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Werle I, Bertoglio LJ. Psychedelics: A review of their effects on recalled aversive memories and fear/anxiety expression in rodents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 167:105899. [PMID: 39305969 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2024] [Revised: 09/02/2024] [Accepted: 09/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/27/2024]
Abstract
Threatening events and stressful experiences can lead to maladaptive memories and related behaviors. Existing treatments often fail to address these issues linked to anxiety/stress-related disorders effectively. This review identifies dose ranges associated with specific actions across various psychedelics. We examined psilocybin/psilocin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), mescaline, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), serotonin 2 A/2 C agonists (e.g., DOI) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) on aversive memory extinction and reconsolidation, learned fear, anxiety, and locomotion in rodents. Nearly 400 studies published since 1957 were reviewed. Psychedelics often show biphasic effects on locomotion at doses that enhance extinction learning/retention, impair memory reconsolidation, or reduce learned fear and anxiety. Emerging evidence suggests a dissociation between their prospective benefits and locomotor effects. Under-explored aspects include sex differences, susceptibility to interference as memories age and generalize, repeated treatments, and immediate vs. delayed changes. Validating findings in traumatic-like memory and maladaptive fear/anxiety models is essential. Understanding how psychedelics modulate threat responses and post-retrieval memory processes in rodents may inform drug development and human studies, improving therapeutic approaches for related psychiatric conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Werle
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Leandro J Bertoglio
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil.
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2
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Giachero M, Belén Sacson A, Belén Vitullo M, Bekinschtein P, Weisstaub N. Targeting fear memories: Examining pharmacological disruption in a generalized fear framework. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2024; 213:107960. [PMID: 39004160 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2024.107960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Labilization-reconsolidation, which relies on retrieval, has been considered an opportunity to attenuate the negative aspects of traumatic memories. A therapeutic strategy based on reconsolidation blockade is deemed more effective than current therapies relying on memory extinction. Nevertheless, extremely stressful memories frequently prove resistant to this process. Here, after inducing robust fear memory in mice through strong fear conditioning, we examined the possibility of rendering it susceptible to pharmacological modulation based on the degree of generalized fear (GF). To achieve this, we established an ordered gradient of GF, determined by the perceptual similarity between the associated context (CA) and non-associated contexts (CB, CC, CD, and CE) to the aversive event. We observed that as the exposure context became less similar to CA, the defensive pattern shifted from passive to active behaviors in both male and female mice. Subsequently, in conditioned animals, we administered propranolol after exposure to the different contexts (CA, CB, CC, CD or CE). In males, propranolol treatment resulted in reduced freezing time and enhanced risk assessment behaviors when administered following exposure to CA or CB, but not after CC, CD, or CE, compared to the control group. In females, a similar change in behavioral pattern was observed with propranolol administered after exposure to CC, but not after the other contexts. These results highlight the possibility of indirectly manipulating a robust contextual fear memory by controlling the level of generalization during recall. Additionally, it was demonstrated that the effect of propranolol on reconsolidation would not lead to a reduction in fear memory per se, but rather to its reorganization resulting in greater behavioral flexibility (from passive to active behaviors). Finally, from a clinical viewpoint, this would be of considerable relevance since following this strategy could make the treatment of psychiatric disorders associated with traumatic memory formation more effective and less stressful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Giachero
- Instituto de Neurociencia Cognitiva y Traslacional (INCYT), CONICET, Fundación INECO, Universidad Favaloro, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Agostina Belén Sacson
- Instituto de Neurociencia Cognitiva y Traslacional (INCYT), CONICET, Fundación INECO, Universidad Favaloro, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Belén Vitullo
- Instituto de Neurociencia Cognitiva y Traslacional (INCYT), CONICET, Fundación INECO, Universidad Favaloro, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pedro Bekinschtein
- Instituto de Neurociencia Cognitiva y Traslacional (INCYT), CONICET, Fundación INECO, Universidad Favaloro, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Noelia Weisstaub
- Instituto de Neurociencia Cognitiva y Traslacional (INCYT), CONICET, Fundación INECO, Universidad Favaloro, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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3
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Soares LA, Nascimento LMM, Guimarães FS, Gazarini L, Bertoglio LJ. Dual-step pharmacological intervention for traumatic-like memories: implications from D-cycloserine and cannabidiol or clonidine in male and female rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:1827-1840. [PMID: 38691149 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06596-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE Therapeutic approaches to mitigating traumatic memories have often faced resistance. Exploring safe reconsolidation blockers, drugs capable of reducing the emotional valence of the memory upon brief retrieval and reactivation, emerges as a promising pharmacological strategy. Towards this objective, preclinical investigations should focus on aversive memories resulting in maladaptive outcomes and consider sex-related differences to enhance their translatability. OBJECTIVES After selecting a relatively high training magnitude leading to the formation of a more intense and generalized fear memory in adult female and male rats, we investigated whether two clinically approved drugs disrupting its reconsolidation remain effective. RESULTS We found resistant reconsolidation impairment by the α2-adrenergic receptor agonist clonidine or cannabidiol, a major non-psychotomimetic Cannabis sativa component. However, pre-retrieval administration of D-cycloserine, a partial agonist at the glycine-binding site of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor complex, facilitated their impairing effects on reconsolidation. A similar reconsolidation blockade by clonidine or cannabidiol was achieved following exposure to a non-conditioned but generalized context after D-cycloserine administration. This suggests that sufficient memory destabilization can accompany generalized fear expression. Combining clonidine with cannabidiol without potentiating memory destabilization by D-cycloserine was ineffective. CONCLUSIONS These findings highlight the importance of NMDA receptor signaling in memory destabilization and underscore the efficacy of a dual-step pharmacological intervention in attenuating traumatic-like memories, even in a context different from the original learning environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciane A Soares
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Laura M M Nascimento
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | | | - Lucas Gazarini
- Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso Do Sul, Três Lagoas, MS, Brazil
| | - Leandro J Bertoglio
- Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso Do Sul, Três Lagoas, MS, Brazil.
- Depto. de Farmacologia, CCB, UFSC, Campus Universitário S/N, Florianópolis, SC, 88049-900, Brazil.
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4
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Kindt M, Soeter M. A brief treatment for veterans with PTSD: an open-label case-series study. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1260175. [PMID: 37928919 PMCID: PMC10620904 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1260175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Despite the positive outcomes observed in numerous individuals undergoing trauma-focused psychotherapy for PTSD, veterans with this condition experience notably diminished advantages from such therapeutic interventions in comparison to non-military populations. Methods In a preliminary study we investigated the efficacy of an innovative treatment approach in a small sample of veterans (n = 7). Recognizing that accessing and targeting trauma memory in veterans with PTSD may be more challenging compared to other patient populations, we employed unique and personalized retrieval cues that engaged multiple senses and were connected to the context of their trauma. This was followed by a session focused on memory reconsolidation, which incorporated both psychological techniques (i.e., imagery rescripting) and a pharmacological component (i.e., 40 mg of propranolol). Results The findings from this small-scale case series cautiously indicate that this brief intervention, typically consisting of only one or two treatment sessions, shows promise in producing significant effects on symptoms of PTSD, distress and quality of life.This is particularly noteworthy given the complex symptomatology experienced by the veterans in this study. Conclusion To summarize, there are grounds for optimism regarding this brief treatment of combat-related PTSD. It appears that the potential for positive outcomes is far greater than commonly believed, as demonstrated by the encouraging results of this pilot study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merel Kindt
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marieke Soeter
- Work Health Technology, The Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research TNO, Leiden, Netherlands
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5
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On making (and turning adaptive to) maladaptive aversive memories in laboratory rodents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 147:105101. [PMID: 36804263 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Fear conditioning and avoidance tasks usually elicit adaptive aversive memories. Traumatic memories are more intense, generalized, inflexible, and resistant to attenuation via extinction- and reconsolidation-based strategies. Inducing and assessing these dysfunctional, maladaptive features in the laboratory are crucial to interrogating posttraumatic stress disorder's neurobiology and exploring innovative treatments. Here we analyze over 350 studies addressing this question in adult rats and mice. There is a growing interest in modeling several qualitative and quantitative memory changes by exposing already stressed animals to freezing- and avoidance-related tests or using a relatively high aversive training magnitude. Other options combine aversive/fearful tasks with post-acquisition or post-retrieval administration of one or more drugs provoking neurochemical or epigenetic alterations reported in the trauma aftermath. It is potentially instructive to integrate these procedures and incorporate the measurement of autonomic and endocrine parameters. Factors to consider when defining the organismic and procedural variables, partially neglected aspects (sex-dependent differences and recent vs. remote data comparison) and suggestions for future research (identifying reliable individual risk and treatment-response predictors) are discussed.
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6
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Zawadzki P. The Ethics of Memory Modification: Personal Narratives, Relational Selves and Autonomy. NEUROETHICS-NETH 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s12152-022-09512-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
For nearly two decades, ethicists have expressed concerns that the further development and use of memory modification technologies (MMTs)—techniques allowing to intentionally and selectively alter memories—may threaten the very foundations of who we are, our personal identity, and thus pose a threat to our well-being, or even undermine our “humaneness.” This paper examines the potential ramifications of memory-modifying interventions such as changing the valence of targeted memories and selective deactivation of a particular memory as these interventions appear to be at the same time potentially both most promising clinically as well as menacing to identity. However, unlike previous works discussing the potential consequences of MMTs, this article analyzes them in the context of the narrative relational approach to personal identity and potential issues related to autonomy. I argue that such a perspective brings to light the ethical aspects and moral issues arising from the use of MMTs that have been hidden from previously adopted approaches. In particular, this perspective demonstrates how important the social context in which an individual lives is for the ethical evaluation of a given memory-modifying intervention. I conclude by suggesting that undertaking memory modifications without taking into account the social dimension of a person’s life creates the risk that she will not be able to meet one of the basic human needs—the autonomous construction and maintenance of personal identity. Based on this conclusion, I offer some reflections on the permissibility and advisability of MMTs and what these considerations suggest for the future.
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7
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Bui UTD, Milton AL. Making Leaps and Hitting Boundaries in Reconsolidation: Overcoming Boundary Conditions to Increase Clinical Translatability of Reconsolidation-based Therapies. Neuroscience 2023; 519:198-206. [PMID: 36933761 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Reconsolidation results in the restabilisation, and thus persistence, of a memory made labile by retrieval, and interfering with this process is thought to enable modification or weakening of the original trace. As such, reconsolidation-blockade has been a focus of research aiming to target the maladaptive memories underlying mental health disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder and drug addiction. Current first-line therapies are not effective for all patients, and a substantial proportion of those for whom therapies are effective later relapse. A reconsolidation-based intervention would be invaluable as an alternative treatment for these conditions. However, the translation of reconsolidation-based therapies to the clinic presents a number of challenges, with arguably the greatest being the overcoming of the boundary conditions governing the opening of the reconsolidation window. These include factors such as the age and strength of memory, and can broadly be divided into two categories: intrinsic features of the targeted memory itself, and parameters of the reactivation procedure used. With maladaptive memory characteristics inevitably varying amongst individuals, manipulation of the other limitations imposed by procedural variables have been explored to circumvent the boundary conditions on reconsolidation. Although several apparently discrepant results remain to be reconciled and these limitations yet to be truly defined, many studies have produced successful results which encouragingly demonstrate that boundary conditions may be overcome using various proposed strategies to enable translation of a reconsolidation-based intervention to clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uyen T D Bui
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - Amy L Milton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, UK.
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Milton AL, Das RK, Merlo E. The challenge of memory destabilisation: From prediction error to prior expectations and biomarkers. Brain Res Bull 2023; 194:100-104. [PMID: 36708846 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2023.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The re-ignition of memory reconsolidation research sparked by Karim Nader in the early 2000s led to great excitement that 'reconsolidation-based' interventions might be developed for mental health disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder and substance use disorder. Two decades on, it is clear that reconsolidation-based interventions have been more challenging to translate to the clinic than initially thought. We argue that this challenge could be addressed with a better understanding of how prior expectations interact with information presented in a putative memory reactivation / cue reminder session, and through the identification of non-invasive biomarkers for memory destabilisation that would allow reminder sessions to be 'tuned' to enhance memory lability in an ad hoc manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L Milton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Ravi K Das
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit, University College London, London, UK
| | - Emiliano Merlo
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
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9
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Couto Pereira NDS, Klippel Zanona Q, Pastore Bernardi M, Alves J, Dalmaz C, Calcagnotto ME. Aversive memory reactivation: A possible role for delta oscillations in the hippocampus-amygdala circuit. J Neurosci Res 2023; 101:48-69. [PMID: 36128957 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Memory labilization, the process by which memories become susceptible to update, is essential for memory reconsolidation and has been a target for novel therapies for traumatic memory-associated disorders. Maternal separation (MS) in male rats produced memories resistant to labilization in adulthood. Based on previous results, we hypothesized that temporal desynchronization between the dorsal hippocampus (DHc) and the basolateral amygdala (BLA), during memory retrieval, could be responsible for this impairment. Our goal was to investigate possible differences in oscillatory activity and synchrony between the DHc and BLA during fear memory reactivation, between MS and non-handled (NH) rats. We used male adult Wistar rats, NH or MS, with electrodes for local field potential (LFP) recordings implanted in the DHc and BLA. Animals were submitted to aversive memory reactivation by exposure to the conditioned context (Reat) or to pseudo-reactivation in a neutral context (pReat), and LFP was recorded. Plasticity markers linked to reconsolidation were evaluated one hour after reactivation. The power of delta oscillations and DHc-BLA synchrony in Reat animals was increased, during freezing. Besides, delta modulation of gamma oscillations amplitude in the BLA was associated with the increase in DHc Zif268 levels, an immediate early gene specifically associated with reconsolidation. Concerning early life stress, we found lower power of delta and strength of delta-gamma oscillations coupling in MS rats, compared to NH, which could explain the low Zif268 levels in a subgroup of MS animals. These results suggest a role for delta oscillations in memory reactivation that should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natividade de Sá Couto Pereira
- Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry of Neuronal Excitability and Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory (NNNESP Lab.), Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Querusche Klippel Zanona
- Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry of Neuronal Excitability and Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory (NNNESP Lab.), Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Pastore Bernardi
- Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry of Neuronal Excitability and Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory (NNNESP Lab.), Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Joelma Alves
- Neurobiology of Stress Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Carla Dalmaz
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Neurobiology of Stress Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Maria Elisa Calcagnotto
- Neurophysiology and Neurochemistry of Neuronal Excitability and Synaptic Plasticity Laboratory (NNNESP Lab.), Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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10
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Kindt M, Elsey JWB. A paradigm shift in the treatment of emotional memory disorders: Lessons from basic science. Brain Res Bull 2023; 192:168-174. [PMID: 36442693 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Experiments demonstrating post-reactivation amnesia for learned fear in animals have generated a novel and influential hypothesis on the plasticity of memory, usually referred to as memory reconsolidation. The clinical potential of pharmacologically disrupting the process of memory reconsolidation has sparked a wave of interest into whether this phenomenon can also be demonstrated in humans, and ultimately harnessed for therapeutic purposes. In this essay we outline how the work of Karim Nader and colleagues has moved the field forward from a focus on extinction learning to the prospect of disrupting memory reconsolidation. We then review some promising findings on the necessary conditions, as well as potential boundary conditions, of pharmacologically disrupting the process of memory reconsolidation obtained in our laboratory. Even though laboratory experiments in animals and humans suggest that we may be at the brink of a breakthrough in fundamentally changing emotional memories, the necessary and sufficient conditions for targeting and disrupting memory reconsolidation in clinical practice are largely unknown. There is likely no universally effective reactivation procedure for triggering the reconsolidation of clinically significant emotional memories, and the impact of subtle boundary conditions observed in basic experiments compounds this issue. Notwithstanding these challenges, the discovery of changing emotional memory through disrupting the process of memory reconsolidation has unquestionably invigorated the field.
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Schacter DL. Memory Sins in Applied Settings: What Kind of Progress? JOURNAL OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN MEMORY AND COGNITION 2022; 11:445-460. [PMID: 37035272 PMCID: PMC10077946 DOI: 10.1037/mac0000078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Over two decades ago, I proposed that memory errors could be classified into seven basic categories or sins (Schacter, 1999, 2001), comprising three sins of omission (transience, absentmindedness, and blocking) and four sins of commission (misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence). In the past two decades, much has been learned about the nature and basis of the memory sins. Here, I assess the extent of progress that has been made during that time regarding applied implications of five of the sins: transience, absentmindedness, misattribution, suggestibility, and persistence. The manifestations of these sins have been examined in a variety of applied settings, including educational, clinical, legal, and technological domains. I argue that considerable progress has been made in characterizing the impact of memory sins in each domain, identify gaps in and limitations of our current knowledge, and briefly consider how these developments bear on broad questions regarding the reliability of human memory.
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Abstract
This commentary is part of a special issue honoring Karim Nader and his focal role in igniting the reconsolidation field. The commentary describes in broad strokes the evolution of the field, its branches, major challenges, and future endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Schiller
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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13
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Appraising reconsolidation theory and its empirical validation. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 30:450-463. [PMID: 36085236 PMCID: PMC7614440 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02173-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Re-exposure to elements of prior experiences can create opportunities for inducing amnesia for those events. The dominant theoretical framework posits that such re-exposure can result in memory destabilization, making the memory representation temporarily sensitive to disruption while it awaits reconsolidation. If true, such a mechanism that allows for memories to be permanently changed could have important implications for the treatment of several forms of psychopathology. However, there have been contradictory findings and elusive occurrences of replication failures within the "reconsolidation" field. Considering its potential relevance for clinical applications, the fact that this "hot" research area is being dominated by a single mechanistic theory, and the presence of unexplainable contradictory findings, we believe that it is both useful and timely to critically evaluate the reconsolidation framework. We discuss potential issues that may arise from how reconsolidation interference has typically been deducted from behavioral observations, and provide a principled assessment of reconsolidation theory that illustrates that the theory and its proposed boundary conditions are vaguely defined, which has made it close to impossible to refute reconsolidation theory. We advocate for caution, encouraging researchers not to blindly assume that a reconsolidation process must underlie their findings, and pointing out the risks of doing so. Finally, we suggest concrete theoretical and methodological advances that can promote a fruitful translation of reminder-dependent amnesia into clinical treatment.
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Szeleszczuk Ł, Frączkowski D. Propranolol versus Other Selected Drugs in the Treatment of Various Types of Anxiety or Stress, with Particular Reference to Stage Fright and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:10099. [PMID: 36077489 PMCID: PMC9456064 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231710099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Propranolol, a non-cardioselective β1,2 blocker, is most commonly recognised for its application in the therapy of various cardiovascular conditions, such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, and tachyarrhythmias. However, due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and affinity towards multiple macromolecules, not only adrenoreceptors, it has also found application in other fields. For example, it is one of the very few medications successfully applied in the treatment of stage fright. This review focuses on the application of propranolol in the treatment of various types of anxiety and stress, with particular reference to stage fright and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Both mechanisms of action as well as comparison with other therapies are presented. As those indications for propranolol are, in most countries, considered off-label, this review aims to gather information that can be useful while making a decision about the choice of propranolol as a drug in the treatment of those mental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Szeleszczuk
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Chair and Department of Physical Pharmacy and Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1 Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
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15
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Swift KM, Thomas CL, Balkin TJ, Lowery-Gionta EG, Matson LM. Acute sleep interventions as an avenue for treatment of trauma-associated disorders. J Clin Sleep Med 2022; 18:2291-2312. [PMID: 35678060 PMCID: PMC9435330 DOI: 10.5664/jcsm.10074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Scientific evidence that acute, posttrauma sleep disturbances (eg, nightmares and insomnia) can contribute significantly to the pathogenesis of trauma-induced disorders is compelling. Sleep disturbances precipitating from trauma are uniquely predictive of daytime posttrauma symptom occurrence and severity, as well as subsequent onset of mental health disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder. Conversely, adequate sleep during the acute posttrauma period is associated with reduced likelihood of adverse mental health outcomes. These findings, which are broadly consistent with what is known about the role of sleep in the regulation of emotion, suggest that the acute posttrauma period constitutes a "window of opportunity" during which treatment of sleep disturbances may be especially effective for preventing or mitigating progression of aberrant psychophysiological processes. At this point, the weight of the scientific evidence supporting this possibility warrants initiation of clinical trials to confirm the benefits of targeted prophylactic sleep enhancement, and to establish treatment guidelines as appropriate. CITATION Swift KM, Thomas CL, Balkin TJ, Lowery-Gionta EG, Matson LM. Acute sleep interventions as an avenue for treatment of trauma-associated disorders. J Clin Sleep Med. 2022;18(9):2291-2312.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M. Swift
- Medical Readiness Systems Biology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Connie L. Thomas
- Department of Sleep Medicine, Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland
- Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Thomas J. Balkin
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Emily G. Lowery-Gionta
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
| | - Liana M. Matson
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland
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16
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Zaizar ED, Papini S, O'Connor P, Telch MJ. Impact of cannabidiol-rich hemp extract oil on reconsolidation disruption of naturalistic interoceptive aversive memory in humans: Protocol for a randomized clinical trial. Contemp Clin Trials 2022; 119:106847. [PMID: 35811050 DOI: 10.1016/j.cct.2022.106847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Preclinical experiments with rodents demonstrate that cannabidiol (CBD), the non-psychotomimetic constituent of the Cannabis sativa plant, disrupts reconsolidation of aversive memories conditioned in the laboratory when administered within the memory reconsolidation window (< 6 h. post-retrieval) by indirectly activating cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptors in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC). Based on these findings, we aim to test whether administration of 300 mg CBD-rich hemp extract oil following fear reactivation of an aversive interoceptive threat memory can disrupt reconsolidation of naturalistic aversive memories in humans. More specifically, naturalistic interoceptive aversive memories, a form of transdiagnostic fear memory that contributes to the pathogenesis of fear-related disorders such as panic disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and illness anxiety disorder. METHODS For this proof-of-concept, placebo-controlled double-blind trial, volunteers (n = 99) reporting elevated fears of somatic sensations will be stratified on biological sex and randomized to one of three intervention arms: (a). CBD-rich oil administered within the reconsolidation window, (b) Placebo oil administered within the reconsolidation window; or (c) CBD-rich oil administered outside of the reconsolidation window. Change in emotional reactivity to a 35% CO2 challenge from baseline to two-week follow-up will serve as our primary outcome. CONCLUSION Study findings may contribute towards the development of a novel brief transdiagnostic intervention guided by reconsolidation theory for individuals prone to fear-related psychiatric disorders. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04726475.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric D Zaizar
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, USA; Institute for Mental Health Research, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
| | - Santiago Papini
- Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, USA
| | - Patrick O'Connor
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, USA; Institute for Neuroscience, The University of Texas at Austin, USA
| | - Michael J Telch
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, USA; Institute for Mental Health Research, The University of Texas at Austin, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas at Austin, USA.
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17
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Cox WR, Faliagkas L, Besseling A, van der Loo RJ, Spijker S, Kindt M, Rao-Ruiz P. Interfering With Contextual Fear Memories by Post-reactivation Administration of Propranolol in Mice: A Series of Null Findings. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:893572. [PMID: 35832291 PMCID: PMC9272000 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.893572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-reactivation amnesia of contextual fear memories by blockade of noradrenergic signaling has been shown to have limited replicability in rodents. This is usually attributed to several boundary conditions that gate the destabilization of memory during its retrieval. How these boundary conditions can be overcome, and what neural mechanisms underlie post-reactivation changes in contextual fear memories remain largely unknown. Here, we report a series of experiments in a contextual fear-conditioning paradigm in mice, that were aimed at solving these issues. We first attempted to obtain a training paradigm that would consistently result in contextual fear memory that could be destabilized upon reactivation, enabling post-retrieval amnesia by the administration of propranolol. Unexpectedly, our attempts were unsuccessful to this end. Specifically, over a series of experiments in which we varied different parameters of the fear acquisition procedure, at best small and inconsistent effects were observed. Additionally, we found that propranolol did not alter retrieval-induced neural activity, as measured by the number of c-Fos+ cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. To determine whether propranolol was perhaps ineffective in interfering with reactivated contextual fear memories, we also included anisomycin (i.e., a potent and well-known amnesic drug) in several experiments, and measures of synaptic glutamate receptor subunit GluA2 (i.e., a marker of memory destabilization). No post-retrieval amnesia by anisomycin and no altered GluA2 expression by reactivation was observed, suggesting that the memories did not undergo destabilization. The null findings are surprising, given that the training paradigms we implemented were previously shown to result in memories that could be modified upon reactivation. Together, our observations illustrate the elusive nature of reactivation-dependent changes in non-human fear memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wouter R. Cox
- Department of Psychology, Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Leonidas Faliagkas
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Amber Besseling
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Rolinka J. van der Loo
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sabine Spijker
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Merel Kindt
- Department of Psychology, Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Priyanka Rao-Ruiz
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Priyanka Rao-Ruiz
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18
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Filmer AI, Peters J, Bridge LA, Visser RM, Kindt M. Over the Edge: Extending the duration of a reconsolidation intervention for spider fear. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:261. [PMID: 35739088 PMCID: PMC9219370 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-02020-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmacologically disrupting fear memory reconsolidation dramatically reduces fear behaviour. For example, 2-3 min of tarantula exposure followed by 40 mg of propranolol HCl (i.e., a reconsolidation intervention) abruptly decreased spider avoidance, an effect that persisted one year later. However, the success of reconsolidation interventions is not guaranteed: Pavlovian fear-conditioning research shows that the window to target memory reconsolidation is small and easy to miss. If exposure is too long to trigger reconsolidation, but too short for extinction learning, an inactive transitional limbo state occurs, rendering the fear memory unchanged and insensitive to amnesic agents. In this pre-registered study, we aimed to find this behaviourally-controlled boundary condition. Spider-fearful participants underwent a ~3 min (n = 23) or ~14 min (n = 20) exposure to a tarantula, intended to trigger reconsolidation or the limbo state respectively, followed by 40 mg of propranolol. We expected greater spider fear reduction after 3 than 14 min of exposure. Unexpectedly, there were no group differences on any outcome measures. In both groups, Bayesian analysis revealed a marked reduction in fear behaviour towards a generalisation stimulus (a house spider) accompanied by lower self-reported distress, with a sharp decline in spider fear scores two days after treatment that persisted one year later. Possible explanations include that the boundary conditions of reconsolidation are wider in older and stronger memories than experimentally-induced fears, or that alternative processes caused the treatment effects. Although the mechanism is unclear, these results carry a tentative promising message for the potential of brief reconsolidation-targeting interventions to mitigate irrational fears.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna I. Filmer
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jacqueline Peters
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Lara A. Bridge
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Renée M. Visser
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Merel Kindt
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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19
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Angiotensin antagonist inhibits preferential negative memory encoding via decreasing hippocampus activation and its coupling with amygdala. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2022; 7:970-978. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2022.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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20
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Jardine KH, Huff AE, Wideman CE, McGraw SD, Winters BD. The evidence for and against reactivation-induced memory updating in humans and nonhuman animals. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 136:104598. [PMID: 35247380 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Systematic investigation of reactivation-induced memory updating began in the 1960s, and a wave of research in this area followed the seminal articulation of "reconsolidation" theory in the early 2000s. Myriad studies indicate that memory reactivation can cause previously consolidated memories to become labile and sensitive to weakening, strengthening, or other forms of modification. However, from its nascent period to the present, the field has been beset by inconsistencies in researchers' abilities to replicate seemingly established effects. Here we review these many studies, synthesizing the human and nonhuman animal literature, and suggest that these failures-to-replicate reflect a highly complex and delicately balanced memory modification system, the substrates of which must be finely tuned to enable adaptive memory updating while limiting maladaptive, inaccurate modifications. A systematic approach to the entire body of evidence, integrating positive and null findings, will yield a comprehensive understanding of the complex and dynamic nature of long-term memory storage and the potential for harnessing modification processes to treat mental disorders driven by pervasive maladaptive memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen H Jardine
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - A Ethan Huff
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Cassidy E Wideman
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Shelby D McGraw
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Boyer D Winters
- Department of Psychology and Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
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21
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Elsey JWB, Kindt M. Placebo and Non-specific Effects in Reconsolidation-Based Treatment for Arachnophobia. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:775770. [PMID: 34867558 PMCID: PMC8632940 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.775770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The idea that maladaptive memories may be rendered susceptible to interference after reactivation raises the possibility of reactivating and neutralizing clinically-relevant emotional memories. In this study, we sought to investigate the feasibility of such a "reconsolidation-based" intervention for arachnophobia, drawing upon previous research that successfully reduced fear of spiders in a subclinical sample. In Experiment 1, we piloted several reactivation procedures for conducting a reconsolidation-based treatment for arachnophobic individuals. All procedures involved some form of brief exposure to a fear-provoking spider, followed by the administration of 40 mg propranolol. In Experiment 2, we conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled assessment of one procedure tested in Experiment 1. In Experiment 1, we found that most reactivation procedures produced drops in self-reported fear of spiders from pre- to post-treatment, including fear declines that were apparent up to 6- and even 14-months later. However, in Experiment 2, we found no evidence that the participants receiving propranolol were better off than those who received placebo. While our findings are limited by the small sample sizes used, they nevertheless show a different pattern of responses than was observed in a previous reconsolidation-based intervention for subclinical spider fearful participants. Alterations to the protocol made to accommodate the clinical participants may have led to greater opportunities for non-specific effects (e.g., exposure, placebo effects) to drive change in the participants. Our findings highlight both the challenges of translating reconsolidation-based procedures into clinical interventions, as well as the importance of controls for non-specific effects in reconsolidation-based research.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W. B. Elsey
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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22
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Rotondo F, Biddle K, Chen J, Ferencik J, d'Esneval M, Milton AL. Lack of Effect of Propranolol on the Reconsolidation of Conditioned Fear Memory due to a Failure to Engage Memory Destabilisation. Neuroscience 2021; 480:9-18. [PMID: 34774713 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The prospect of exploiting memory reconsolidation to treat mental health disorders has received great research interest, particularly following demonstrations that the β-adrenergic receptor antagonist propranolol, which is safe for use in humans, can disrupt the reconsolidation of pavlovian conditioned fear memories. However, recent studies have failed to replicate the effects of propranolol on fear memory reconsolidation, and have questioned whether treatments based upon reconsolidation blockade would be robust enough for clinical translation. It remains possible, though, that studies reporting no effect of propranolol on memory reconsolidation could be due to a failure to engage the memory destabilisation process, which is necessary for the memory to become susceptible to disruption with amnestic agents. Demonstrating that memory destabilisation has not been engaged is challenging when only using behavioural measures, but there are molecular correlates of memory destabilisation that can be used to determine whether memory lability has been induced. Here, we attempted to replicate the classic finding that systemic administration of propranolol disrupts the reconsolidation of a pavlovian auditory fear memory. Following a failure to replicate, we manipulated the parameters of the memory reactivation session to enhance prediction error in an attempt to overcome the boundary conditions of reconsolidation. On finding no disruption of memory despite these manipulations, we examined the expression of the post-synaptic density protein Shank in the basolateral amygdala. Degradation of Shank has been shown to correlate with the induction of memory lability, but we found no effect on Shank expression, consistent with the lack of observed behavioural effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Rotondo
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Licio Giorgieri, 5, 34127 Trieste, TS, Italy
| | - Kathryn Biddle
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, UK
| | - John Chen
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, UK
| | - Josh Ferencik
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mathilde d'Esneval
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, UK; Department of Neurology, Geneva University Hospital, Rue Gabrielle-Perret-Gentil 4, 2105 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Amy L Milton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Downing Site, Cambridge, UK.
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23
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Astill Wright L, Horstmann L, Holmes EA, Bisson JI. Consolidation/reconsolidation therapies for the prevention and treatment of PTSD and re-experiencing: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:453. [PMID: 34480016 PMCID: PMC8417130 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01570-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Translational research highlights the potential of novel 'memory consolidation/reconsolidation therapies' to treat re-experiencing symptoms and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This systematic review and meta-analysis assessed the efficacy of so-called memory consolidation/reconsolidation therapies in randomised controlled trials (RCTs) for prevention and treatment of PTSD and symptoms of re-experiencing in children and adults (PROSPERO: CRD42020171167). RCTs were identified and rated for risk of bias. Available data was pooled to calculate risk ratios (RR) for PTSD prevalence and standardised mean differences (SMD) for PTSD/re-experiencing severity. Twenty-five RCTs met inclusion criteria (16 prevention and nine treatment trials). The methodology of most studies had a significant risk of bias. We found a large effect of reconsolidation interventions in the treatment of PTSD (11 studies, n = 372, SMD: -1.42 (-2.25 to -0.58), and a smaller positive effect of consolidation interventions in the prevention of PTSD (12 studies, n = 2821, RR: 0.67 (0.50 to 0.90). Only three protocols (hydrocortisone for PTSD prevention, Reconsolidation of Traumatic Memories (RTM) for treatment of PTSD symptoms and cognitive task memory interference procedure with memory reactivation (MR) for intrusive memories) were superior to control. There is some emerging evidence of consolidation and reconsolidation therapies in the prevention and treatment of PTSD and intrusive memories specifically. Translational research should strictly adhere to protocols/procedures describing precise reconsolidation conditions (e.g. MR) to both increase the likelihood of positive findings and more confidently interpret negative findings of putative reconsolidation agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Astill Wright
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK.
| | - Louise Horstmann
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Emily A Holmes
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jonathan I Bisson
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
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24
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Herz N, Bar-Haim Y, Tavor I, Tik N, Sharon H, Holmes EA, Censor N. Neuromodulation of Visual Cortex Reduces the Intensity of Intrusive Memories. Cereb Cortex 2021; 32:408-417. [PMID: 34265849 PMCID: PMC8754386 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Aversive events can be reexperienced as involuntary and spontaneous mental images of the event. Given that the vividness of retrieved mental images is coupled with elevated visual activation, we tested whether neuromodulation of the visual cortex would reduce the frequency and negative emotional intensity of intrusive memories. Intrusive memories of a viewed trauma film and their accompanied emotional intensity were recorded throughout 5 days. Functional connectivity, measured with resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging prior to film viewing, was used as predictive marker for intrusions-related negative emotional intensity. Results indicated that an interaction between the visual network and emotion processing areas predicted intrusions’ emotional intensity. To test the causal influence of early visual cortex activity on intrusions’ emotional intensity, participants’ memory of the film was reactivated by brief reminders 1 day following film viewing, followed by inhibitory 1 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over early visual cortex. Results showed that visual cortex inhibitory stimulation reduced the emotional intensity of later intrusions, while leaving intrusion frequency and explicit visual memory intact. Current findings suggest that early visual areas constitute a central node influencing the emotional intensity of intrusive memories for negative events. Potential neuroscience-driven intervention targets designed to downregulate the emotional intensity of intrusive memories are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noa Herz
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Yair Bar-Haim
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ido Tavor
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Niv Tik
- Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.,Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel
| | - Haggai Sharon
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel.,Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv 6423906, Israel
| | - Emily A Holmes
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 75142, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna 17177, Sweden
| | - Nitzan Censor
- School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
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25
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Becker ES, Vanderhasselt MA, Koster EHW, Vrijsen JN. “Memories Warm You Up from the Inside. But They also Tear You Apart”: Editorial for the Special Issue on Memory Training for Emotional Disorders. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10608-021-10249-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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26
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The advent of fear conditioning as an animal model of post-traumatic stress disorder: Learning from the past to shape the future of PTSD research. Neuron 2021; 109:2380-2397. [PMID: 34146470 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Translational research on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has produced limited improvements in clinical practice. Fear conditioning (FC) is one of the dominant animal models of PTSD. In fact, FC is used in many different ways to model PTSD. The variety of FC-based models is ill defined, creating confusion and conceptual vagueness, which in turn impedes translation into the clinic. This article takes a historical and conceptual approach to provide a comprehensive picture of current research and help reorient the research focus. This work historically reviews the variety of models that have emerged from the initial association of PTSD with FC, highlighting conceptual pitfalls that have limited the translation of animal research into clinical advances. We then provide some guidance on how future translational research could benefit from conceptual and technological improvements to translate basic findings in patients. This objective will require transdisciplinary approaches and should involve physicians, engineers, philosophers, and neuroscientists.
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27
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Kim G, Kwon M, Kang W, Lee SH. Is Reconsolidation a General Property of Memory? Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 15:643106. [PMID: 33732126 PMCID: PMC7959766 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.643106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory reconsolidation holds great hope for memory modification approaches and clinical treatments of mental disorders associated with maladaptive memories. However, it remains controversial as to whether reconsolidation is a general property of all types of memory. Especially, discrepancies have been reported in research focusing on whether declarative memory undergoes reconsolidation, and whether old memories can be reorganized after retrieval. Here, we discuss how these inconsistent results can be reconciled and what information we need to uncover for the general use of reconsolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayoung Kim
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Minjae Kwon
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Wonjun Kang
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Sue-Hyun Lee
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea.,Program of Brain and Cognitive Engineering, College of Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, South Korea
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28
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Luyten L, Schnell AE, Schroyens N, Beckers T. Lack of drug-induced post-retrieval amnesia for auditory fear memories in rats. BMC Biol 2021; 19:17. [PMID: 33499865 PMCID: PMC7836479 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-00957-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Long-term memory formation is generally assumed to involve the permanent storage of recently acquired memories, making them relatively insensitive to disruption, a process referred to as memory consolidation. However, when retrieved under specific circumstances, consolidated fear memories are thought to return to a labile state, thereby opening a window for modification (e.g., attenuation) of the memory. Several interventions during a critical time frame after this destabilization seem to be able to alter the retrieved memory, for example by pharmacologically interfering with the restabilization process, either by direct protein synthesis inhibition or indirectly, using drugs that can be safely administered in patients (e.g., propranolol). Here, we find that, contrary to expectations, systemic pharmacological manipulations in auditory fear-conditioned rats do not lead to drug-induced post-retrieval amnesia. RESULTS In a series of well-powered auditory fear conditioning experiments (four with propranolol, 10 mg/kg, two with rapamycin, 20-40 mg/kg, one with anisomycin, 150 mg/kg and cycloheximide, 1.5 mg/kg), we found no evidence for reduced cued fear memory expression during a drug-free test in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats that had previously received a systemic drug injection upon retrieval of the tone fear memory. All experiments used standard fear conditioning and reactivation procedures with freezing as the behavioral read-out (conceptual or exact replications of published reports) and common pharmacological agents. Additional tests confirmed that the applied drug doses and administration routes were effective in inducing their conventional effects on expression of fear (propranolol, acutely), body weight (rapamycin, anisomycin, cycloheximide), and consolidation of extinction memories (cycloheximide). CONCLUSIONS In contrast with previously published studies, we did not find evidence for drug-induced post-retrieval amnesia, underlining that this effect, as well as its clinical applicability, may be considerably more constrained and less readily reproduced than what the current literature would suggest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Luyten
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Tiensestraat 102 PB 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, Herestraat 49 PB 1021, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anna Elisabeth Schnell
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Tiensestraat 102 PB 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, Herestraat 49 PB 1021, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Natalie Schroyens
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Tiensestraat 102 PB 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, Herestraat 49 PB 1021, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tom Beckers
- KU Leuven, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Tiensestraat 102 PB 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, Herestraat 49 PB 1021, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Reactivation-Dependent Amnesia for Contextual Fear Memories: Evidence for Publication Bias. eNeuro 2021; 8:ENEURO.0108-20.2020. [PMID: 33355289 PMCID: PMC7877470 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0108-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on memory reconsolidation has been booming in the last two decades, with numerous high-impact publications reporting promising amnestic interventions in rodents and humans. However, our own recently-published failed replication attempts of reactivation-dependent amnesia for fear memories in rats suggest that such amnestic effects are not always readily found and that they depend on subtle and possibly uncontrollable parameters. The discrepancy between our observations and published studies in rodents suggests that the literature in this field might be biased. The aim of the current study was to gauge the presence of publication bias in a well-delineated part of the reconsolidation literature. To this end, we performed a systematic review of the literature on reactivation-dependent amnesia for contextual fear memories in rodents, followed by a statistical assessment of publication bias in this sample. In addition, relevant researchers were contacted for unpublished results, which were included in the current analyses. The obtained results support the presence of publication bias, suggesting that the literature provides an overly optimistic overall estimate of the size and reproducibility of amnestic effects. Reactivation-dependent amnesia for contextual fear memories in rodents is thus less robust than what is projected by the literature. The moderate success of clinical studies may be in line with this conclusion, rather than reflecting translational issues. For the field to evolve, replication and non-biased publication of obtained results are essential. A set of tools that can create opportunities to increase transparency, reproducibility and credibility of research findings is provided.
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Astill Wright L, Barawi K, Simon N, Lewis C, Muss D, Roberts NP, Kitchiner NJ, Bisson JI. The reconsolidation using rewind study (RETURN): trial protocol. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2021; 12:1844439. [PMID: 34377356 PMCID: PMC8330760 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2020.1844439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: An increasing body of research highlights reconsolidation-based therapies as emerging treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The Rewind Technique is a non-pharmacological reconsolidation-based therapy with promising early results, which now requires evaluation through an RCT. Objectives: This is a preliminary efficacy RCT to determine if the Rewind Technique is likely to be a good candidate to test against usual care in a future pragmatic efficacy RCT. Methods: 40 participants will be randomised to receive either the Rewind Technique immediately, or after an 8 week wait. The primary outcome will be PTSD symptom severity as measured by the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM5 (CAPS-5) at 8 and 16 weeks post-randomisation. Secondary outcome measures include the PTSD Checklist (PCL-5), International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ), Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the General Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), Insomnia Severity Index, the Euro-Qol-5D (EQ5D-5 L), the prominence of re-experiencing specific symptoms (CAPS-5) and an intervention acceptability questionnaire to measure tolerability of the intervention. Conclusions: This study will be the first RCT to assess the Rewind Technique. Using a cross-over methodology we hope to rigorously assess the efficacy and tolerability of Rewind using pragmatic inclusion criteria. Potential challenges include participant recruitment and retention. Trial registration: ISRCTN91345822.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Astill Wright
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Kali Barawi
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Natalie Simon
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - Catrin Lewis
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
| | - David Muss
- International Association for Rewind Trauma Therapy, UK
| | - Neil P Roberts
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK.,Directorate of Psychology and Psychological Therapies, Cardiff & Vale University Health Board, Cardiff, UK
| | - Neil J Kitchiner
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK.,Directorate of Psychology and Psychological Therapies, Cardiff & Vale University Health Board, Cardiff, UK
| | - Jonathan I Bisson
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
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Troyner F, Bertoglio LJ. Nucleus reuniens of the thalamus controls fear memory reconsolidation. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2020; 177:107343. [PMID: 33242589 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The nucleus reuniens has been shown to support the acquisition, consolidation, maintenance, destabilization upon retrieval, and extinction of aversive memories. However, the direct participation of this thalamic subregion in memory reconsolidation is yet to be examined. The present study addressed this question in contextually fear-conditioned rats. Post-reactivation infusion of the GABAA receptor agonist muscimol, the glutamate N2A-containing NMDA receptor antagonist TCN-201, or the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin into the NR induced significant impairments in memory reconsolidation. Administering muscimol or TCN-201 and anisomycin locally, or associating locally infused muscimol or TCN-201 with systemically administered clonidine, an α2-receptor adrenergic agonist that attenuates the noradrenergic tonus associated with memory reconsolidation, produced no further reduction in freezing times when compared with the muscimol-vehicle, TCN-201-vehicle, vehicle-anisomycin, and vehicle-clonidine groups. This pattern of results indicates that such treatment combinations produced no additive/synergistic effects on reconsolidation. It is plausible that NR inactivation and antagonism of glutamate N2A-containing NMDA receptors weakened/prevented the subsequent action of anisomycin and clonidine because they disrupted the early stages of signal transduction pathways involved in memory reconsolidation. It is noteworthy that these pharmacological interventions, either alone or combined, induced no contextual memory specificity changes, as assessed in a later test in a novel and unpaired context. Besides, omitting memory reactivation precluded the impairing effects of muscimol, TCN-201, anisomycin, and clonidine on reconsolidation. Together, the present findings demonstrate interacting mechanisms through which the NR can regulate contextual fear memory restabilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Troyner
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Leandro Jose Bertoglio
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, SC, Brazil.
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Thalamic nucleus reuniens regulates fear memory destabilization upon retrieval. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2020; 175:107313. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Vermes JS, Ayres R, Goés AS, Real ND, Araújo ÁC, Schiller D, Neto FL, Corchs F. Targeting the reconsolidation of traumatic memories with a brief 2-session imaginal exposure intervention in post-traumatic stress disorder. J Affect Disord 2020; 276:487-494. [PMID: 32794448 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evidence suggests that extinction during memory reconsolidation diminishes the return of defensive responses. In order to translate these effects to the clinical setting, we tested whether retrieving a traumatic memory and delivering a brief two-sessions imaginal exposure intervention during its reconsolidation would produce stronger decreases in reactivity to these memories than standard imaginal exposure method. METHODS Participants with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) had either their traumatic (n = 21) or a neutral (n = 21) memory retrieved 1 h before an imaginal exposure session for two consecutive days. One day before and one day after, participants were exposed to script-driven imagery of their traumatic event, during which skin conductance responses were measured and, immediately after, subjective responses were assessed by means of Visual Analogue Scales. RESULTS Traumatic retrieval improved the physiological, but not the subjective effects of imaginal exposure intervention on over-reactivity to traumatic memories. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that delivering extinction-based treatments over the reconsolidation of traumatic memories may enhance its effects. These results suggest that this is a promising path toward the development of new therapeutic techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Singer Vermes
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, R. Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785 - IPq-HC-FMUSP, 05403-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Paradigma Center for Behavior Analysis, Rua Vanderlei, 611 - 04590-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Ayres
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, R. Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785 - IPq-HC-FMUSP, 05403-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Adara Saito Goés
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, R. Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785 - IPq-HC-FMUSP, 05403-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Natalia Del Real
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, R. Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785 - IPq-HC-FMUSP, 05403-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Álvaro Cabral Araújo
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, R. Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785 - IPq-HC-FMUSP, 05403-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Daniela Schiller
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, Gustave L. Levy Place, 10029-5674 New York, NY, USA
| | - Francisco Lotufo Neto
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, R. Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785 - IPq-HC-FMUSP, 05403-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Felipe Corchs
- Institute and Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, R. Dr. Ovidio Pires de Campos, 785 - IPq-HC-FMUSP, 05403-010 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Paradigma Center for Behavior Analysis, Rua Vanderlei, 611 - 04590-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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Samide R, Ritchey M. Reframing the Past: Role of Memory Processes in Emotion Regulation. COGNITIVE THERAPY AND RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10608-020-10166-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Vaverková Z, Milton AL, Merlo E. Retrieval-Dependent Mechanisms Affecting Emotional Memory Persistence: Reconsolidation, Extinction, and the Space in Between. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:574358. [PMID: 33132861 PMCID: PMC7550798 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.574358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Maladaptive emotional memories contribute to the persistence of many mental health disorders, and therefore the prospect of disrupting these memories to produce long-term reductions in relapse is of great clinical appeal. Reducing the impact of maladaptive emotional memories on behaviour could be achieved by two retrieval-dependent manipulations that engage separate mnemonic processes: "reconsolidation disruption" and "extinction enhancement." Extinction occurs during a prolonged re-exposure session in the absence of the expected emotional outcome and is widely accepted as reflecting the formation of a new, inhibitory memory that prevents behavioural expression of the original trace. Reconsolidation, by contrast, involves the destabilisation of the original memory, allowing for subsequent updating and restabilisation in specific brain regions, unless the re-stabilization process is prevented through specific pharmacological or behavioural interventions. Both destabilisation of the original memory and memory extinction require that re-exposure induces prediction error-a mismatch between what is expected and what actually occurs-but the parameters that allow reconsolidation and extinction to occur, and control the transition between them, have not been well-characterised. Here, we review what is known about the induction of memory destabilisation and extinction, and the transition period that separates these mnemonic processes, drawing on preclinical and clinical examples. A deeper understanding of the processes that determine the alternative routes to memory persistence or inhibition is critical for designing new and more reliable clinical treatments targeting maladaptive emotional memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzana Vaverková
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Amy L Milton
- Department of Psychology, Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Emiliano Merlo
- School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
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Marin FN, Franzen JM, Troyner F, Molina VA, Giachero M, Bertoglio LJ. Taking advantage of fear generalization-associated destabilization to attenuate the underlying memory via reconsolidation intervention. Neuropharmacology 2020; 181:108338. [PMID: 33002500 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Upon retrieval, an aversive memory can undergo destabilization and reconsolidation. A traumatic-like memory, however, may be resistant to this process. The present study sought to contribute with a strategy to overcome this potential issue by investigating whether generalized fear retrieval is susceptible to destabilization-reconsolidation that can be pharmacologically modified. We hypothesized that exposure to a context that elicits moderate generalization levels would allow a malleable memory state. We developed a fear conditioning protocol in context A (cxt-A) paired with yohimbine administration to promote significant fear to a non-conditioned context B (cxt-B) in rats, mimicking the enhanced noradrenergic activity reported after traumatic events in humans. Next, we attempted to impair the reconsolidation phase by administering clonidine (CLO) immediately after exposure to cxt-A, cxt-B, or a third context C (cxt-C) neither conditioned nor generalized. CLO administered post-cxt-B exposure for two consecutive days subsequently resulted in decreased freezing levels in cxt-A. CLO after cxt-B only once, after cxt-A or cxt-C in two consecutive days, or independently of cxt-B exposures did not affect fear in a later test. A 6-h-delay in CLO treatment post-cxt-B exposures produced no effects, and nimodipine administered pre-cxt-B exposures precluded the CLO action. We then quantified the Egr1/Zif268 protein expression following cxt-B exposures and CLO treatments. We found that these factors interact to modulate this memory destabilization-reconsolidation mechanism in the basolateral amygdala but not the dorsal CA1 hippocampus. Altogether, memory destabilization can accompany generalized fear expression; thus, we may exploit it to potentiate reconsolidation blockers' action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Navarro Marin
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline Maisa Franzen
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Troyner
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Victor Alejandro Molina
- Departamento de Farmacología, IFEC-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Marcelo Giachero
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil; Instituto de Neurociencia Cognitiva y Traslacional (INCYT), CONICET, Fundación INECO, Universidad Favaloro, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Leandro Jose Bertoglio
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
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Pavlova M, Orr SL, Noel M. Parent-Child Reminiscing about Past Pain as a Preparatory Technique in the Context of Children's Pain: A Narrative Review and Call for Future Research. CHILDREN-BASEL 2020; 7:children7090130. [PMID: 32906595 PMCID: PMC7552681 DOI: 10.3390/children7090130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Pain permeates childhood and remains inadequately and/or inconsistently managed. Existing research and clinical practice guidelines have largely focused on factors influencing the immediate experience of pain. The need for and benefits of preparing children for future pain (e.g., painful procedures) has been well established. Despite being a robust predictor of future pain and distress, memories of past painful experiences remain overlooked in pediatric pain management. Just as autobiographical memories prepare us for the future, children’s memories for past pain can be harnessed to prepare children for future painful experiences. Children’s pain memories are malleable and can be reframed to be less distressing, thus reducing anticipatory distress and promoting self-efficacy. Parents are powerful agents of change in the context of pediatric pain and valuable historians of children’s past painful experiences. They can alter children’s pain memories to be less distressing simply by talking, or reminiscing, about past pain. This narrative review summarizes existing research on parent–child reminiscing in the context of acute and chronic pediatric pain and argues for incorporation of parent–child reminiscing elements into preparatory interventions for painful procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pavlova
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada;
| | - Serena L. Orr
- Department of Pediatrics, Alberta Children’s Hospital, Calgary, AB T3B 6A8, Canada;
- Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Melanie Noel
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada;
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Owerko Centre, Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Calgary, AB T3B 6A8, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-403-220-4969
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Elsey JWB, Filmer AI, Galvin HR, Kurath JD, Vossoughi L, Thomander LS, Zavodnik M, Kindt M. Reconsolidation-based treatment for fear of public speaking: a systematic pilot study using propranolol. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:179. [PMID: 32499503 PMCID: PMC7272450 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-0857-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pharmacological manipulation of memory reconsolidation opens up promising new avenues for anxiety disorder treatment. However, few studies have directly investigated reconsolidation-based approaches in subclinical or clinical populations, leaving optimal means of fear memory reactivation unknown. We conducted a systematic pilot study to assess whether a reconsolidation-based treatment could tackle public speaking anxiety in a subclinical sample (N = 60). As lab studies indicate that the duration of reactivation may be important for inducing reconsolidation, we investigated several speech lengths to help inform further translational efforts. Participants underwent a stress-inducing speech task composed of 3-min preparation, and from 0 to 9 min of public speaking, in 1-min increments. They then received either 40 mg of propranolol (n = 40) or placebo (n = 20), double-blind, allocated 4:2 for each speech duration. Participants performed a second speech 1 week post treatment, and were followed up with questionnaires 1- and 3 months later. Both self-reported speech distress and questionnaire measures of public speaking anxiety showed clear reductions following treatment. However, propranolol did not reliably outperform placebo, regardless of speech duration at treatment. Physiological responses (heart rate and salivary cortisol) to the public speaking task remained stable from treatment to test. These findings highlight the challenges facing the translation of laboratory research on memory reconsolidation into clinical interventions. Lack of explicit controls for factors beyond duration, such as 'prediction error', could explain these null findings, but positive results in clinical interventions are needed to demonstrate that taking such factors into account can deliver the promises of reconsolidation-based therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W. B. Elsey
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Anna I. Filmer
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Harriet R. Galvin
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jennifer D. Kurath
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands ,grid.412004.30000 0004 0478 9977University Hospital Zurich, Department of Psychiatry, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Linos Vossoughi
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Linnea S. Thomander
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Melissa Zavodnik
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Merel Kindt
- grid.7177.60000000084992262Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands ,Kindt Clinics, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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A plea for more attention to mental representations. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2020; 67:101510. [PMID: 31640848 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.101510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In this invited essay I plead for a renewed attention to mental representations in research into psychopathology and its treatment. With the cognitive revolution in the second half of the previous century most psychological models of psychopathology were based on people's capacity to form mental representations of the world. However, much research effort was put into investigating cognitive biases instead of investigating mental representations, and attention shifted towards such biases, including claims that they are causal in psychopathology. Similar claims were made about emotion regulation difficulties. Moreover, in many treatment models that were developed the focus was more on cognitive biases and emotion regulation, than on underlying representations. In this essay I argue that the causal status of cognitive biases, emotion regulation, and similar phenomena is overestimated, and that in clinical reality such phenomena can be best conceptualized as output of activated mental representations. Moreover, I argue that the disappointing effectiveness and protection to relapse of many current psychological treatments are related to not addressing the underlying mental representation. Next I discuss aspects of mental representations that are important for understanding and treating psychopathology, after which I discuss the clinical implications. I sketch how better understanding the specificities of mental representations can help us to improve psychological treatments, and I make some suggestions for future research.
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Kessler H, Schmidt AC, James EL, Blackwell SE, von Rauchhaupt M, Harren K, Kehyayan A, Clark IA, Sauvage M, Herpertz S, Axmacher N, Holmes EA. Visuospatial computer game play after memory reminder delivered three days after a traumatic film reduces the number of intrusive memories of the experimental trauma. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2020; 67:101454. [PMID: 31036259 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2019.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The experience of intrusive memories is a core clinical symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and can be distressing in its own right. Notions of dual task interference and reconsolidation-update mechanisms suggest novel approaches to target intrusive memories. This study tested the hypothesis that a single-session cognitive intervention (memory reminder task plus Tetris gameplay) would reduce the occurrence of experimental trauma memories even when delivered 3 days post-trauma. Critically, this study tested effects against two control groups: Reminder-only, and reminder plus another computer game (a form of Quiz). METHODS 86 healthy volunteers (59% female, age M = 24.35, SD = 4.59 years) watched a trauma film and then recorded their intrusive memories in a diary for 3 days (pre-intervention). They then returned to the lab. After presentation of visual reminder cues for the film plus a 10 min wait period (memory reminder task), participants were randomized into one of three task conditions (Tetris game play, Quiz game play, vs. reminder-only). They then kept the diary for a further 3 days (post-intervention). RESULTS As predicted, after the experimental manipulation, the reminder + Tetris group experienced significantly fewer intrusions than the reminder-only group (d = 1.37). Further, the reminder + Tetris group also experienced significantly fewer intrusions than the reminder + Quiz (d = 0.65) group. Contrary to predictions, the reminder + Quiz group experienced significantly fewer intrusions than the reminder-only group (d = 0.69). Prior to the experimental manipulation, there was no significant difference between groups in number of intrusions. Recognition memory test scores for facts of the trauma film after 6 days were comparable between groups. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrated that 3 days after experimental trauma (i.e. after memory consolidation) an intervention comprising a reminder task prior to a 15 min cognitive interference task (one of two computer games) led to a reduction in intrusion occurrence compared to reminder only. We interpret and discuss our findings within the framework of supposed reconsolidation-update mechanisms and competition for limited (visuospatial) working memory resources. Should these effects hold true in clinical populations, this type of simple intervention approach could help contribute to reducing intrusive memories of trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Kessler
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
| | - Anna-Christine Schmidt
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Ella L James
- Medical Research Council Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Simon E Blackwell
- Mental Health Research and Treatment Center, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Marcel von Rauchhaupt
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Katharina Harren
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Aram Kehyayan
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Ian A Clark
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Magdalena Sauvage
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Functional Architecture of Memory Department, Magdeburg, Germany; Otto-von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Medical Faculty, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Stephan Herpertz
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Nikolai Axmacher
- Department of Neuropsychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Emily A Holmes
- Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Sweden; Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden
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Siegel JP. Digging Deeper: An Object Relations Couple Therapy Update. FAMILY PROCESS 2020; 59:10-20. [PMID: 31778213 DOI: 10.1111/famp.12509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, neurobiology research has added clarity to the process of emotional and behavioral change. In turn, this has led to endorsement of interventions that appear to be most helpful in individual and couple therapy. In addition to research on emotional dysregulation, contemporary studies have focused on the construction of meaning and its relevance to interpersonal relationships. According to Lisa Barrett, Richard Lane, and others, the brain references concepts to rapidly arrive at the most probable conclusions. Encoded experience and memory fragments guide this process and are vital in understanding partners' emotional responses. These findings support an object relations perspective that emphasizes the importance of past relational experiences that inform the present. This is particularly relevant in work with couples, as each individual's beliefs, expectations, and capacity for intimacy are invariably tied to earlier relationships. Research findings on memory reconstruction provide a basis for interventions that can add to the existing treatment approach, as it is suggested that working in a specific way with emotionally based memories has the potential to modify and reduce their predictive power and ability to unleash beliefs and behaviors that work against intimacy. The therapist who is informed by emerging neuroscience research can better uncover and actively work with memories that may be compromising a couple's relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith P Siegel
- Silver School of Social Work, New York University, New York, NY
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42
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Liu W, Chen XJ, Wen YT, Winkler MH, Paul P, He YL, Wang L, Chen HX, Li YH. Memory Retrieval-Extinction Combined With Virtual Reality Reducing Drug Craving for Methamphetamine: Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:322. [PMID: 32411025 PMCID: PMC7202246 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Relapse, often precipitated by drug-associated cues that evoke craving, is a key problem in the treatment of methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). Drug-associated memories play a major role in the maintenance of relapse. Extinction training is a common method for decreasing drug craving by suppressing drug-associated memories. However, the effects are often not permanent, which is evident in form of spontaneous recovery or renewal of cue-elicited responses. Based on memory reconsolidation theory, the retrieval-extinction (R-E) paradigm may be more effective in decreasing spontaneous recovery or renewal responses than extinction. After the original memory reactivated to a labile state, extinction will be introduced within the reconsolidation window, thereby updating drug-associated memories. However, there are still some controversial results, which suggest that the reactivation of drug-associated memories and the 10 min-6 h of limited time window are two main elements in the R-E protocol. Virtual reality (VR) is supposed to promote memory reactivation by providing vivid drug-related stimuli when compared with movies. OBJECTIVE The aim of this study is to examine the effectiveness of R-E training combined with VR on reducing spontaneous recovery or renewal of cue-elicited responses, in comparison to extinction, R-E training provided outside the time window of 6 h and R-E training retrieved using videos, in methamphetamine abusers. METHODS The study is a parallel matched controlled study including 95 participants with MUD. Participants will be randomly assigned to either a R-10 min-E group (methamphetamine-related cues retrieval in VR followed by extinction after 10 min) or a NR-10 min-E group (neutral cues retrieval in VR followed by extinction after 10 min) or a R-6 h-E group (methamphetamine-related cues retrieval in VR followed by extinction after 6 h) or a RV-10 min-E group (methamphetamine-related cues retrieval in videos followed by extinction after 10 min). Cue-evoked craving and reactivity will be assessed at pre-test and at 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, and 6-month post-tests. DISCUSSION To our knowledge, this study will probably be the first study to examine the efficacy of R-E training combined with VR to reduce cue-evoked responses in people with MUD. This innovative non-pharmacological intervention targeting drug-associated memories may provide significant clinical implications for reducing relapse, providing the study confirms its efficacy. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION The trial is registered with Chinese Clinical Trial Registry at 17 October 2018, number: ChiCTR1800018899, URL: http://www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.aspx?proj=30854.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xi-Jing Chen
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ya-Tong Wen
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Markus H Winkler
- Department of Psychology I, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of Wurzburg, Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Pauli Paul
- Department of Psychology I, Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, University of Wurzburg, Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Yi-Ling He
- Center for Mental Health, Women's Drug Rehabilitation Center of Guangdong Province, Foshan, China
| | - Liang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hong-Xian Chen
- Mental Health Institute, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South Universit y, Changsha, China
| | - Yong-Hui Li
- Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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43
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Milton AL. Fear not: recent advances in understanding the neural basis of fear memories and implications for treatment development. F1000Res 2019; 8:F1000 Faculty Rev-1948. [PMID: 31824654 PMCID: PMC6880271 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.20053.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Fear is a highly adaptive emotion that has evolved to promote survival and reproductive fitness. However, maladaptive expression of fear can lead to debilitating stressor-related and anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Although the neural basis of fear has been extensively researched for several decades, recent technological advances in pharmacogenetics and optogenetics have allowed greater resolution in understanding the neural circuits that underlie fear. Alongside conceptual advances in the understanding of fear memory, this increased knowledge has clarified mechanisms for some currently available therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder and has identified new potential treatment targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy L. Milton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
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44
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Meir Drexler S, Merz CJ, Lissek S, Tegenthoff M, Wolf OT. Reactivation of the Unconditioned Stimulus Inhibits the Return of Fear Independent of Cortisol. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:254. [PMID: 31780910 PMCID: PMC6861211 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Reconsolidation is the post-retrieval stabilization of memories, a time-limited process during which reactivated (i.e., retrieved) memories can be updated with new information, become stronger or weaker, depending on the specific treatment. We have previously shown that the stress hormone cortisol has an enhancing effect on the reconsolidation of fear memories in men. This effect was specific, i.e., limited to the conditioned stimulus (CS) that was reactivated, and did not generalize to other previously reinforced, but not reactivated CS. Based on these results, we suggested that cortisol plays a critical role in the continuous strengthening of reactivated emotional memories, contributing to their persistence and robustness. In the current study, we aimed to achieve a more generalized reconsolidation enhancement using an alternative reactivation method, i.e., by a low-intensity unconditioned stimulus (UCS) presentation instead of the more common unreinforced CS presentation. In previous studies, UCS reactivation was shown to lead to a more generalized reconsolidation effect. Therefore, we hypothesized that the combination of cortisol treatment and UCS reactivation would lead to an enhanced fear memory reconsolidation, which would generalize from previously reinforced CS to stimuli that resemble it. We tested 75 men in a 3-day fear conditioning paradigm: fear acquisition training on day 1; UCS reactivation/no reactivation and pharmacological treatment (20 mg hydrocortisone/placebo) on day 2; extinction training, reinstatement and test (of original and modified stimuli) on day 3. In contrast to our hypothesis, UCS reactivation prevented the return of fear [observed in skin conductance responses (SCR)] regardless of the pharmacological manipulation: while reinstatement to the original CS was found in the no-reactivation group, both reactivation groups (cortisol and placebo) showed no reinstatement. As the only methodological difference between our previous study and the current one was the reactivation method, we focus on UCS reactivation as the main explanation for these unexpected findings. We suggest that the robust prediction error generated by the UCS reactivation method (as opposed to CS reactivation), combined with the lower UCS intensity, has by itself weakened the emotional value of the UCS, thus preventing the return of fear to the CS that was associated with it. We call for future research to support these findings and to examine the potential of this reactivation method, or variations thereof, as a tool for therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Meir Drexler
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Christian J. Merz
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Silke Lissek
- Department of Neurology, BG University Hospital Bergmannsheil, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Martin Tegenthoff
- Department of Neurology, BG University Hospital Bergmannsheil, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Oliver T. Wolf
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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45
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Abstract
Memories are able to update and adapt with new information about the world after they are reactivated. However, it is unknown whether the labile period following reactivation makes episodic memories more amenable to emotion regulation, an application that holds great clinical promise. Here, we investigated the efficacy of cognitive reappraisal to down regulate negative affect in response to reactivated memories. Healthy young adults (N = 119) rated the emotionality of negative pictures. After a partial reactivation of each picture 2 days later, participants voluntarily engaged in a spatial distancing regulation tactic by imagining the reactivated object extremely far away from them. Compared with no-regulation and no-reactivation controls, self-reported arousal for regulated pictures dropped significantly 2 days after the manipulation, despite no significant difference in memory accuracy or valence. These results open up a new line of work that capitalizes on reactivation-based lability to selectively alter enduring arousal responses to emotional memories.
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46
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Antypa D, Rodrigues Cabrita D, Vuilleumier P, Rimmele U. Cortisol suppression after memory reactivation impairs later memory performance. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 106:226-232. [PMID: 31003139 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.03.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Experiencing stressful or traumatic events can result in disabling clinical symptoms of maladaptive emotional memory retrieval, which are only partly addressed by the currently proposed treatments. Cortisol modulation has been shown to affect emotional memory retrieval and potentially reconsolidation, offering an opportunity for developing more efficient treatments for disorders with an emotional memory component. Here, we investigated if cortisol suppression after reactivation of emotional memories weakens later memory thereof. Forty healthy young men were tested in a randomized, placebo controlled, double-blind, and between-subject design, assigned either to a cortisol suppression (metyrapone) group or a placebo group. Participants of both groups, were presented with two emotional stories at an encoding session (Day 1). One of the two stories was later reactivated and followed by metyrapone vs. placebo administration (Day 3). Memory for both stories was tested at a recognition memory session (Day 7). In the group undergoing cortisol suppression after memory reactivation memory performance was weaker compared to the placebo group, tested four days after reactivation. This study shows that cortisol suppression can weaken memory for past events, possibly by altering reconsolidation processes and thus exerting long-lasting weakening effects on the original memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Despina Antypa
- Laboratory for Behavioral Neurology and Imaging of Condition, Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - David Rodrigues Cabrita
- Laboratory for Behavioral Neurology and Imaging of Condition, Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Medicine, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Patrik Vuilleumier
- Laboratory for Behavioral Neurology and Imaging of Condition, Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Neurology, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
| | - Ulrike Rimmele
- Laboratory for Behavioral Neurology and Imaging of Condition, Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Gerontology and Vulnerability (CIGEV), University of Geneva, Switzerland; Swiss National Center of Competences in Research LIVES - Overcoming vulnerabilities: life course perspective, Lausanne and Geneva, Switzerland.
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47
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Couto-Pereira NDS, Lampert C, Vieira ADS, Lazzaretti C, Kincheski GC, Espejo PJ, Molina VA, Quillfeldt JA, Dalmaz C. Resilience and Vulnerability to Trauma: Early Life Interventions Modulate Aversive Memory Reconsolidation in the Dorsal Hippocampus. Front Mol Neurosci 2019; 12:134. [PMID: 31191245 PMCID: PMC6546926 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2019.00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Early life experiences program lifelong responses to stress. In agreement, resilience and vulnerability to psychopathologies, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), have been suggested to depend on the early background. New therapies have targeted memory reconsolidation as a strategy to modify the emotional valence of traumatic memories. Here, we used animal models to study the molecular mechanism through which early experiences may later affect aversive memory reconsolidation. Handling (H)—separation of pups from dams for 10 min—or maternal separation (MS) — 3-h separation—were performed from PDN1–10, using non-handled (NH) litters as controls. Adult males were trained in a contextual fear conditioning (CFC) task; 24 h later, a short reactivation session was conducted in the conditioned or in a novel context, followed by administration of midazolam 3 mg/kg i.p. (mdz), known to disturb reconsolidation, or vehicle; a test session was performed 24 h after. The immunocontent of relevant proteins was studied 15 and 60 min after memory reactivation in the dorsal hippocampus (dHc) and basolateral amygdala complex (BLA). Mdz-treated controls (NH) showed decreased freezing to the conditioned context, consistent with reconsolidation impairment, but H and MS were resistant to labilization. Additionally, MS males showed increased freezing to the novel context, suggesting fear generalization; H rats showed lower freezing than the other groups, in accordance with previous suggestions of reduced emotionality facing adversities. Increased levels of Zif268, GluN2B, β-actin and polyubiquitination found in the BLA of all groups suggest that memory reconsolidation was triggered. In the dHc, only NH showed increased Zif268 levels after memory retrieval; also, a delay in ERK1/2 activation was found in H and MS animals. We showed here that reconsolidation of a contextual fear memory is insensitive to interference by a GABAergic drug in adult male rats exposed to different neonatal experiences; surprisingly, we found no differences in the reconsolidation process in the BLA, but the dHc appears to suffer temporal desynchronization in the engagement of reconsolidation. Our results support a hippocampal-dependent mechanism for reconsolidation resistance in models of early experiences, which aligns with current hypotheses for the etiology of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natividade de Sá Couto-Pereira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Carine Lampert
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Aline Dos Santos Vieira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Camilla Lazzaretti
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Grasielle Clotildes Kincheski
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Pablo Javier Espejo
- Instituto de Farmacología Experimental de Córdoba, Universidad Nacional de Cordoba (UNC), Cordoba, Argentina
| | - Victor Alejandro Molina
- Instituto de Farmacología Experimental de Córdoba, Universidad Nacional de Cordoba (UNC), Cordoba, Argentina
| | - Jorge Alberto Quillfeldt
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Departamento de Biofísica, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Carla Dalmaz
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil.,Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde (ICBS), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
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48
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Veen C, Jacobs G, Philippens I, Vermetten E. Subanesthetic Dose Ketamine in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Role for Reconsolidation During Trauma-Focused Psychotherapy? Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2019; 38:137-162. [PMID: 29637527 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2017_34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Despite efforts to develop more effective therapies, PTSD remains a difficult disorder to treat. Insight into the dynamic nature of memory formation and its required molecular machinery can provide an opportunity to target pathological memories for emotionally arousing events. As memories become labile upon retrieval, novel information can update the strength and course of these consolidated memories. Targeting the process of reconsolidation may offer a relevant approach to attenuate fearful and traumatic memories. Specific molecular mechanisms that are required for reconsolidation of arousing information include an intact functioning of the glutamatergic signaling pathways and, more specifically, the integrity of NMDA receptors. Ketamine, a noncompetitive NMDA-receptor antagonist, is receiving increasing interest for a variety of psychiatric indications. This compound can also be an interesting candidate for targeting emotional memories. We explore whether single intravenous infusion of a subanesthetic dose of ketamine can be considered as a viable augmentation strategy for trauma-focused psychotherapy in patients with PTSD. As a consequence, a systematic approach is needed to assess the pharmacodynamic effects of ketamine in relation to both psychotherapy and its pharmacokinetics prior to its application in patient populations. By using a "question-based drug development plan," we can explore such aspects for novel drugs, and we formulated five additional topics that need to be addressed concerning the psychotherapeutic approach and phase orientation of pharmacological assisted psychotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cato Veen
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Gabriel Jacobs
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Eric Vermetten
- Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Arq Psychotrauma Research Group, Diemen, The Netherlands
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49
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Paulus DJ, Kamboj SK, Das RK, Saladin ME. Prospects for reconsolidation-focused treatments of substance use and anxiety-related disorders. Curr Opin Psychol 2019; 30:80-86. [PMID: 30986617 DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Memories are often conceptualized as permanent entities; however, retrieval of memories via stimulus prompts can return them to an active state, which initiates a period of lability before the memories are reconsolidated into long-term storage. Importantly, during this period, memories can be disrupted/altered. A growing body of work has focused on translating animal and experimental science into reconsolidation-based interventions for clinical disorders maintained by maladaptive memories. Interventions targeting reward-based and fear-based memories undergirding substance use and anxiety-related disorders, respectively, have shown significant potential. There are several promising pharmacological agents and behavioral approaches that have been used to therapeutically target memory reconsolidation. Here, we discuss the current state of science with special emphasis on the clinical utility of these approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Paulus
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Sunjeev K Kamboj
- Clinical Psychopharamacology Unit, Research Department of Clinical, Educational, and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ravi K Das
- Clinical Psychopharamacology Unit, Research Department of Clinical, Educational, and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Michael E Saladin
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA; Department of Health Sciences and Research, College of Health Professions, Medical University of South Carolina Charleston, SC, USA.
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50
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Koek RJ, Luong TN. Theranostic pharmacology in PTSD: Neurobiology and timing. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 90:245-263. [PMID: 30529001 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Recent reviews and treatment guidelines regard trauma-focused cognitive-behavior therapies as the treatments of choice for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, many patients do not engage in this treatment when it is available, drop out before completion, or do not respond. Medications remain widely used, alone and in conjunction with psychotherapy, although the limitations of traditional monoamine-based pharmacotherapy are increasingly recognized. This article will review recent developments in psychopharmacology for PTSD, with a focus on current clinical data that apply putative neurobiologic mechanisms to medication use-i.e., a theranostic approach. A theranostic approach however, also requires consideration of timing, pre, peri or post trauma in conjunction with underlying dynamic processes affecting synaptic plasticity, the HPA axis, hippocampal activation, PFC-amygdala circuitry and fear memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph J Koek
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, CA, USA.
| | - Tinh N Luong
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA; Olive View Medical Center, Sylmar, CA, USA
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