Galectin-5 is bound onto the surface of rat reticulocyte exosomes and modulates vesicle uptake by macrophages

Immunomodulation by galectin-9: Distinct role in T cell populations, current therapeutic avenues and future potential

Galectins, glycan-binding proteins, have been identified as critical regulators of the immune system. Recently, Galectin-9 (Gal-9) has emerged as biomarker that correlates with disease severity in a range of inflammatory conditions. However, Gal-9 has highly different roles in the context of immunoregulation, with the potential to either stimulate or suppress the immune response. Neutralizing antibodies targeting Gal-9 have been developed and are in early test phase investigating their therapeutic potential in cancer. Despite ongoing research, the mechanisms behind Gal-9 action remain not fully understood, and extrapolating the implications of targeting this molecule from previous studies is challenging. Here, we examine the pleiotropic function of Gal-9 focusing on conventional T lymphocytes, providing a current overview of its immunostimulatory and immunosuppressive roles. In particular, we highlight that Gal-9 differentially regulates immune responses depending on the context. Considering this complexity, further investigation of Gal-9's intricate biology is necessary to define therapeutic strategies in immune disorders and cancer treatment aimed at inducing or inhibiting Gal-9 signaling.

Targeted delivery of extracellular vesicles: the mechanisms, techniques and therapeutic applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived vesicles with a phospholipid bilayer measuring 50-150 nm in diameter with demonstrated therapeutic potentials. Limitations such as the natural biodistribution (mainly concentrated in the liver and spleen) and short plasma half-life of EVs present significant challenges to their clinical translation. In recent years, growing research indicated that engineered EVs with enhanced targeting to lesion sites have markedly promoted therapeutic efficacy. However, there is a dearth of systematic knowledge on the recent advances in engineering EVs for targeted delivery. Herein, we provide an overview of the targeting mechanisms, engineering techniques, and clinical translations of natural and engineered EVs in therapeutic applications. Enrichment of EVs at lesion sites may be achieved through the recognition of tissue markers, pathological changes, and the circumvention of mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS). Alternatively, external stimuli, including magnetic fields and ultrasound, may also be employed. EV engineering techniques that fulfill targeting functions includes genetic engineering, membrane fusion, chemical modification and physical modification. A comparative statistical analysis was conducted to elucidate the discrepancies between the diverse techniques on size, morphology, stability, targeting and therapeutic efficacy in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, a summary of the registered clinical trials utilizing EVs from 2010 to 2023 has been provided, with a full discussion on the perspectives. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the mechanisms and techniques associated with targeted delivery of EVs in therapeutic applications to advocate further explorations of engineered EVs and accelerate their clinical applications.

The expression of Galectin-9 correlates with mTOR and AMPK in murine colony-forming erythroid progenitors

OBJECTIVES

Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is an immune checkpoint ligand for T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3. Although the roles of Gal-9 in regulating immune responses have been well investigated, their biological roles have yet to be fully documented. This study aimed to analyse the expression of Gal-9 bone marrow (BM) cells in C57BL/6J (B6) mice. Furthermore, the co-expression of Gal-9 with the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was investigated.

METHODS

The BM cells in adult C57BL/6J (B6) mice were collected and analysed in vitro.

RESULTS

In a flow cytometric analysis of BM cells, Gal-9 was highly expressed in c-KithiSca-1-CD34-CD71+ erythroid progenitors (EPs), whereas it was downregulated in more differentiated c-KitloCD71+TER119+ cells. Subsequently, a negative selection of CD3-B220-Sca-1-CD34-CD41-CD16/32- EPs was performed. This resulted in substantial enrichment of KithiCD71+Gal-9+ cells and erythroid colony-forming units (CFU-Es), suggesting that the colony-forming subset of EPs are included in the KithiCD71+Gal-9+ population. Furthermore, we found that EPs had lower mTOR and AMPK expression levels in Gal-9 knockout B6 mice than in wild-type B6 mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These results may stimulate further investigation of the role of Gal-9 in haematopoiesis.

Advances in exosomes utilization for clinical applications in cancer

Exosomes are regarded as having transformative potential for clinical applications. Exosome-based liquid biopsies offer a noninvasive method for early cancer detection and real-time disease monitoring. Clinical trials are underway to validate the efficacy of exosomal biomarkers for enhancing diagnostic accuracy and predicting treatment responses. Additionally, engineered exosomes are being developed as targeted drug delivery systems that can navigate the bloodstream to deliver therapeutic agents to tumor sites, thus enhancing treatment efficacy while minimizing systemic toxicity. Exosomes also exhibit immunomodulatory properties, which are being harnessed to boost antitumor immune responses. In this review, we detail the latest advances in clinical trials and research studies, underscoring the potential of exosomes to revolutionize cancer care.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs)' journey in recipient cells: from recognition to cargo release

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nano-sized bilayer vesicles that are shed or secreted by virtually every cell type. A variety of biomolecules, including proteins, lipids, coding and non-coding RNAs, and mitochondrial DNA, can be selectively encapsulated into EVs and delivered to nearby and distant recipient cells, leading to alterations in the recipient cells, suggesting that EVs play an important role in intercellular communication. EVs play effective roles in physiology and pathology and could be used as diagnostic and therapeutic tools. At present, although the mechanisms of exosome biogenesis and secretion in donor cells are well understood, the molecular mechanism of EV recognition and uptake by recipient cells is still unclear. This review summarizes the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of EVs' biological journey in recipient cells, from recognition to uptake and cargo release. Furthermore, we highlight how EVs escape endolysosomal degradation after uptake and thus release cargo, which is crucial for studies applying EVs as drug-targeted delivery vehicles. Knowledge of the cellular processes that govern EV uptake is important to shed light on the functions of EVs as well as on related clinical applications.

Small Differences and Big Changes: The Many Variables of MicroRNA Expression and Function in the Brain

MicroRNAs are emerging as crucial regulators within the complex, dynamic environment of the synapse, and they offer a promising new avenue for the treatment of neurological disease. These small noncoding RNAs modify gene expression in several ways, including posttranscriptional modulation via binding to complementary and semicomplementary sites on target mRNAs. This rapid, finely tuned regulation of gene expression is essential to meet the dynamic demands of the synapse. Here, we provide a detailed review of the multifaceted world of synaptic microRNA regulation. We discuss the many mechanisms by which microRNAs regulate gene expression at the synapse, particularly in the context of neuronal plasticity. We also describe the various factors, such as age, sex, and neurological disease, that can influence microRNA expression and activity in neurons. In summary, microRNAs play a crucial role in the intricate and quickly changing functional requirements of the synapse, and context is essential in the study of microRNAs and their potential therapeutic applications.

Macropinocytosis Is the Principal Uptake Mechanism of Antigen-Presenting Cells for Allergen-Specific Virus-like Nanoparticles

Virus-like nanoparticles (VNP) are regarded as efficient vaccination platforms and have proven to be useful for the non-anaphylactogenic delivery of allergen-specific immunotherapy in preclinical models previously. Herein, we sought to determine the mode of VNP uptake by antigen presenting cells (APC). Accordingly, we screened a collection of substances known to inhibit different uptake pathways by APC. The human leukemia monocytic cell line THP-1 and the murine dendritic cell line DC 2.4 were examined for the uptake of fluorescently labelled VNP in the presence or absence of inhibitors. The inhibitory effect of candidate substances that blocked VNP uptake in APC lines was subsequently evaluated in studies with primary APC present in splenocyte and lung cell homogenates in vitro and upon intratracheal application of VNP in vivo. The uptake of allergen-specific VNP in vitro and in vivo was mainly observed by macrophages and CD103+ dendritic cells and was sensitive to inhibitors that block macropinocytosis, such as hyperosmolarity induced by sucrose or the polyphenol compound Rottlerin at low micromolar concentrations but not by other inhibitors. Also, T-cell proliferation induced by allergen-specific VNP was significantly reduced by both substances. In contrast, substances that stimulate macropinocytosis, such as Heparin and phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), increased VNP-uptake and may, thus, help modulate allergen-specific T-cell responses. We have identified macropinocytosis as the principal uptake mechanism of APC for allergen-specific VNP in vitro and in vivo, paving the way for further improvement of VNP-based therapies, especially those that can be used for tolerance induction in allergy, in the future.

Exosomes target HBV-host interactions to remodel the hepatic immune microenvironment

Chronic hepatitis B poses a significant global burden, modulating immune cells, leading to chronic inflammation and long-term damage. Due to its hepatotropism, the hepatitis B virus (HBV) cannot infect other cells. The mechanisms underlying the intercellular communication among different liver cells in HBV-infected individuals and the immune microenvironment imbalance remain elusive. Exosomes, as important intercellular communication and cargo transportation tools between HBV-infected hepatocytes and immune cells, have been shown to assist in HBV cargo transportation and regulate the immune microenvironment. However, the role of exosomes in hepatitis B has only gradually received attention in recent years. Minimal literature has systematically elaborated on the role of exosomes in reshaping the immune microenvironment of the liver. This review unfolds sequentially based on the biological processes of exosomes: exosomes' biogenesis, release, transport, uptake by recipient cells, and their impact on recipient cells. We delineate how HBV influences the biogenesis of exosomes, utilizing exosomal covert transmission, and reshapes the hepatic immune microenvironment. And based on the characteristics and functions of exosomes, potential applications of exosomes in hepatitis B are summarized and predicted.

Exosomes from uterine fluid promote capacitation of human sperm

Background

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound vesicles containing various proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. EVs are found in many body fluids, such as blood and urine. The release of EVs can facilitate intercellular communication through fusion with the plasma membrane or endocytosis into the recipient cell or through internalization of the contents. Recent studies have reported that EVs isolated from human endometrial epithelial cells (EECs) promote sperm fertilization ability. EVs from uterine flushing fluid more closely resemble the physiological condition of the uterus. However, it is unclear whether EVs derived directly from uterine flushing fluid have the same effect on sperm. This study aimed to research the effect of EVs from uterine flushing fluid on sperm.

Methods

EVs were isolated from the uterine flushing fluid. The presence of EVs was confirmed by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), Western blot, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). EVs were incubated with human sperm for 2 h and 4 h. The effects of EVs on sperm were evaluated by analyzing acrosome reaction, sperm motility, and reactive oxygen species (ROS).

Results

The EVs fractions isolated from the uterine fluid were observed in cup-shaped vesicles of different sizes by TEM. All isolated vesicles contained similar numbers of vesicles in the expected size range (30-200 nm) by NTA. CD9 and CD63 were detected in EVs by western blot. Comparing the motility of the two groups incubated sperm motility significantly differed at 4 h. The acrosome reactions were promoted by incubating with EVs significantly. ROS were increased in sperm incubated with EVs.

Conclusion

Our results showed EVs present in the uterine fluid. Acrosome reactions and ROS levels increased in human sperm incubated with EVs. EVs from uterine fluid can promote the capacitation of human sperm. The increased capacitation after sperm interaction with EVs suggests a possible physiological effect during the transit of the uterus.

Methods, Mechanisms, and Application Prospects for Enhancing Extracellular Vesicle Uptake

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are considered to be a new generation of bioinspired nanoscale drug delivery systems due to their low immunogenicity, natural functionality, and excellent biocompatibility. However, limitations such as low uptake efficiency, insufficient production, and inhomogeneous performance undermine their potential. To address these issues, numerous researchers have put forward various methods and applications for enhancing EV uptake in recent decades. In this review, we introduce various methods for the cellular uptake of EVs and summarize recent advances on the methods and mechanisms for enhancing EV uptake. In addition, we provide further understanding regarding enhancing EV uptake and put forward prospects and challenges for the development of EV-based therapy in the future.

Anticancer Therapy Targeting Cancer-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are natural lipid nanoparticles secreted by most types of cells. In malignant cancer, EVs derived from cancer cells contribute to its progression and metastasis by facilitating tumor growth and invasion, interfering with anticancer immunity, and establishing premetastasis niches in distant organs. In recent years, multiple strategies targeting cancer-derived EVs have been proposed to improve cancer patient outcomes, including inhibiting EV generation, disrupting EVs during trafficking, and blocking EV uptake by recipient cells. Developments in EV engineering also show promising results in harnessing cancer-derived EVs as anticancer agents. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the origin and functions of cancer-derived EVs and review the recent progress in anticancer therapy targeting these EVs.

Size-exclusion chromatography combined with DIA-MS enables deep proteome profiling of extracellular vesicles from melanoma plasma and serum

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important players in melanoma progression, but their use as clinical biomarkers has been limited by the difficulty of profiling blood-derived EV proteins with high depth of coverage, the requirement for large input amounts, and complex protocols. Here, we provide a streamlined and reproducible experimental workflow to identify plasma- and serum- derived EV proteins of healthy donors and melanoma patients using minimal amounts of sample input. SEC-DIA-MS couples size-exclusion chromatography to EV concentration and deep-proteomic profiling using data-independent acquisition. From as little as 200 µL of plasma per patient in a cohort of three healthy donors and six melanoma patients, we identified and quantified 2896 EV-associated proteins, achieving a 3.5-fold increase in depth compared to previously published melanoma studies. To compare the EV-proteome to unenriched blood, we employed an automated workflow to deplete the 14 most abundant proteins from plasma and serum and thereby approximately doubled protein group identifications versus native blood. The EV proteome diverged from corresponding unenriched plasma and serum, and unlike the latter, separated healthy donor and melanoma patient samples. Furthermore, known melanoma markers, such as MCAM, TNC, and TGFBI, were upregulated in melanoma EVs but not in depleted melanoma plasma, highlighting the specific information contained in EVs. Overall, EVs were significantly enriched in intact membrane proteins and proteins related to SNARE protein interactions and T-cell biology. Taken together, we demonstrated the increased sensitivity of an EV-based proteomic workflow that can be easily applied to larger melanoma cohorts and other indications.

Extracellular Vesicles: A Novel Mode of Viral Propagation Exploited by Enveloped and Non-Enveloped Viruses

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-enclosed structures that have gained much attention from researchers across varying scientific fields in the past few decades. Cells secrete diverse types of EVs into the extracellular milieu which include exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies. These EVs play a crucial role in facilitating intracellular communication via the transport of proteins, lipids, DNA, rRNA, and miRNAs. It is well known that a number of viruses hijack several cellular pathways involved in EV biogenesis to aid in their replication, assembly, and egress. On the other hand, EVs can also trigger host antiviral immune responses by carrying immunomodulatory molecules and viral antigens on their surface. Owing to this intricate relationship between EVs and viruses, intriguing studies have identified various EV-mediated viral infections and interrogated how EVs can alter overall viral spread and longevity. This review provides a comprehensive overview on the EV-virus relationship, and details various modes of EV-mediated viral spread in the context of clinically relevant enveloped and non-enveloped viruses.

lncRNA Profiling of Exosomes and Its Communication Role in Regulating Silica-Stimulated Macrophage Apoptosis and Fibroblast Activation

Long-term silica particle exposure leads to interstitial pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis, called silicosis. Silica-activated macrophages secrete a wide range of cytokines resulting in persistent inflammation. In addition, silica-stimulated activation of fibroblast is another checkpoint in the progression of silicosis. The pathogenesis after silica exposure is complex, involving intercellular communication and intracellular signaling pathway transduction, which was ignored previously. Exosomes are noteworthy because of their crucial role in intercellular communication by delivering bioactive substances, such as lncRNA. However, the expression profile of exosomal lncRNA in silicosis has not been reported yet. In this study, exosomes were isolated from the peripheral serum of silicosis patients or healthy donors. The exosomal lncRNAs were profiled using high-throughput sequencing technology. Target genes were predicted, and functional annotation was performed using differentially expressed lncRNAs. Eight aberrant expressed exosomal lncRNAs were considered to play a key role in the process of silicosis according to the OPLS-DA. Furthermore, the increased expression of lncRNA MSTRG.43085.16 was testified in vitro. Its target gene PARP1 was critical in regulating apoptosis based on bioinformatics analysis. In addition, the effects of exosomes on macrophage apoptosis and fibroblast activation were checked based on a co-cultured system. Our findings suggested that upregulation of lncRNA MSTRG.43085.16 could regulate silica-induced macrophage apoptosis through elevating PARP1 expression, and promote fibroblast activation, implying that the exosomal lncRNA MSTRG.43085.16 might have potential as a biomarker for the early diagnosis of silicosis.

Extracellular Vesicles and Immunity: At the Crossroads of Cell Communication

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), comprising exosomes and microvesicles, are small membranous structures secreted by nearly all cell types. They have emerged as crucial mediators in intercellular communication, playing pivotal roles in diverse physiological and pathological processes, notably within the realm of immunity. These roles go beyond mere cellular interactions, as extracellular vesicles stand as versatile and dynamic components of immune regulation, impacting both innate and adaptive immunity. Their multifaceted involvement includes immune cell activation, antigen presentation, and immunomodulation, emphasising their significance in maintaining immune homeostasis and contributing to the pathogenesis of immune-related disorders. Extracellular vesicles participate in immunomodulation by delivering a wide array of bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, thereby influencing gene expression in target cells. This manuscript presents a comprehensive review that encompasses in vitro and in vivo studies aimed at elucidating the mechanisms through which EVs modulate human immunity. Understanding the intricate interplay between extracellular vesicles and immunity is imperative for unveiling novel therapeutic targets and diagnostic tools applicable to various immunological disorders, including autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, and cancer. Furthermore, recognising the potential of EVs as versatile drug delivery vehicles holds significant promise for the future of immunotherapies.

Biogenesis and delivery of extracellular vesicles: harnessing the power of EVs for diagnostics and therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed particles secreted by a variety of cell types. These vesicles encapsulate a diverse range of molecules, including proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, metabolites, and even organelles derived from their parental cells. While EVs have emerged as crucial mediators of intercellular communication, they also hold immense potential as both biomarkers and therapeutic agents for numerous diseases. A thorough understanding of EV biogenesis is crucial for the development of EV-based diagnostic developments since the composition of EVs can reflect the health and disease status of the donor cell. Moreover, when EVs are taken up by target cells, they can exert profound effects on gene expression, signaling pathways, and cellular behavior, which makes these biomolecules enticing targets for therapeutic interventions. Yet, despite decades of research, the intricate processes underlying EV biogenesis by donor cells and subsequent uptake by recipient cells remain poorly understood. In this review, we aim to summarize current insights and advancements in the biogenesis and uptake mechanisms of EVs. By shedding light on the fundamental mechanisms governing EV biogenesis and delivery, this review underscores the potential of basic mechanistic research to pave the way for developing novel diagnostic strategies and therapeutic applications.

M2 exosomes modified by hydrogen sulfide promoted bone regeneration by moesin mediated endocytosis

Bone defects caused by trauma or tumor led to high medical costs and poor life quality for patients. The exosomes, micro vesicles of 30-150 nm in diameter, derived from macrophages manipulated bone regeneration. However, the role of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the biogenesis and function of exosomes and its effects on bone regeneration remains elusive. In this study, we used H2S slow releasing donor GYY4137 to stimulate macrophages and found that H2S promoted the polarization of M2 macrophages to increase bone regeneration of MSCs in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, we developed the H2S pre-treated M2 macrophage exosomes and found these exosomes displayed significantly higher capacity to promote bone regeneration in calvarial bone defects by re-establishing the local immune microenvironment. Mechanically, H2S treatment altered the protein profile of exosomes derived from M2 macrophages. One of the significantly enriched exosomal proteins stimulated by H2S, moesin protein, facilitated the exosomes endocytosis into MSCs, leading to activated the β-catenin signaling pathway to promote osteogenic differentiation of MSCs. In summary, H2S pretreated M2 exosomes promoted the bone regeneration of MSCs via facilitating exosomes uptake by MSCs and activate β-catenin signaling pathway. This study not only provides new strategies for promoting bone regeneration, but also provides new insights for the effect and mechanism of exosomes internalization.

Site- and Structure-Specific Glycosylation Signatures of Bovine, Caprine, Porcine, and Human Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound vesicles released by living cells. As vesicles for macromolecule transmission and intercellular communication, EVs are broadly applied in clinical diagnosis and biomimetic drug delivery. Milk-derived EVs (MEVs) are an ideal choice for scale-up applications because they exhibit biocompatibility and are easily obtained. Herein, intact glycopeptides in MEVs from bovines, caprines, porcines, and humans were comprehensively analyzed by high-resolution mass spectrometry using the sceHCD, followed by the EThcD fragment method, revealing that protein glycosylation is abundant and heterogeneous in MEVs. The dominant glycans in all MEVs were sialic acid-modified N-linked glycans (over 50%). A couple of species-specific glycans were also characterized, which are potentially markers of different original EVs. Interestingly, the Neu5Gc-modified glycans were enriched in caprine milk-derived EVs (58 ± 2%). Heterogeneity of MEV protein glycosylation was observed for glycosites and glycan compositions, and the structural heterogeneity of protein glycosylation was also identified and validated. The glycosignatures of EV biogenesis- and endocytosis-related proteins (CD63 and MFGE8) were significantly different in these four species. Overall, we comprehensively characterized the glycosylation signature of MEVs from four different species and provided insight into protein glycosylation related to drug target delivery.

Comprehensive Overview the Role of Glycosylation of Extracellular Vesicles in Cancers

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous structures secreted by various cells carrying diverse biomolecules. Recent advancements in EV glycosylation research have underscored their crucial role in cancer. This review provides a global overview of EV glycosylation research, covering aspects such as specialized techniques for isolating and characterizing EV glycosylation, advances on how glycosylation affects the biogenesis and uptake of EVs, and the involvement of EV glycosylation in intracellular protein expression, cellular metastasis, intercellular interactions, and potential applications in immunotherapy. Furthermore, through an extensive literature review, we explore recent advances in EV glycosylation research in the context of cancer, with a focus on lung, colorectal, liver, pancreatic, breast, ovarian, prostate, and melanoma cancers. The primary objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive update for researchers, whether they are seasoned experts in the field of EVs or newcomers, aiding them in exploring new avenues and gaining a deeper understanding of EV glycosylation mechanisms. This heightened comprehension not only enhances researchers' knowledge of the pathogenic mechanisms of EV glycosylation but also paves the way for innovative cancer diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

Precision cardiac targeting: empowering curcumin therapy through smart exosome-mediated drug delivery in myocardial infarction

Nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery has emerged as a highly promising and effective therapeutic approach for addressing myocardial infarction. However, clinical translation tends to be a failure due to low cardiac retention as well as liver and spleen entrapment in previous therapies. Herein, we report a two-step exosome delivery system, which precludes internalization by the mononuclear phagocyte system before the delivery of therapeutic cardiac targeting exosomes (ExoCTP). Importantly, curcumin released by ExoCTP diminishes reactive oxygen species over-accumulation in ischemic myocardium, as well as serum levels of lactate dehydrogenase, malonyldialdehyde, superoxide dismutase and glutathione, indicating better antioxidant capacity than free curcumin. Finally, our strategy was proven to greatly potentiate the delivery and therapeutic efficacy of curcumin without systemic toxicity. Taken together, our smart exosome-mediated drug delivery strategy can serve either as therapeutics alone or in combination with other drugs for effective heart targeting and subsequent wound healing.

The Role of Exosome-Derived microRNA on Lung Cancer Metastasis Progression

The high mortality from lung cancer is mainly attributed to the presence of metastases at the time of diagnosis. Despite being the leading cause of lung cancer death, the underlying molecular mechanisms driving metastasis progression are still not fully understood. Recent studies suggest that tumor cell exosomes play a significant role in tumor progression through intercellular communication between tumor cells, the microenvironment, and distant organs. Furthermore, evidence shows that exosomes release biologically active components to distant sites and organs, which direct metastasis by preparing metastatic pre-niche and stimulating tumorigenesis. As a result, identifying the active components of exosome cargo has become a critical area of research in recent years. Among these components are microRNAs, which are associated with tumor progression and metastasis in lung cancer. Although research into exosome-derived microRNA (exosomal miRNAs) is still in its early stages, it holds promise as a potential target for lung cancer therapy. Understanding how exosomal microRNAs promote metastasis will provide evidence for developing new targeted treatments. This review summarizes current research on exosomal miRNAs' role in metastasis progression mechanisms, focusing on lung cancer.

Lectins as potential tools for cancer biomarker discovery from extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have considerable potential as diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic agents, in large part because molecular patterns on the EV surface betray the cell of origin and may also be used to "target" EVs to specific cells. Cancer is associated with alterations to cellular and EV glycosylation patterns, and the surface of EVs is enriched with glycan moieties. Glycoconjugates of EVs play versatile roles in cancer including modulating immune response, affecting tumor cell behavior and site of metastasis and as such, paving the way for the development of innovative diagnostic tools and novel therapies. Entities that recognize specific glycans, such as lectins, may thus be powerful tools to discover and detect novel cancer biomarkers. Indeed, the past decade has seen a constant increase in the number of published articles on lectin-based strategies for the detection of EV glycans. This review explores the roles of EV glycosylation in cancer and cancer-related applications. Furthermore, this review summarizes the potential of lectins and lectin-based methods for screening, targeting, separation, and possible identification of improved biomarkers from the surface of EVs.

Galectin-9 interacts with Vamp-3 to regulate cytokine secretion in dendritic cells

Intracellular vesicle transport is essential for cellular homeostasis and is partially mediated by SNARE proteins. Endosomal trafficking to the plasma membrane ensures cytokine secretion in dendritic cells (DCs) and the initiation of immune responses. Despite its critical importance, the specific molecular components that regulate DC cytokine secretion are poorly characterised. Galectin-9, a ß-galactoside-binding protein, has emerged as a novel cellular modulator although its exact intracellular roles in regulating (immune) cell homeostasis and vesicle transport are virtually unknown. We investigated galectin-9 function in primary human DCs and report that galectin-9 is essential for intracellular cytokine trafficking to the cell surface. Galectin-9-depleted DCs accumulate cytokine-containing vesicles in the Golgi complex that eventually undergo lysosomal degradation. We observed galectin-9 to molecularly interact with Vamp-3 using immunoprecipitation-mass-spectrometry and identified galectin-9 was required for rerouting Vamp-3-containing endosomes upon DC activation as the underlying mechanism. Overall, this study identifies galectin-9 as a necessary mechanistic component for intracellular trafficking. This may impact our general understanding of vesicle transport and sheds new light into the multiple roles galectins play in governing cell function.

Trick-or-Trap: Extracellular Vesicles and Viral Transmission

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid membrane-enclosed particles produced by most cells, playing important roles in various biological processes. They have been shown to be involved in antiviral mechanisms such as transporting antiviral molecules, transmitting viral resistance, and participating in antigen presentation. While viral transmission was traditionally thought to occur through independent viral particles, the process of viral infection is complex, with multiple barriers and challenges that viruses must overcome for successful infection. As a result, viruses exploit the intercellular communication pathways of EVs to facilitate cluster transmission, increasing their chances of infecting target cells. Viral vesicle transmission offers two significant advantages. Firstly, it enables the collective transmission of viral genomes, increasing the chances of infection and promoting interactions between viruses in subsequent generations. Secondly, the use of vesicles as vehicles for viral transmission provides protection to viral particles against environmental factors, while also expanding the cell tropism allowing viruses to reach cells in a receptor-independent manner. Understanding the role of EVs in viral transmission is crucial for comprehending virus evolution and developing innovative antiviral strategies, therapeutic interventions, and vaccine approaches.

Characterization of a novel galectin in Sarcoptes scabiei and its role in regulating macrophage functions

Sarcoptes scabiei (S. scabiei) endangers human and other mammalian health. There has been limited research into S. scabiei pathogenic mechanisms and the immunological interaction between S. scabiei and hosts. Galectins have critical roles in biological processes such as cell adhesion, signal transduction, and immune response mediation. Galectins of S. scabiei (SsGalectins) were cloned, expressed, and identified, and their transcriptional levels in S. scabiei were measured at various developmental stages. Fluorescent tissue localization was performed on SsGalectins of S. scabiei and scabies skin. A mouse AD model was constructed to evaluate the effect of rSsGalectins on skin pathogenic changes. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunoassay were used to identify macrophage polarization-related components and investigate the immunoregulatory effect of rSsGalectins on mouse macrophages. The results demonstrated that the S. scabiei infection causes macrophage infiltration in the scabies skin. The rSsGalectins displayed strong reactogenicity, and distinct genes of the SsGalectins were differently expressed in different developmental stages of S. scabiei. Fluorescence tissue localization revealed that the SsGalectins were mainly in the mouthparts, intestines, and body surface. Additionally, S. scabiei could secrete SsGalectins into the infected skin, proving that SsGalectins were excretion and secretion proteins of S. scabiei. In the mouse atopic dermatitis model, cutaneous macrophage infiltration and inflammation increase after rSsGalectins injection. Simultaneously, when rSsGalectins acted on bone marrow-derived macrophages, M1 macrophage-related polarization factors IL-1β, IL-6, and inducible nitric oxide synthase all increased, demonstrating that rSsGalectins can induce M1 polarization and produce pro-inflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, the SsGalectins are involved in the pathogenic process of S. scabiei by regulating the polarization of host macrophages to the M1 type when S. scabiei invade the host and promoting the incidence and development of the host's inflammatory response. This study offers fresh light on the pathogenic process of scabies mites, investigates the immunological interaction mechanism between S. scabiei and the host, and offers new insights into S. scabiei prevention and therapy.

Improved exosome isolation methods from non-small lung cancer cells (NC1975) and their characterization using morphological and surface protein biomarker methods

This study has demonstrated improved methods for isolating exosomes from non-small lung cancer cells, which address the problems characterized by exosome morphological and chemical methods. To improve the isolation methods, cells from the NCI 1975 cell line were used as the source for exosomes. The isolation processes were carried out using serial isolation techniques in addition to specific preservation tools. The isolated exosomes were characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was added for further assurance of the investigation results. The statistical analysis results showed that the size distributions of apoptotic vesicles (APV) 450 nm and necrotic bodies (NCB) 280 nm (extracellular vesicles) were significantly different from exosomes (P < 0.001). In contrast, the exosome size distribution was not significantly different from the published exosome sizes, as demonstrated by statistical analysis tools. This study confirmed the improved methods for isolating exosomes that make exosomes accessible for use in the diagnosis and prognosis of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

New Possible Ways to Use Exosomes in Diagnostics and Therapy via JAK/STAT Pathways

Exosomes have the potential to be the future of personalized diagnostics and therapy. They are nano-sized particles between 30 and 100 nm flowing in the extracellular milieu, where they mediate cell-cell communication and participate in immune system regulation. Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) secreted from different types of cancer cells are the key regulators of the tumor microenvironment. With their immune suppressive cargo, TDEs prevent the antitumor immune response, leading to reduced effectiveness of cancer treatment by promoting a pro-tumorigenic microenvironment. Involved signaling pathways take part in the regulation of tumor proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and angiogenesis. Signal transducers and activators of transcription factors (STATs) and Janus kinase (JAK) signaling pathways are crucial in malignancies and autoimmune diseases alike, and their potential to be manipulated is currently the focus of interest. In this review, we aim to discuss exosomes, TDEs, and the JAK/STAT pathways, along with mediators like interleukins, tripartite motif proteins, and interferons.

Towards artificial intelligence-enabled extracellular vesicle precision drug delivery

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs), particularly exosomes, recently exploded into nanomedicine as an emerging drug delivery approach due to their superior biocompatibility, circulating stability, and bioavailability in vivo. However, EV heterogeneity makes molecular targeting precision a critical challenge. Deciphering key molecular drivers for controlling EV tissue targeting specificity is in great need. Artificial intelligence (AI) brings powerful prediction ability for guiding the rational design of engineered EVs in precision control for drug delivery. This review focuses on cutting-edge nano-delivery via integrating large-scale EV data with AI to develop AI-directed EV therapies and illuminate the clinical translation potential. We briefly review the current status of EVs in drug delivery, including the current frontier, limitations, and considerations to advance the field. Subsequently, we detail the future of AI in drug delivery and its impact on precision EV delivery. Our review discusses the current universal challenge of standardization and critical considerations when using AI combined with EVs for precision drug delivery. Finally, we will conclude this review with a perspective on future clinical translation led by a combined effort of AI and EV research.

Engineered extracellular vesicles as therapeutics of degenerative orthopedic diseases

Degenerative orthopedic diseases, as a global public health problem, have made serious negative impact on patients' quality of life and socio-economic burden. Traditional treatments, including chemical drugs and surgical treatments, have obvious side effects and unsatisfactory efficacy. Therefore, biological therapy has become the focus of researches on degenerative orthopedic diseases. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), with superior properties of immunoregulatory, growth support, and drug delivery capabilities, have emerged as a new cell-free strategy for the treatment of many diseases, including degenerative orthopedic diseases. An increasing number of studies have shown that EVs can be engineered through cargo loading, surface modification, and chemical synthesis to improve efficiency, specificity, and safety. Herein, a comprehensive overview of recent advances in engineering strategies and applications of engineered EVs as well as related researches in degenerative orthopedic diseases, including osteoarthritis (OA), osteoporosis (OP), intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) and osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH), is provided. In addition, we analyze the potential and challenges of applying engineered EVs to clinical practice.

Extracellular vesicles from human plasma dampen inflammation and promote tissue repair functions in macrophages

Although inflammation is a vital defence response to infection, if left uncontrolled, it can lead to pathology. Macrophages are critical players both in driving the inflammatory response and in the subsequent events required for restoring tissue homeostasis. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed structures released by cells that mediate intercellular communication and are present in all biological fluids, including blood. Herein, we show that extracellular vesicles from plasma (pEVs) play a relevant role in the control of inflammation by counteracting PAMP-induced macrophage activation. Indeed, pEV-treatment of macrophages simultaneously with or prior to PAMP exposure reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory IL-6 and TNF-α and increased IL-10 response. This anti-inflammatory activity was associated with the promotion of tissue-repair functions in macrophages, characterized by augmented efferocytosis and pro-angiogenic capacity, and increased expression of VEGFa, CD300e, RGS2 and CD93, genes involved in cell growth and tissue remodelling. We also show that simultaneous stimulation of macrophages with a PAMP and pEVs promoted COX2 expression and CREB phosphorylation as well as the accumulation of higher concentrations of PGE2 in cell culture supernatants. Remarkably, the anti-inflammatory activity of pEVs was abolished if cells were treated with a pharmacological inhibitor of COX2, indicating that pEV-mediated induction of COX2 is critical for the pEV-mediated inhibition of inflammation. Finally, we show that pEVs added to monocytes prior to their M-CSF-induced differentiation to macrophages increased efferocytosis and diminished pro-inflammatory cytokine responses to PAMP stimulation. In conclusion, our results suggest that pEVs are endogenous homeostatic modulators of macrophages, activating the PGE2/CREB pathway, decreasing the production of inflammatory cytokines and promoting tissue repair functions.

A review of the regulatory mechanisms of extracellular vesicles-mediated intercellular communication

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small, membrane-bound structures that are released from cells into the surrounding environment. These structures can be categorized as exosomes, microvesicles, or apoptotic vesicles, and they play an essential role in intercellular communication. These vesicles are attracting significant clinical interest as they offer the potential for drug delivery, disease diagnosis, and therapeutic intervention. To fully understand the regulation of intercellular communication through EVs, it is essential to investigate the underlying mechanisms. This review aims to provide a summary of the current knowledge on the intercellular communications involved in EV targeting, binding, and uptake, as well as the factors that influence these interactions. These factors include the properties of the EVs, the cellular environment, and the recipient cell. As the field of EV-related intercellular communication continues to expand and techniques improve, we can expect to uncover more information about this complex area, despite the current limitations in our knowledge.

Research progress of exosomes as drug carriers in cancer and inflammation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) could be produced by most cells and play an important role in disease development. As a subtype of EVs, exosomes exhibit suitable size, rich surface markers and diverse contents, making them more appealing as potential drug carriers. Compared with traditional synthetic nanoparticles, exosomes possess superior biocompatibility and much lower immunogenicity. This work reviewed the most up-to-date research progress of exosomes as carriers for nucleic acids, proteins and small molecule drugs for cancer and inflammation management. The drug loading strategies and potential cellular uptake behaviour of exosomes are highlighted, trying to provide reference for future exosome design and application.

Extracellular vesicles as novel drug delivery systems to target cancer and other diseases: Recent advancements and future perspectives

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bound vesicles produced into the extracellular space by cells. Apoptotic bodies (ApoBD), microvesicles (MVs), and exosomes are examples of EVs, which act as essential regulators in cell-cell communication in both normal and diseased conditions. Natural cargo molecules such as miRNA, messenger RNA, and proteins are carried by EVs and transferred to nearby cells or distant cells through the process of circulation. Different signalling cascades are then influenced by these functionally active molecules. The information to be delivered to the target cells depends on the substances within the EVs that also includes synthesis method. EVs have attracted interest as potential delivery vehicles for therapies due to their features such as improved circulation stability, biocompatibility, reduced immunogenicity, and toxicity. Therefore, EVs are being regarded as potent carriers of therapeutics that can be used as a therapeutic agent for diseases like cancer. This review focuses on the exosome-mediated drug delivery to cancer cells and the advantages and challenges of using exosomes as a carrier molecule.

Therapeutic Implications of the Drug Resistance Conferred by Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Anticancer drug resistance is a significant impediment in current cancer treatment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from cancer cells were recently acknowledged as a critical mechanism of drug resistance, tumor progression, and metastasis. EVs are enveloped vesicles comprising a lipid bilayer that transfers various cargo, including proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and metabolites, from an originating cell to a recipient cell. Investigating the mechanisms whereby EVs confer drug resistance is still in the early stages. In this review, I analyze the roles of EVs derived from triple-negative breast cancer cells (TNBC-EVs) in anticancer drug resistance and discuss strategies to overcome TNBC-EV-mediated drug resistance.

The Blessed Union of Glycobiology and Immunology: A Marriage That Worked

In this article, we discuss the main aspects regarding the recognition of cell surface glycoconjugates and the immunomodulation of responses against the progression of certain pathologies, such as cancer and infectious diseases. In the first part, we talk about different aspects of glycoconjugates and delve deeper into the importance of N-glycans in cancer immunotherapy. Then, we describe two important lectin families that have been very well studied in the last 20 years. Examples include the sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin (Ig)-like lectins (siglecs), and galectins. Finally, we discuss a topic that needs to be better addressed in the field of glycoimmunology: the impact of oncofetal antigens on the cells of the immune system. New findings in this area are of great importance for advancement, especially in the field of oncology, since it is already known that cellular interactions mediated by carbohydrate-carbohydrate and/or carbohydrate proteins are able to modulate the progression of different types of cancer in events that compromise the functionality of the immune responses.

90 K increased delivery efficiency of extracellular vesicles through mediating internalization

Using mass spectrometry-based high-throughput proteomics, we identified a membrane protein on extracellular vesicles (EVs), 90 K, which predicts poor overall survival of patients with head and neck cancer. 90 K levels in serum EVs could serve as an independent factor for poor prognosis of patients with head and neck cancer. Pre-treatment of immune competent mice with tumor-derived EVs (TDEs) elicited an immune-suppressive microenvironment for tumor cells, which was regulated by 90 K. The immunosuppressive function of TDE-90 K depends on the presence of myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) rather than regulatory T cells. The immune regulatory role of TDEs on MDSCs depends on miR-21 which is encapsulated in TDEs. Moreover, 90 K is required for the internalization of TDE cargo though interacting with integrin-β1 and anti-siglec-9 rather than directly affecting the immune function of MDSCs. 90 K modification of γδT cell-derived EVs (γδTEVs) could increase the delivery efficiency and therapeutic effect of PD-L1 siRNA by γδTEVs. We concluded that as a secreted protein modulating cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, 90 K can be carried by TDEs to mediate the internalization and delivery of TDEs cargo by recipient cells. This function of 90 K could be utilized to improve the efficiency of EV-based drug delivery.

Extracellular vesicles mediate biological information delivery: A double-edged sword in cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is a severe ischemic disease with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Maladaptive cardiac remodeling is a series of abnormalities in cardiac structure and function that occurs following myocardial infarction (MI). The pathophysiology of this process can be separated into two distinct phases: the initial inflammatory response, and the subsequent longer-term scar revision that includes the regression of inflammation, neovascularization, and fibrotic scar formation. Extracellular vesicles are nano-sized lipid bilayer vesicles released into the extracellular environment by eukaryotic cells, containing bioinformatic transmitters which are essential mediators of intercellular communication. EVs of different cellular origins play an essential role in cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction. In this review, we first introduce the pathophysiology of post-infarction cardiac remodeling, as well as the biogenesis, classification, delivery, and functions of EVs. Then, we explore the dual role of these small molecule transmitters delivered by EVs in post-infarction cardiac remodeling, including the double-edged sword of pro-and anti-inflammation, and pro-and anti-fibrosis, which is significant for post-infarction cardiac repair. Finally, we discuss the pharmacological and engineered targeting of EVs for promoting heart repair after MI, thus revealing the potential value of targeted modulation of EVs and its use as a drug delivery vehicle in the therapeutic process of post-infarction cardiac remodeling.

Exosomes: A new option for osteoporosis treatment

Osteoporosis is a systemic bone disease characterized by reduced bone mass and destruction of bone microarchitecture, leading to increased bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture. However, the pathogenesis and molecular mechanisms of this disease remain unclear. Extracellular vesicles, structures originating from the plasma membrane and ranging from 30 nm to 5 µm in diameter, play an important role in intercellular communication in the bone microenvironment. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that deliver cargo molecules, including endogenous proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. These cargo molecules are encapsulated in a lipid bilayer and internalized by target cells through receptor-ligand interactions or lipid membrane fusion. With the advancement of exosome research, exosome therapy for osteoporosis is fast becoming a research hotspot for researchers. This review aims to discuss the role of exosomes in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. In addition, emerging diagnostic and therapeutic properties of exosomes are described to highlight the potential role of exosomes in osteoporosis.

Emerging Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in Alzheimer's Disease: Focus on Synaptic Dysfunction and Vesicle-Neuron Interaction

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is considered by many to be a synaptic failure. Synaptic function is in fact deeply affected in the very early disease phases and recognized as the main cause of AD-related cognitive impairment. While the reciprocal involvement of amyloid beta (Aβ) and tau peptides in these processes is under intense investigation, the crucial role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by different brain cells as vehicles for these molecules and as mediators of early synaptic alterations is gaining more and more ground in the field. In this review, we will summarize the current literature on the contribution of EVs derived from distinct brain cells to neuronal alterations and build a working model for EV-mediated propagation of synaptic dysfunction in early AD. A deeper understanding of EV-neuron interaction will provide useful targets for the development of novel therapeutic approaches aimed at hampering AD progression.

Preeclampsia and syncytiotrophoblast membrane extracellular vesicles (STB-EVs)

Preeclampsia (PE) is a hypertensive complication of pregnancy that affects 2-8% of women worldwide and is one of the leading causes of maternal deaths and premature birth. PE can occur early in pregnancy (<34 weeks gestation) or late in pregnancy (>34 weeks gestation). Whilst the placenta is clearly implicated in early onset PE (EOPE), late onset PE (LOPE) is less clear with some believing the disease is entirely maternal whilst others believe that there is an interplay between maternal systems and the placenta. In both types of PE, the syncytiotrophoblast (STB), the layer of the placenta in direct contact with maternal blood, is stressed. In EOPE, the STB is oxidatively stressed in early pregnancy (leading to PE later in gestation- the two-stage model) whilst in LOPE the STB is stressed because of villous overcrowding and senescence later in pregnancy. It is this stress that perturbs maternal systems leading to the clinical manifestations of PE. Whilst some of the molecular species driving this stress have been identified, none completely explain the multisystem nature of PE. Syncytiotrophoblast membrane vesicles (STB-EVs) are a potential contributor to this multisystem disorder. STB-EVs are released into the maternal circulation in increasing amounts with advancing gestational age, and this release is further exacerbated with stress. There are good in vitro evidence that STB-EVs are taken up by macrophages and liver cells with additional evidence supporting endothelial cell uptake. STB-EV targeting remains in the early stages of discovery. In this review, we highlight the role of STB-EVs in PE. In relation to current research, we discuss different protocols for ex vivo isolation of STB-EVs, as well as specific issues involving tissue preparation, isolation (some of which may be unique to STB-EVs), and methods for their analysis. We suggest potential solutions for these challenges.

Targeting Endocytosis and Cell Communications in the Tumor Immune Microenvironment

The existence of multiple endocytic pathways is well known, and their exact biological effects in tumors have been intensively investigated. Endocytosis can affect the connection between tumor cells and determine the fate of tumor cells. Many relationships between endocytosis and tumor cells have been elucidated, but the mechanism of endocytosis between different types of cells in tumors needs to be explored in greater depth. Endocytic receptors sense the environment and are induced by specific ligands to trigger communication between tumor and immune cells. Crosstalk in the tumor microenvironment can occur through direct contact between cell adhesion molecules or indirectly through exosomes. So a better understanding of the endocytic pathways that control cell adhesion molecules and function is expected to lead to new candidates for cancer treatment. In additional, tumor-derived exosomes may changes immune cell function, which may be a key role for tumors to evade immune detection and response. The overall understanding of exosomes through endocytosis is also expected to bring new candidates for therapeutic regulation of tumor immune microenvironment. In this case, endocytic pathways coordinate cell adhesion molecules and exosomes and can be used as targets in the tumor immune microenvironment for cancer treatment.

Extracellular vesicles as central regulators of blood vessel function in cancer

Blood vessels deliver oxygen and nutrients that sustain tumor growth and enable the dissemination of cancer cells to distant sites and the recruitment of intratumoral immune cells. In addition, the structural and functional abnormalities of the tumor vasculature foster the development of an aggressive tumor microenvironment and impair the efficacy of existing cancer therapies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as major players of tumor progression, and a growing body of evidence has demonstrated that EVs derived from cancer cells trigger multiple responses in endothelial cells that alter blood vessel function in tumors. EV-mediated signaling in endothelial cells can occur through the transfer of functional cargos such as miRNAs, lncRNAs, cirRNAs, and proteins. Moreover, membrane-bound proteins in EVs can elicit receptor-mediated signaling in endothelial cells. Together, these mechanisms reprogram endothelial cells and contribute to the sustained exacerbated angiogenic signaling typical of tumors, which, in turn, influences cancer progression. Targeting these angiogenesis-promoting EV-dependent mechanisms may offer additional strategies to normalize tumor vasculature. Here, we discuss the current knowledge pertaining to the contribution of cancer cell-derived EVs in mechanisms regulating blood vessel functions in tumors. Moreover, we discuss the translational opportunities in targeting the dysfunctional tumor vasculature using EVs and highlight the open questions in the field of EV biology that can be addressed using mass spectrometry-based proteomics analysis.

LAMTOR1 degrades MHC-II via the endocytic in hepatocellular carcinoma

Tumor cell surface antigen recognition is a major hallmark of cancer therapy, and loss of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I) is the most common mechanism that impairs tumor cell surface antigen processing and expression. In addition to this, MHC-II regulates antigen presentation in CD4+ T cell immune responses involved in tumor killing by CD8+ T cells, whereas the regulation of endocytosis regulating MHC-II antigen presentation has not been reported. Therefore, the regulation of the endocytosis pathway on the expression of MHC-II surface level and antitumor T cell response remains to be explored. In this experiment, we found that LAMTOR1 regulates the endocytic pathway through the GTPase domain of DNM2 and triggers the formation of autophagosomes. We performed flow cytometry and western blotting analyses, which revealed that the expression of MHC-II molecules on the surface of cells is influenced by LAMTOR1 through the endocytic pathway. We showed that the expression of MHC-II molecules, which recognize CD4+ T cells on the surface of cells, was regulated by LAMTOR1 through an endocytic pathway. By coculture experiments, we showed that CD8+/CD4+ T cells exhibit substantially higher levels of tumor cell apoptosis than those observed when hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells were cocultured with CD8+ T cells alone. This study revealed that LAMTOR1 decreases the expression levels of MHC-II on cell surfaces in order to reduce antigen expression, leading to a decrease in antitumor T cell responses.

Desialylated Mesenchymal Stem Cells-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Loaded with Doxorubicin for Targeted Inhibition of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the dominating causes of cancer-related death throughout the world. Treatment options for patients with HCC vary, however, the lack of effective targeted drugs is the major reason for death in advanced HCC patients. In this study, a delivery system based on mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) loaded with doxorubicin (Dox) was developed. In this system, we initially erased terminal linked α2–3 and α2–6 sialic acids on the surface of EVs by neuraminidase. The exhibition of galactose (Gal) and N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues in treated MSC-EVs can specifically be recognized by asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR) of hepatoma cells. Compared to free Dox and Dox-loaded EVs, desialylated EVs loaded with Dox significantly presented the improved cellular uptake, prioritized targeting efficacy, and had a better inhibiting effect in vitro and in vivo. Overall, the results of the present study of the demonstrated delivery system using desialylated MSC-EVs suggest its therapeutic potential for HCC.

Comparing extracellular vesicles and cell membranes as biocompatible coatings for gold nanorods: Implications for targeted theranostics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and cell membrane nanoghosts are excellent coatings for nanomaterials, providing enhanced delivery in the target sites and evasion of the immune system. These cell-derived coatings allow the exploration of the delivery properties of the nanoparticles without stimulation of the immune system. Despite the advances reported on the use of EVs and cell-membrane coatings for nanomedicine applications, there are no standards to compare the benefits and main differences between these technologies. Here we investigated macrophage-derived EVs and cell membranes-coated gold nanorods and compared both systems in terms of target delivery in cancer and stromal cells. Our results reveal a higher tendency of EV-coated nanorods to interact with macrophages yet both EV and cell membrane-coated nanorods were internalized in the metastatic breast cancer cells. The main differences between these nanoparticles are related to the presence or absence of CD47 in the coating material, not usually addressed in EVs characterization. Our findings highlight important delivery differences exhibited by EVs- or cell membranes- coated nanorods which understanding may be important to the design and development of theragnostic nanomaterials using these coatings for target delivery.

64Cu-labeling of small extracellular vesicle surfaces via a cross-bridged macrocyclic chelator for pharmacokinetic study by positron emission tomography imaging

We developed a method of labeling the surfaces of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) with ⁶⁴Cu using a cross-bridged, macrocyclic chelator (CB-TE1A1P) and applied to pharmacokinetics study with positron emission tomography (PET). After incubation in 20% plasma for 10 min, approximately a half of the ⁶⁴Cu was desorbed from ⁶⁴Cu-labeled sEVs purified by phosphate-buffered saline wash, suggesting partly weak interaction without coordinating to CB-TE1A1P. After subsequent purification with albumin, ⁶⁴Cu desorption was greatly reduced, resulting in a radiochemical stability of 95.7%. Notably, labeling did not alter the physicochemical and biological properties of sEVs. After intravenous injection, ⁶⁴Cu-labeled sEVs rapidly disappeared from the systemic blood circulation and accumulated mainly in the liver and spleen of macrophage-competent mice. In macrophage-depleted mice, ⁶⁴Cu-labeled sEVs remained in the blood circulation for a longer period and gradually accumulated in the liver and spleen, suggesting mechanisms of hepatic and splenic accumulation other than macrophage-dependent phagocytosis. The comparison of tissue uptake clearance between macrophage-competent and macrophage-depleted mice suggests that macrophages contributed to 67% and 76% of sEV uptake in the liver and spleen, respectively. The application of this method in pharmacokinetics PET studies can be useful in preclinical and clinical research and the development of sEV treatment modalities.

Exosomal Composition, Biogenesis and Profiling Using Point-of-Care Diagnostics—Implications for Cardiovascular Disease

Arteriosclerosis is an important age-dependent disease that encompasses atherosclerosis, in-stent restenosis (ISR), pulmonary hypertension, autologous bypass grafting and transplant arteriosclerosis. Endothelial dysfunction and the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cell (vSMC)-like cells is a critical event in the pathology of arteriosclerotic disease leading to intimal-medial thickening (IMT), lipid retention and vessel remodelling. An important aspect in guiding clinical decision-making is the detection of biomarkers of subclinical arteriosclerosis and early cardiovascular risk. Crucially, relevant biomarkers need to be good indicators of injury which change in their circulating concentrations or structure, signalling functional disturbances. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized membraneous vesicles secreted by cells that contain numerous bioactive molecules and act as a means of intercellular communication between different cell populations to maintain tissue homeostasis, gene regulation in recipient cells and the adaptive response to stress. This review will focus on the emerging field of EV research in cardiovascular disease (CVD) and discuss how key EV signatures in liquid biopsies may act as early pathological indicators of adaptive lesion formation and arteriosclerotic disease progression. EV profiling has the potential to provide important clinical information to complement current cardiovascular diagnostic platforms that indicate or predict myocardial injury. Finally, the development of fitting devices to enable rapid and/or high-throughput exosomal analysis that require adapted processing procedures will be evaluated.

Insight into Extracellular Vesicle-Cell Communication: From Cell Recognition to Intracellular Fate

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are heterogamous lipid bilayer-enclosed membranous structures secreted by cells. They are comprised of apoptotic bodies, microvesicles, and exosomes, and carry a range of nucleic acids and proteins that are necessary for cell-to-cell communication via interaction on the cells surface. They initiate intracellular signaling pathways or the transference of cargo molecules, which elicit pleiotropic responses in recipient cells in physiological processes, as well as pathological processes, such as cancer. It is therefore important to understand the molecular means by which EVs are taken up into cells. Accordingly, this review summarizes the underlying mechanisms involved in EV targeting and uptake. The primary method of entry by EVs appears to be endocytosis, where clathrin-mediated, caveolae-dependent, macropinocytotic, phagocytotic, and lipid raft-mediated uptake have been variously described as being prevalent. EV uptake mechanisms may depend on proteins and lipids found on the surfaces of both vesicles and target cells. As EVs have been shown to contribute to cancer growth and progression, further exploration and targeting of the gateways utilized by EVs to internalize into tumor cells may assist in the prevention or deceleration of cancer pathogenesis.

Harnessing the Therapeutic Potential of Extracellular Vesicles for Biomedical Applications Using Multifunctional Magnetic Nanomaterials

Extracellular vesicles (e.g., exosomes) carrying various biomolecules (e.g., proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) have rapidly emerged as promising platforms for many biomedical applications. Despite their enormous potential, their heterogeneity in surfaces and sizes, the high complexity of cargo biomolecules, and the inefficient uptake by recipient cells remain critical barriers for their theranostic applications. To address these critical issues, multifunctional nanomaterials, such as magnetic nanomaterials, with their tunable physical, chemical, and biological properties, may play crucial roles in next-generation extracellular vesicles (EV)-based disease diagnosis, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine. As such, one aims to provide cutting-edge knowledge pertaining to magnetic nanomaterials-facilitated isolation, detection, and delivery of extracellular vesicles and their associated biomolecules. By engaging the fields of extracellular vesicles and magnetic nanomaterials, it is envisioned that their properties can be effectively combined for optimal outcomes in biomedical applications.