences in body dissatisfaction between countries were observed for age, ethnicity, body mass index, and weight-based teasing.

CONCLUSIONS

Body dissatisfaction is prevalent among youth across diverse countries. These findings highlight the need to promote healthy body image in youth, particularly among social media users.

A cultural models approach to understanding body fatness perceptions and disordered eating in young South Korean men

OBJECTIVE

The eating disorders field has been limited by a predominant focus on White, Western women, and there is growing recognition of the need to understand cross-cultural variation in key constructs (i.e., ideal body types). A transdisciplinary, cultural models approach systematizes the incorporation of an "emic" perspective (a culture's own understandings of phenomena) into assessments of relationships between body shapes and eating disorders.

METHOD

Eighty-one young South Korean men aged 19-34 years living in Seoul participated in this research. A cultural model of body fatness was identified using cultural consensus analysis during 18 months of ethnographic, mixed-methods fieldwork. Participants also completed questionnaires assessing age, height, weight, sexual identity, university prestige, body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptoms, and cultural consonance with the Korean cultural model of the ideal male body. Variation in these factors was analyzed using a series of chi-squares and analyses of variance with the culturally defined categories of body fatness as the independent variables.

RESULTS

Cultural consensus analysis found that young South Korean men are consistent in identifying categories of "too thin," "balanced," and "too fat." The "balanced" category contained the lowest proportion of high-prestige university attendees and the highest average cultural consonance. The "too fat" category was characterized by the highest levels of body dissatisfaction and dieting, as well as proportion of probable eating disorders.

DISCUSSION

A cultural models approach identified culturally important factors and patterns in disordered eating among young South Korean men and may be effective for understanding eating disorders in other populations not typically studied.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

This study applies a systematic, "emic" perspective to young South Korean men's body ideals. Young Korean men share a cultural model of body fatness, and this model frames how they experience risk for eating disorders. This study demonstrates a method for incorporating culture into research on eating disorder risk.

Body Uneasiness, Body Figure Perception, and Body Weight: Factor Structure and Longitudinal Measurement Invariance of a Set of Attitudinal and Perceptual Body Image Assessment Tools in Adolescents

Body image is a multifaceted construct that includes attitudinal and perceptual components, but its attention has mainly been focused on the facet of body dissatisfaction. The present longitudinal study extended the validation of a multifacet attitudinal questionnaire, the Body Uneasiness Test (BUT), against perceptions of body shape and weight. A convenient sample of adolescents took part in a 2-year unbalanced panel study (5 waves). The participants completed the BUT questionnaire and selected their perceived actual, ideal, and reflected body figures along the Contour Drawing Rating Scale; ideal/actual and ideal/normative body mass index discrepancies were also included. After replicating the expected five-factor structure of the BUT items, results from confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the five BUT scales loaded on an attitudinal dimension, whereas the perceived body figures and the discrepancy indices were on a perceptive domain. Such a two-domain structure of body image measures showed gender and seasonal (1-year) measurement invariance, whereas longitudinal 6-month and 18-month invariance partially failed. Overall, the present findings support the validity of the Body Uneasiness Test in adolescence, further demonstrating a preliminary multidimensional structure of body image onto which attitudinal and perceptual body image-related measures were projected.

Profiles of body image concerns and their associations with disordered eating behaviors

Although body image concerns (BIC) are recognized as a core driver in the development of disordered eating behaviors, the combined role of various types of BIC remains underexamined. This study relied on latent profile analysis to identify the main configurations of self-reported BIC (i.e., body checking and avoidance, perceived physical appearance, and fear of negative appearance evaluation) observed in a sample of 419 French-Canadian individuals (Mage = 26.59, SDage = 9.23). The role of body mass index, sex, and age on profile membership was also examined, as well as the relation between profile membership and disordered eating behaviors (i.e., dieting, bulimia and food preoccupation, and oral control). Six distinct BIC profiles differing in terms of shape and level were identified, with women being more likely to display a profile characterized by higher levels of BIC. In turn, profiles characterized by higher levels of BIC were associated with more disordered eating behaviors. The present study can broaden our understanding of the onset and maintenance of disordered eating behaviors and inspire the development of more tailored body-image interventions.

Triggers for eating disorder onset in youth with anorexia nervosa across the weight spectrum

To aid in more targeted eating disorder (ED) prevention efforts, we sought to identify sociodemographic and weight-related risk factors for identified triggers for the onset of anorexia nervosa (AN) in youth. We conducted a retrospective chart review of youth admitted for medical treatment of AN between January 2015 and February 2020. From multidisciplinary admission notes, we extracted patient-reported reasons for diet/exercise changes. We used qualitative thematic analysis to identify ED triggers, then categorized each trigger as binary variables (presence/absence) for logistic regression analysis of risks associated with each trigger. Of 150 patients, mean (SD) age was 14.1(2.3) years. A total of 129 (86%) were female and 120 (80%) were Non-Hispanic White. Triggers included environmental stressors (reported by 30%), external pressures of the thin/fit ideal (29%), internalized thin/fit ideal (29%), weight-related teasing (19%), and receiving health education (14%). Younger age was associated with higher odds of weight-related teasing (p = .04) and health education (p = .03). Males had greater odds of internalized thin/fit ideal than females (p = .04). Those with premorbid body mass indices ≥85th percentile for age and sex had greater odds of reporting positive reinforcement (p = .03) and weight-related teasing (p = .04) than those with weights <85th percentile. We use these findings to detail potential targets for advancing ED prevention efforts.

The relationship between body dissatisfaction, lifestyle, and nutritional status among university students in Southern China

BACKGROUND

In recent years, obesity in early adulthood has become an urgent global public health concern. Body dissatisfaction may have adverse effects on lifestyle habits, leading to obesity. However, research on nutritional status and body dissatisfaction among Chinese young adults is still insufficient. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the relationship between body dissatisfaction, dietary habits, physical activity, and nutritional status among university students. In addition, we explored the feasibility of improving university students' nutritional status by improving the levels of body dissatisfaction.

METHODS

This study was conducted in Ganzhou City, Jiangxi Province, China, at a randomly selected university. All 1900 undergraduate students volunteered to participate and signed the consent form. Students were required to completed anthropometric measurements and three questionnaires, which included the Physical Activity Rating Scale-3 (PARS-3), Chinese version of the Dutch Dietary Behavior Questionnaire (C-DEBQ), and Body Dissatisfaction. Of these, 1714 students (age: 18-24 years; men: 933, women: 781) with complete and valid data were included.

RESULTS

Higher obesity levels were observed in men compared to women (p<0.01). Meanwhile, body dissatisfaction was higher in women compared to men (p<0.01). Overeating and insufficient physical activity were more problematic in women compared to in men (p<0.01). Multiple regression analyses were conducted separately, with BMI and body dissatisfaction as the dependent variables. Body dissatisfaction (β=0.72, p<0.01), muscle mass (β=0.33, p<0.01), emotional eating score (β=0.05, p<0.01), sex (β=-0.05, p<0.05) and physical activity (β=-0.04, p<0.05) score were significant predictors of obesity. Furthermore, Muscle mass (β=0.61, p<0.01), sex (β=0.54, p<0.01), restrained eating score (β=0.25, p<0.01), physical activity score (β=-0.20, p<0.01) and emotional eating score (β=0.08, p<0.01) were significant predictors of body dissatisfaction.

CONCLUSION

The data presented in this study highlight the impact of university students' body dissatisfaction in China on physical activity deficiency and overeating, discovering that reducing body dissatisfaction has great potential for preventing obesity.

The Somatomorphic Matrix-Female: More evidence for the validity of bidimensional figural rating scales for women

Our study aimed to develop and provide a preliminary psychometric validation of the Somatomorphic Matrix-Female (SM-F), a new bidimensional female figural rating scale which can be used to gauge actual and desired levels of both body fat and muscularity in a consolidated measure, as well as providing an index of actual-desired body discrepancy based on these measures. Across two studies undergraduate women (n Study 1 = 481; n Study 2 = 391) completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire, the Body Shape Questionnaire-34, and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (Study 1) and the Drive for Thinness Scale and the Drive for Muscularity Scale (Study 2), as well as the SM-F. Overall, the SM-F demonstrated sound content, concurrent, and convergent validity for actual and desired body fat, actual and desired muscularity, and their respective discrepancy scores.

Images of bodies in mass and social media and body dissatisfaction: The role of internalization and self-discrepancy

Introduction

The study examines the influence on body dissatisfaction of viewed images of bodies transmitted over mass media and social media, as mediated by the internalization of body ideals through media and self-discrepancy (the difference between the perceived actual self and the perceived ideal self).

Method

In this study, the images of bodies individuals view in their everyday media diet are estimated using a newly developed pictorial scale for women (thinness) and men (muscularity). For participants, the perceived body image is formed through mass media (magazines, TV) and social media (Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, and Snapchat). The self-discrepancy theory is then used to explain the effect of images of bodies in the media on the internalization of these body ideals and body dissatisfaction.

Results

Results show that Facebook and YouTube shape body ideals perceived to be prevalent in the media, negatively influencing internalization and self-discrepancy. Self-discrepancy, in turn, increases body dissatisfaction. However, for males, the perceived body ideals in the media did not affect body dissatisfaction, internalization, or self-discrepancy.

Discussion

These results emphasize the importance of combining and comparing mass and social media and differentiating between female and male concerns regarding body image.

Examination of the association of muscle dysmorphia (bigorexia) and social physique anxiety in the male bodybuilders

PURPOSE

This study aimed to examine the association between social physique anxiety and muscular dystrophy in bodybuilders.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 384 male bodybuilders.

FINDINGS

5.7% of the participants reported muscular dystrophy. Younger age and use of protein powder were associated with higher scores on the muscle dysmorphic disorder Inventory. Higher muscular dystrophy was associated with higher social physique anxiety.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Young male bodybuilders using protein powder are at increased risk to suffer from social physique anxiety and muscular dystrophy.

Body dissatisfaction frequency and duration: Dissociable dimensions of trait body dissatisfaction

This work proposes that trait body dissatisfaction rests on two dissociable components: 1) frequency of body dissatisfaction episodes, and 2) duration of such episodes, with higher trait body dissatisfaction resulting from more frequent and/or prolonged episodes. The current research aimed to develop a measure of these two dimensions (i.e., the Body Dissatisfaction Frequency Duration Questionnaire; BDFDQ) and test this theoretical model by investigating whether body dissatisfaction frequency and duration 1) were structurally dissociable, 2) meaningfully dissociable, and 3) each associated with different aspects of disordered eating behavior. Study 1 (N = 300, 42% women) developed the BDFDQ and showed that frequency and duration are structurally dissociable. Study 2 (N = 400, 50% women) showed that the two-factor model was invariant across gender and both subscales showed good psychometric properties of reliability and validity. Results further supported that frequency and duration are meaningfully dissociable by revealing that each component accounted for unique variance in trait body dissatisfaction. Study 3 (N = 279, 77% women) replicated Study 2 findings and established that frequency and duration subscales each associated with different aspects of disordered eating behavior. Together, findings imply that body dissatisfaction frequency and duration represent two separable dimensions underlying trait body dissatisfaction.

Body image perceptions and avoidance behaviours among a Moroccan group of adolescents

BACKGROUND

Adolescents are a vulnerable group to the body dissatisfaction that causes unhealthy attitudes and behaviours. It has been shown that many factors affect body image dissatisfaction.

AIM

To describe body image size perception, degree of body dissatisfaction, avoidance behaviours, and their relationship with gender, age, and weight status, and to assess the relationship between body dissatisfaction and avoidance behaviours among a group of Moroccan adolescents.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional survey was comprised of a sample of 487 adolescents. Stunkard's figure rating scale was used to assess perceptions of current and ideal body image and body dissatisfaction. Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire was employed to assess avoidance behaviours.

RESULTS

Body dissatisfaction was found to be strongly associated with weight status in both male and female adolescents. Avoidance behaviours were positively associated with gender, age, weight status and body dissatisfaction. Indeed, avoidance behaviours were frequently reported among female, young adolescents, those with high BMI z-score and those seeking to lose weight. Adolescents tended to behave under the influence of two factors: clothing and weighing-grooming.

CONCLUSION

Weight status is an important factor which deeply impacts adolescent body dissatisfaction. Adolescents resort to behaviour avoidance and physical appearance control to cope with body dissatisfaction.

Psychometric properties of a Silhouette Rating Scale assessing current and ideal body size and body dissatisfaction in adults

PURPOSE

The study aims at validating a new pictorial tool, the Silhouette Rating Scale (SRS). It consists of a series of nine female or male silhouettes. It was created to assess current and ideal body size evaluation, and body dissatisfaction. Our aims were to test the concurrent, convergent and discriminant validity of the scale, evaluating possible gender differences.

METHOD

A first sample of 754 young adults (age M = 26.10 ± 8.50, males N = 218) and a second sample of 210 young adults (age M = 21.19 ± 3.22, males = 43) completed the SRS, and other self-report measures assessing body size evaluation, disordered eating, body satisfaction, depression, emotion regulation and insomnia.

RESULTS

Statistical analyses performed on the first sample largely support the concurrent validity of the scale. Results obtained from the second sample confirm its convergent validity, showing strong correlations with the Contour Drawing Rating Scale. In addition, the correlations performed between the three responses of the SRS and other measures of eating disorders, depression, insomnia and emotion regulation indicated a good discriminant validity, though some of the variables measured seem to be significantly correlated.

CONCLUSIONS

The SRS is a reliable and valid tool for assessing current body size, body ideal and body dissatisfaction as compared to other widely used scales. It guarantees the universality of use thanks to the absence of details related to ethnicity or culture and at the same time, maintaining a right level of realism. Future studies will evaluate test-retest validity and its potential within clinical populations.

LEVE OF EVIDENCE

V, descriptive cross sectional study.

Perception of body size and body dissatisfaction in adults

Self-perception of body size seems to be not always in line with clinical definitions of normal weight, overweight and obesity according to Word Health Organization classification. The effect of self-perception of body size disturbances and body dissatisfaction may be the development of eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa or binge eating disorder-a major risk factor of obesity development. Therefore, the study aimed to assess separately the perception of weight status and body size as well as body dissatisfaction in adults with normal weight, overweight and obesity. The study included 744 adults (452 women; 35.9 ± 12.4 years; 21 underweight, 326 normal weight, 221 overweight, 176 obese) referred to Metabolic Management Center and volunteers. Body size perception and body dissatisfaction were assessed based on Stunkards' Figure Rating Scale (FRS). Additionally, participants' were asked: 'Do you think you are: underweight/normal weight/overweight/obese?' to assess perception of weight status. Participants' weight and height were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI) after completing the FRS. Individuals within the overweight BMI range have rated themselves as underweight (1.4%), normal weight (30.8%) and obese (2.8%). Also individuals within the obesity BMI range have rated themselves as normal weight (2.6%), and overweight (41.6%). Compatibility of self-assessment of weight status with BMI category according to the measured values was moderate-Kappa coefficient was 0.59 (95% CI: 0.54-0.64). Underestimation of weight status was significantly more common among men than women. There were statistically significant differences in the distribution of body dissatisfaction according to the weight in both women and men. Normal-weight subjects less often than overweight and obese were dissatisfied with their own body size. The degree of body dissatisfaction was greater among women than among men. Adults subjects frequently underestimate their own weight status and body size. Women with overweight and obesity more often than men are dissatisfied with their own body size.

Drawings or 3D models: Do illustration methods matter when assessing perceived body size and body dissatisfaction?

Research has reported that both men and women experience body dissatisfaction. Among other instruments, a widely used method to assess perceived body size and body dissatisfaction are figure rating scales. Although a variety of illustration methods (e.g., three-dimensional, or 3D, models and line-drawing models) have been used to create these figure rating scales, to date, they have not been directly compared to one another. Thus, in the first study, which includes 511 participants at a mean age of 46 years old (range: 20–70), the present research work aims to assess how the line-drawing and 3D model scales, representing different body illustration methods, relate to each other. Furthermore, the first study assesses the validity of the indication of body dissatisfaction measured using these figure rating scales by comparing them to body checking or scrutinizing behavior and body appreciation levels. The project’s second study examines the two figure rating scales using objectively measured anthropometric data. In total, 239 participants at a mean age of 54 years (range: 18–94) were included. The results show that figure rating scales can be considered tools that measure perceptual body image due to their positive correlations with body checking behavior (for women) and their negative correlations with body appreciation. The 3D model and line-drawing scales show good to excellent inter-scale reliability, and both scales agree equally well with body mass index (BMI) measurements. Thus, the 3D model and line-drawing scales both seem well suited for assessing perceived body size and perceptual body dissatisfaction, suggesting that neither illustration method is superior to the other.

An eye-tracking study examining the relationship between males' eating disorder symptomatology, body mass index, and expectations about character behaviour in text

Eating disorder prevalence is increasing in males, perhaps more rapidly than in females. Theorists have proposed that cognitive biases are important factors underpinning disordered eating, especially those related to food, body, and perfectionism. We investigated these factors in relation to males' eating disorder symptomatology in the general population by using eye-tracking during reading as a novel and implicit measure. 180 males' eye movements were monitored while they read scenarios (third-person in Experiment 1 (n = 90, 18-38(M_age = 21.50, SD = 3.65)); second-person in Experiment 2 (n = 90, 18-35(M_age = 20.50, SD = 2.22))) describing characters' emotional responses (e.g. upset) to food-, body image-, and perfectionism-related events. Participants' eating disorder symptomatology was then assessed, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Results showed processing of characters' emotional responses (detected via eye-tracking) to body- and perfectionism-related events for third-person scenarios was related to eating disorder symptomatology. Processing of characters' emotional responses to body-related events for second-person scenarios was related to males' BMI. The moment-to-moment processing of characters' emotional responses to food-related scenarios was not related to eating disorder symptomatology or BMI. Findings support theories that include body- and perfectionism-related cognitive biases as underlying mechanisms of eating disorder symptomatology and the use of implicit measures of cognitive processes underlying males' eating disorder symptomatology.

3D visualisation of psychometric estimates for the ideal male body

Psychological concerns are frequently indexed by psychometric questionnaires but the mental representations that they seek to quantify are difficult to visualise. We used a set of questionnaires designed to measure men's concept of their bodies including: the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS; McCreary & Sasse, 2000), the Perceived Sociocultural Pressures Scale (PSPS; Stice, Nemeroff, & Shaw, 1996a), the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015), and the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3; Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig, Guarda, & Heinberg, 2004). We combined their use with an interactive 3D modelling programme to allow men to create computer-generated representations of their ideal bodies. We used a principal component analysis to extract those shape components of our participants' CGI ideal bodies that were predicted by the questionnaires and reconstructed the body shapes that these questionnaires were capturing. Moving from the lowest to the highest score on both the DMS and SATAQ corresponded with changes in muscularity, particularly muscle mass and definition. This approach allows us to demonstrate the actual body features that are being captured by a particular questionnaire.

Body image perception and body composition in early adolescents: a longitudinal study of an Italian cohort

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a sensitive period of life in which everyone faces physical and psychological changes. No longitudinal studies considering changes in body image perception and body composition in Italian adolescents have been carried out. The aims of this study were to evaluate the longitudinal change in body composition and weight status in a sample of Italian students of both sexes over the 3 years of middle school and to analyse the influence of these parameters on the perception and satisfaction of one's own body image.

METHODS

Sixty-four males and seventy females were followed longitudinally from 11 to 14. Age at first measurement was 11.8 ± 0.3 yrs. in males and 11.9 ± 0.3 yrs. in females, then the students were measured again after 1 year and 2 years. Anthropometric measurements were collected and body composition was assessed by skinfolds. Maturity status was detected by age at menarche in females and by estimated age at peak height velocity in males; sports practice was assessed by a questionnaire. Body Silhouette Charts were used to assess body image perception. The degree of body image dissatisfaction and improper perception of weight status were evaluated. Univariate and multivariate analyses were applied.

RESULTS

Height, sitting height, leg length, and weight increments were higher in males than in females, and in both sexes the sitting height increment was higher than that of leg length. Skinfold thicknesses and percentage of body fat, showed a decrease in males and an increase in females over the 3 years. About 90% of the sample practiced sport during the 3 years. No significant variations in body image perception were observed among repeated measures but significantly differences were observed between sexes. Although the girls showed a lower incidence of overweight and obesity than boys, girls had a higher dissatisfaction than males. Males were less accurate in one's perception of one's own weight status.

CONCLUSIONS

The changes in body composition observed in the sample of the present study were in accordance with their maturity stage. An increase in parameters connected with adiposity is observed in females and a decrease in males. Body image perception did not seem to change with growth, but associations were found between body image perception and BMI and sex. Monitoring body image perception in young adolescents, especially in females and in overweight/obese subjects, is a priority to prevent nutritional disorders.

Visual mapping of body image disturbance in anorexia nervosa reveals objective markers of illness severity

Body image disturbance (BID) is a core feature of eating disorders, for which there are few objective markers. We examined the feasibility of a novel digital tool, "Somatomap", to index BID related to anorexia nervosa (AN) severity. Fifty-five AN inpatients and 55 healthy comparisons (HC) outlined their body concerns on a 2-Dimensional avatar. Next, they indicated sizes/shapes of body parts for their current and ideal body using sliders on a 3-Dimensional avatar. Physical measurements of corresponding body parts, in cm, were collected for reference. We evaluated regional differences in BID using proportional z-scores to generate statistical body maps, and multivariate analysis of covariance to assess perceptual discrepancies for current body, ideal body, and body dissatisfaction. The AN group demonstrated greater regional perceptual inaccuracy for their current body than HC, greater discrepancies between their current and ideal body, and higher body dissatisfaction than HCs. AN body concerns localized disproportionately to the chest and lower abdomen. The number of body concerns and perceptual inaccuracy for individual body parts was strongly associated with Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (Global EDE-Q) scores across both groups. Somatomap demonstrated feasibility to capture multidimensional aspects of BID. Several implicit measures were significantly associated with illness severity, suggesting potential utility for identifying objective BID markers.

Methods to develop figure rating scales (FRS): A systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Figure Rating Scales (FRS) are psychometric instruments developed to measure individual's perception of physical appearance and subsequently, to determine the level of body dissatisfaction. The following systematic review summarizes existing FRSs and the techniques used to development them.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in the following databases; PubMed®, Web of Science®, Scopus® using key words "figure rating scale" AND "Stunkard".

RESULTS

From 466 potentially relevant articles, 24 publications were included, 22 publications reporting original FRSs with the other two scales being modifications of the original for children and babies. Fifteen were figural drawings or silhouettes and nine were developed by photographic techniques, video methods or using computer software. Most of the figural scales were applicable for adults and consisted of nine images. Ten of the 15 figural scales were without facial features and four scales had minimal facial features. Technological advancements including 3D modeling have played a pivotal role in the development of FRSs.

CONCLUSIONS

FRSs have been developed by a mix of traditional and modern techniques. The development and validation of ethnic specific FRSs using modern technology should be the priority for future studies.

Body composition parameters can better predict body size dissatisfaction than body mass index in children and adolescents

PURPOSE

Recent studies suggest that body mass index is not a reliable enough measurement for body composition in individuals, particularly in older and younger people. However, most research on body image has used the body mass index (BMI) as a physiological predictor of body satisfaction, particularly in children. The aim of this study was to investigate whether body composition is a better predictor of body size dissatisfaction in children than BMI.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study. Healthy children and adolescents aged 5-19 years, sex male and female, were recruited using a convenience sample in Brazil. BMI was measured according to the international standardization method and body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) with a portable device model (BIA InBodyS10 multi-frequency, USA). Body size dissatisfaction was assessed using the Kakeshita's Figure Rating Scale for Brazilian Children. Data were analyzed with logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 547 participants were evaluated, including 54% females and 67% Caucasian, with a mean age of 11.4 ± 3.8 years. The mean BMI was 20.5 ± 4.6 kg/m², and the mean percentages of fat and lean mass were 23.01 ± 10.59% and 72.84 ± 10.03%, respectively. In the multivariable model, only body composition was significantly associated with body size dissatisfaction (odds ratio: 1.849 (1.085-3.149, p = 0.024) and 1.828 (1.043-3.202, p = 0.035), respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Body composition measures can better predict body size dissatisfaction in children and adolescents than BMI. This result may be relevant for the design of future studies on physiological indicators and body satisfaction.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, cross-sectional study.

The Thin Man is His Clothing: Dressing Masculine to be Masculine

Body image research focuses almost exclusively on women or overweight and obesity or both. Yet, body image concerns among thin men are common and can result, at least in part, from mixed messages in society around how men qua men should dress and behave in order to look good and feel good. Stand-alone interventions to meet these different messages tend to provide men with little therapeutic relief. This conceptual paper draws on literature from the medical humanities; gender and body image studies; the social psychology of clothing; and the author's own lived experience to address this contemporary problem. The paper embraces visual culture as a resource that can frame discussion of how two sets of 'performativity' might reduce male anxiety about thinness. First, thin men could choose repeatedly to wear masculine-looking clothing, which could create their masculinity as a personal aesthetic that strengthens the confidence to harness masculine traits in healthy ways. Secondly, health and allied health service providers could promote and reinforce such dress behavior by offering advice that integrates aesthetic and functional aspects of clothing. Empirical studies are needed to test this dual model of performativity.

Development and validation of new figural scales for female body dissatisfaction assessment on two dimensions: thin-ideal and muscularity-ideal

Background

Body dissatisfaction influences women’s mental and physical health. To date, most research has focused on body dissatisfaction in relation to the ‘thin-ideal’. Thus, the association between body dissatisfaction, eating disorder symptomatology and muscularity-ideal in women is less clear. Lack of understanding is underpinned by the lack of reliable and valid muscularity-related assessments for women. To address this need, we developed, tested and re-tested two new body dissatisfaction scales: The Female Body Scale (FBS; adiposity dimension) and Female Fit Body Scale (FFITBS; muscularity dimension).

Methods

One hundred and fifty-two women in the United Kingdom rated which body figure best represented their current and ideal body, completed the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q 6.0), and their body composition was measured. During re-test, the EDE-Q 6.0 and Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) were completed.

Results

Both the FBS and the FFITBS were found to be valid and reliable, and distinct types of body dissatisfaction were identified. Higher EDE-Q scores corresponded with greater body dissatisfaction scores on both the FBS and FFITBS. Thin-ideal (FBS) and larger/muscularity-ideal (FFITBS) body dissatisfaction predicted higher scores on the DMS. The muscularity scale (FFITBS) uniquely revealed that 28% of participants indicated body dissatisfaction toward the larger-muscularity-ideal.

Conclusions

Results reveal distinct dimensions of body dissatisfaction. These new, validated scales may be utilized to quickly identify eating disorder risk in women as a preventative assessment for clinicians and inform female-focused body-image and eating disorder research.

Development and Validation of a BMI-Based Figure Rating Scale for Chinese Adolescents

Figure rating scales (FRS) have been widely used to measure body dissatisfaction. In the current study, an FRS based on body mass index (BMI) and body shape of Chinese adolescents (C-BMI-FRS) was developed and validated. The perceived actual figure chosen from C-BMI-FRS by 2,237 Chinese adolescents aged 15-18 years old correlated strongly with BMI (r = .83 in girls and r = .80 in boys). Additionally, there was a strong relation between actual and ideal figure discrepancy (AID) scores and measures of body satisfaction (r = -.54 in girls, r = -.28 in boys) and eating disorder symptoms (r = .54 in girls, and r = .52 in boys). There also were moderate associations of AID scores with self-esteem (r = -.16) and negative affect (r = .18) in girls. Test-retest reliability over an 8- to 10 -week interval exceeded .57 for actual figure, ideal figure, and AID scores. Overall, findings support the utility of C-BMI-FRS as a measure of body dissatisfaction among Chinese adolescents.

Male Figural Rating Scales: A Critical Review of the Literature

Figural rating scales are tools used to measure male body dissatisfaction. The present review aimed to examine the design and psychometric properties of male figural rating scales and make recommendations based on findings. Relevant databases were systematically searched for studies that had developed and validated male figural rating scales. Twenty studies were included in this review. Figural rating scales differed in terms of the number of images represented and type of stimuli used (hand-drawn silhouettes, hand-drawn figures, computer-rendered figures, and photograph figures). Reliability and validity evidence varied greatly in strength across all scales. Four of the 20 scales included a correlational analysis between figural rating scale scores and eating disorder symptoms. Results showed the moderate to high positive correlations between eating disorder symptoms and figural rating scale perceived and index scores, suggesting that figural rating scales are sensitive to detecting eating disorder symptoms. Ideally, male figural rating scales should show strong validity and reliability, include variations in both body fat and muscularity, utilise realistic body stimuli, and be interval scales. No existing male figural rating scale meets these criteria. However, this review identifies five figural rating scales that meet the majority of the recommended criteria.

Examination of Actual and Ideal Body-Related Characteristics and Body-Related Pride in Adult Males

Body image concerns are becoming more prevalent in males. Discrepancies between actual and ideal body muscularity and thinness have been studied from a pathological perspective whereby perceiving the body as discrepant from an internalized ideal is associated with body dissatisfaction, negative emotions, and harmful body-altering behaviors. It is unclear if agreement among actual and ideal self-perceptions is associated with positive emotion in males. The present study examined the associations between actual and ideal congruence and discrepancies in muscularity and thinness, and two facets of pride (i.e., authentic and hubristic pride) in male adults. Participants (n = 294; M_age = 34.80 years; M_BMI = 27.31 kg/m²) completed a cross-sectional self-report survey. Results from polynomial regressions indicated that actual and ideal self-perceptions of muscularity and thinness were significant predictors of both authentic (R² = .37 and .20) and hubristic pride (R² = .33 and .19), respectively. Response surface values demonstrated that extremely high or low scores that were congruent for muscularity (a₂ = .35 and .40) and thinness (a₂ = .18 and .18) perceptions were associated with higher reports of authentic and hubristic pride. These findings demonstrated that congruence in actual and ideal self-perceptions contribute to feelings of pride, suggesting interventions that promote actual and ideal self-perception congruence may be important for fostering positive emotional experiences in males.

Body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys

Body dissatisfaction is a significant mental health symptom present in adolescent girls and boys. However, it is often either disregarded in adolescent boys or examined using assessments that may not resonate with males. The present study addresses these issues, examining the manifestation, etiology, and correlates of 3 facets of body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys. Adolescent male twins aged 16- to 17-years-old from the Swedish Twin Study of Child and Adolescent Development were included along with a female comparison group: 915 monozygotic and 671 dizygotic same-sex twins. Body dissatisfaction was defined using measures of height dissatisfaction, muscle dissatisfaction, and the body dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI-BD). We examined the prevalence of body dissatisfaction, whether the facets of body dissatisfaction were phenotypically and etiologically distinct, and associations with specific externalizing and internalizing symptoms. For boys, muscle dissatisfaction scores were greater than height dissatisfaction scores. Results also indicated that height and muscle dissatisfaction were phenotypically and etiologically distinct from the EDI-BD. Unique associations were observed with externalizing and internalizing symptoms: muscle dissatisfaction with symptoms of bulimia nervosa and the EDI-BD with internalizing symptoms, body mass index, and drive for thinness. The facets of body dissatisfaction were also largely distinct in girls and unique between-sex associations with externalizing and internalizing symptoms emerged. Overall, male-oriented aspects of body dissatisfaction are distinct from female-oriented aspects of body dissatisfaction. To capture the full picture of male body dissatisfaction, multiple facets must be addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Disordered eating attitudes correlate with body dissatisfaction among Kuwaiti male college students

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of disordered eating attitudes and body dissatisfaction based on muscularity and body fat was investigated among male college students in Kuwait with a range of body mass index values including underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obese participants.

METHODS

Data were collected, using the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26) and the Bodybuilder Image Grid (BIG), from 400 male undergraduate students (84.8% Kuwaiti nationals) recruited from both public and private universities in Kuwait. An anonymous, self-administered questionnaire was used to determine the prevalence of symptomatology indicative of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa and to examine the associations between body dissatisfaction and muscularity and body fat.

RESULTS

Most participants were dissatisfied with their current muscle mass and body fat (67.3 and 69%, respectively). Logistic regression analyses produced odds ratios (ORs) demonstrating that students dissatisfied with their muscularity and body fat and those who indicated a desire to decrease both muscularity and body fat had significantly higher odds of being at risk of disordered eating attitudes (OR = 2.241, 95% CI [1.17, 3.6], p = .032, and OR = 1.898, 95% CI [1.214, 2.967], p = .005, respectively). Obese participants also had higher odds of exhibiting disordered eating attitudes (OR = 2.06, 95% CI [1.17, 3.60], p = .011).

CONCLUSION

The high proportion of disordered eating attitudes among Kuwaiti college men was associated with high levels of body image dissatisfaction in relation to both body fat and muscularity. High levels of eating disorder symptoms were also linked to obesity.

A study on the interplay between emerging adulthood and eating disorder symptomatology in young adults

PURPOSE

The primary aim of this study was to investigate the interplay between Arnett's five features of emerging adulthood and ED symptomatology. The secondary aim of the study was to investigate possible gender differences concerning the relation between emerging adulthood and ED symptomatology.

METHODS

337 university students (252 females and 85 males) participated in this study. Each participant was asked to anonymously complete the following questionnaires: Inventory of the Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood (IDEA), Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), and Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS).

RESULTS

The female group scored higher in the EAT-26 diet, SPAS, IDEA self-focus and IDEA total score measurements. Additionally, in the female group, identity exploration was correlated with EAT-26 total and bulimia, experimentation/possibilities with EAT-26 total and diet, and negativity/instability with EAT-26 total, diet and bulimia as well as SPAS score. In the male groups, the only significant correlation was between SPAS and instability/negativity. Finally, identity exploration could predict a higher probability of developing ED (EAT ≥ 20) for both the female and male groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Emerging adulthood and ED were found to have a close relationship, especially for females. Identity exploration was the emerging adulthood factor that showed the highest relation to ED symptomatology in both the male and female groups. More research is necessary to investigate the specifics of this relationship.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Eating disorder symptomatology and body mass index are associated with readers' expectations about character behavior: Evidence from eye-tracking during reading

OBJECTIVE

Many theories have been put forward suggesting key factors underlying the development and maintenance of eating disorders, such as: unhealthy food-related cognitive biases, negative body attitude, and perfectionism; however, underlying cognitive processes associated with eating disorder symptomatology remain unclear. We used eye-tracking during reading as a novel implicit measure of how these factors may relate to eating disorder symptomatology.

METHOD

In two experiments, we monitored women's eye movements while they read texts in which the characters' emotional responses to food-, body image-, and perfectionism-related scenarios were described. Participants' eating disorder symptomatology was then assessed.

RESULTS

Both studies suggest that moment-to-moment processing of characters' emotional responses to perfectionism-, and to a lesser extent, body image-related information was associated with participants' eating disorder symptomatology, thus supporting theories in which these factors are key to developing and maintaining eating disorders. Interestingly, the moment-to-moment processing of characters' emotional responses to food-related scenarios was not related to eating disorder symptomatology.

DISCUSSION

These findings provide novel insights into cognitive processes underlying eating disorder symptomatology, as well as demonstrating the utility of more natural implicit measures.