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Wang Z, Liu J, Han J, Zhang T, Li S, Hou Y, Su H, Han F, Zhang C. Herpes simplex virus 1 accelerates the progression of Alzheimer's disease by modulating microglial phagocytosis and activating NLRP3 pathway. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:176. [PMID: 39026249 PMCID: PMC11264637 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03166-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence implicates that herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has been linked to the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). HSV-1 infection induces β-amyloid (Aβ) deposition in vitro and in vivo, but the effect and precise mechanism remain elusive. Here, we show that HSV-1 infection of the brains of transgenic 5xFAD mice resulted in accelerated Aβ deposition, gliosis, and cognitive dysfunction. We demonstrate that HSV-1 infection induced the recruitment of microglia to the viral core to trigger microglial phagocytosis of HSV-GFP-positive neuronal cells. In addition, we reveal that the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway induced by HSV-1 infection played a crucial role in Aβ deposition and the progression of AD caused by HSV-1 infection. Blockade of the NLRP3 inflammasome signaling reduces Aβ deposition and alleviates cognitive decline in 5xFAD mice after HSV-1 infection. Our findings support the notion that HSV-1 infection is a key factor in the etiology of AD, demonstrating that NLRP3 inflammasome activation functions in the interface of HSV-1 infection and Aβ deposition in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhimeng Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, SXMU-Tsinghua Collaborative Innovation Center for Frontier Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Jing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jing Han
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, SXMU-Tsinghua Collaborative Innovation Center for Frontier Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Tianyi Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Shangjin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Yanfei Hou
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Huili Su
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Fangping Han
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Conggang Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, SXMU-Tsinghua Collaborative Innovation Center for Frontier Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
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2
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Cleaver J, Jeffery K, Klenerman P, Lim M, Handunnetthi L, Irani SR, Handel A. The immunobiology of herpes simplex virus encephalitis and post-viral autoimmunity. Brain 2024; 147:1130-1148. [PMID: 38092513 PMCID: PMC10994539 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awad419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus encephalitis (HSE) is the leading cause of non-epidemic encephalitis in the developed world and, despite antiviral therapy, mortality and morbidity is high. The emergence of post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis reveals a new immunological paradigm in autoantibody-mediated disease. A reductionist evaluation of the immunobiological mechanisms in HSE is crucial to dissect the origins of post-viral autoimmunity and supply rational approaches to the selection of immunotherapeutics. Herein, we review the latest evidence behind the phenotypic progression and underlying immunobiology of HSE including the cytokine/chemokine environment, the role of pathogen-recognition receptors, T- and B-cell immunity and relevant inborn errors of immunity. Second, we provide a contemporary review of published patients with post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis from a combined cohort of 110 patients. Third, we integrate novel mechanisms of autoimmunization in deep cervical lymph nodes to explore hypotheses around post-HSE autoimmune encephalitis and challenge these against mechanisms of molecular mimicry and others. Finally, we explore translational concepts where neuroglial surface autoantibodies have been observed with other neuroinfectious diseases and those that generate brain damage including traumatic brain injury, ischaemic stroke and neurodegenerative disease. Overall, the clinical and immunological landscape of HSE is an important and evolving field, from which precision immunotherapeutics could soon emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Cleaver
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Department of Neurology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Katie Jeffery
- Department of Microbiology, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Paul Klenerman
- Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3SY, UK
- Translational Gastroenterology Unit, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Ming Lim
- Children’s Neurosciences, Evelina London Children’s Hospital at Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, SE1 7EH, UK
- Department Women and Children’s Health, School of Life Course Sciences, King’s College London, London, WC2R 2LS, UK
| | - Lahiru Handunnetthi
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Sarosh R Irani
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Department of Neurology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
| | - Adam Handel
- Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
- Department of Neurology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK
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Cui P, Song B, Xia Z, Xu Y. Type I Interferon Signalling and Ischemic Stroke: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potentials. Transl Stroke Res 2024:10.1007/s12975-024-01236-x. [PMID: 38466560 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-024-01236-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Type I interferon (IFN-I) signalling is intricately involved in the pathogenesis of multiple infectious diseases, autoimmune diseases, and neurological diseases. Acute ischemic stroke provokes overactivation of IFN-I signalling within the injured brain, particularly in microglia. Following cerebral ischemia, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) released from injured neural cells elicit marked proinflammatory episodes within minutes. Among these, self-nucleic acids, including nuclear DNA and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), have been recognized as a critical alarm signal to fan the flames of neuroinflammation, predominantly via inducing IFN-I signalling activation in microglia. The concept of interferon-responsive microglia (IRM), marked by upregulation of a plethora of IFN-stimulated genes, has been emergingly elucidated in ischemic mouse brains, particularly in aged ones. Among the pattern recognition receptors responsible for IFN-I induction, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) plays integral roles in potentiating microglia-driven neuroinflammation and secondary brain injury after cerebral ischemia. Here, we aim to provide an up-to-date review on the multifaceted roles of IFN-I signalling, the detailed molecular and cellular mechanisms leading to and resulting from aberrant IFN-I signalling activation after cerebral ischemia, and the therapeutic potentials. A thorough exploration of these above points will inform our quest for IFN-based therapies as effective immunomodulatory therapeutics to complement the limited repertoire of thrombolytic agents, thereby facilitating the translation from bench to bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Cui
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Clinical Systems Biology Laboratories, Translation Medicine Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Bo Song
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Zongping Xia
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
- Clinical Systems Biology Laboratories, Translation Medicine Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
| | - Yuming Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
- Henan Key Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Diseases, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China.
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Maelfait J, Rehwinkel J. The Z-nucleic acid sensor ZBP1 in health and disease. J Exp Med 2023; 220:e20221156. [PMID: 37450010 PMCID: PMC10347765 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20221156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Nucleic acid sensing is a central process in the immune system, with far-reaching roles in antiviral defense, autoinflammation, and cancer. Z-DNA binding protein 1 (ZBP1) is a sensor for double-stranded DNA and RNA helices in the unusual left-handed Z conformation termed Z-DNA and Z-RNA. Recent research established ZBP1 as a key upstream regulator of cell death and proinflammatory signaling. Recognition of Z-DNA/RNA by ZBP1 promotes host resistance to viral infection but can also drive detrimental autoinflammation. Additionally, ZBP1 has interesting roles in cancer and other disease settings and is emerging as an attractive target for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Maelfait
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jan Rehwinkel
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Medical Research Council Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Suptela AJ, Marriott I. Cytosolic DNA sensors and glial responses to endogenous DNA. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1130172. [PMID: 36999037 PMCID: PMC10043442 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1130172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Genomic instability is a key driving force for the development and progression of many neurodegenerative diseases and central nervous system (CNS) cancers. The initiation of DNA damage responses is a critical step in maintaining genomic integrity and preventing such diseases. However, the absence of these responses or their inability to repair genomic or mitochondrial DNA damage resulting from insults, including ionizing radiation or oxidative stress, can lead to an accumulation of self-DNA in the cytoplasm. Resident CNS cells, such as astrocytes and microglia, are known to produce critical immune mediators following CNS infection due to the recognition of pathogen and damage-associated molecular patterns by specialized pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Recently, multiple intracellular PRRs, including cyclic GMP-AMP synthase, interferon gamma-inducible 16, absent in melanoma 2, and Z-DNA binding protein, have been identified as cytosolic DNA sensors and to play critical roles in glial immune responses to infectious agents. Intriguingly, these nucleic acid sensors have recently been shown to recognize endogenous DNA and trigger immune responses in peripheral cell types. In the present review, we discuss the available evidence that cytosolic DNA sensors are expressed by resident CNS cells and can mediate their responses to the presence of self-DNA. Furthermore, we discuss the potential for glial DNA sensor-mediated responses to provide protection against tumorigenesis versus the initiation of potentially detrimental neuroinflammation that could initiate or foster the development of neurodegenerative disorders. Determining the mechanisms that underlie the detection of cytosolic DNA by glia and the relative role of each pathway in the context of specific CNS disorders and their stages may prove pivotal in our understanding of the pathogenesis of such conditions and might be leveraged to develop new treatment modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States
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6
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Hao Y, Yang B, Yang J, Shi X, Yang X, Zhang D, Zhao D, Yan W, Chen L, Zheng H, Zhang K, Liu X. ZBP1: A Powerful Innate Immune Sensor and Double-Edged Sword in Host Immunity. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810224. [PMID: 36142136 PMCID: PMC9499459 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Z-conformation nucleic acid binding protein 1 (ZBP1), a powerful innate immune sensor, has been identified as the important signaling initiation factor in innate immune response and the multiple inflammatory cell death known as PANoptosis. The initiation of ZBP1 signaling requires recognition of left-handed double-helix Z-nucleic acid (includes Z-DNA and Z-RNA) and subsequent signaling transduction depends on the interaction between ZBP1 and its adapter proteins, such as TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1), interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), and RIPK3. ZBP1 activated innate immunity, including type-I interferon (IFN-I) response and NF-κB signaling, constitutes an important line of defense against pathogenic infection. In addition, ZBP1-mediated PANoptosis is a double-edged sword in anti-infection, auto-inflammatory diseases, and tumor immunity. ZBP1-mediated PANoptosis is beneficial for eliminating infected cells and tumor cells, but abnormal or excessive PANoptosis can lead to a strong inflammatory response that is harmful to the host. Thus, pathogens and host have each developed multiplex tactics targeting ZBP1 signaling to maintain strong virulence or immune homeostasis. In this paper, we reviewed the mechanisms of ZBP1 signaling, the effects of ZBP1 signaling on host immunity and pathogen infection, and various antagonistic strategies of host and pathogen against ZBP1. We also discuss existent gaps regarding ZBP1 signaling and forecast potential directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Haixue Zheng
- Correspondence: (H.Z.); (K.Z.); Tel.: +86-15214078335 (K.Z.)
| | - Keshan Zhang
- Correspondence: (H.Z.); (K.Z.); Tel.: +86-15214078335 (K.Z.)
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7
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Jeffries AM, Suptela AJ, Marriott I. Z-DNA binding protein 1 mediates necroptotic and apoptotic cell death pathways in murine astrocytes following herpes simplex virus-1 infection. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:109. [PMID: 35549723 PMCID: PMC9103380 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02469-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The mechanisms by which glia respond to viral central nervous system (CNS) pathogens are now becoming apparent with the demonstration that microglia and astrocytes express an array of pattern recognition receptors that include intracellular RNA and DNA sensors. We have previously demonstrated that glia express Z-DNA binding protein 1 (ZBP1) and showed that this cytosolic nucleic acid sensor contributes to the inflammatory/neurotoxic responses of these cells to herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1). However, the relative contribution made by ZBP1- to HSV-1-mediated cell death in glia has not been determined. Methods We have investigated the relative contribution made by ZBP1- to HSV-1-mediated cell death in primary astrocytes derived from mice genetically deficient in this sensor. We have used capture ELISAs and immunoblot analysis to assess inflammatory cytokine production and ZBP1 and phosphorylated mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) expression levels, respectively, following HSV-1 challenge. Furthermore, we have used a commercially available cell viability assay to determine the proportion and rate of cell death in cells following infection with laboratory and neuroinvasive clinical strains of HSV-1, and pharmacological inhibitors of necroptotic and apoptotic pathway components to assess the relative role of each. Results We show that the loss of ZBP1 in astrocytes results in an increase in the number of viral particles released following HSV-1 infection. Importantly, we have confirmed that HSV-1 induces necroptosis in astrocytes and have established the ability of ZBP1 to mediate this cell death pathway. Interestingly, while ZBP1 is best known for its role in necroptotic signaling, our findings indicate that this sensor can also contribute to virally induced apoptosis in these glia. Conclusions Our findings indicate that ZBP1 serves as a restriction factor for HSV-1 infection and is associated with the induction of both necroptotic and apoptotic cell death pathways in primary murine astrocytes. While it remains to be seen whether ZBP1-mediated activation of cell death in astrocytes contributes significantly to host protection or, rather, exacerbates HSV-1 encephalitis pathology, the identification of such a role in resident CNS cells may represent a novel target for therapeutic intervention to reduce HSV encephalitis-associated morbidity and mortality. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-022-02469-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin M Jeffries
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd., Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Alexander J Suptela
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd., Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd., Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
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Jalili M, Ansari N, Pourhossein B, Fazeli M, Jalilian FA. An Overview of Antiviral Properties of Bacteriophages with Emphasis on the Treatment of COVID-19 Infection. Infect Disord Drug Targets 2022; 22:22-28. [PMID: 35068397 DOI: 10.2174/1871526522666220124110547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Bacteriophages or phages are the most abundant organisms in the biosphere. Scientists considered phages an appropriate tool for understanding molecular biology, horizontal gene transfer vectors, stimulants of bacterial evolution, a source of diagnostic and genetic tools, and new therapeutic agents. Therefore, studying the biology of phages and their interactions with their hosts is crucial to gaining a deeper knowledge of biological systems. Numerous studies confirmed that bacteriophages are a genetic tool with high potential for treating infectious diseases, including bacterial, fungal, and viral infections. Therefore, phages may be used as an appropriate therapeutic target against some viruses, such as COVID-19 infection. In this study, we describe the role of phages in modulating the host immune system, the production of specific antibodies against the COVID-19 virus by the host immune system, and the minimization of damage caused by the COVID-19 virus to the host. Also, the present study expresses our understanding of the prospect of phage therapy as an adjunctive therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahsa Jalili
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
- Educational, Research and Diagnostic Center for Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Diseases, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Nastaran Ansari
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
- Educational, Research and Diagnostic Center for Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Diseases, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Behzad Pourhossein
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
- Educational, Research and Diagnostic Center for Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Diseases, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Maryam Fazeli
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
- Educational, Research and Diagnostic Center for Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Diseases, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Farid Azizi Jalilian
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
- Educational, Research and Diagnostic Center for Emerging and Re-Emerging Viral Diseases, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
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Mielcarska MB, Skowrońska K, Wyżewski Z, Toka FN. Disrupting Neurons and Glial Cells Oneness in the Brain-The Possible Causal Role of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1) in Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23:ijms23010242. [PMID: 35008671 PMCID: PMC8745046 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Current data strongly suggest herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection in the brain as a contributing factor to Alzheimer's disease (AD). The consequences of HSV-1 brain infection are multilateral, not only are neurons and glial cells damaged, but modifications also occur in their environment, preventing the transmission of signals and fulfillment of homeostatic and immune functions, which can greatly contribute to the development of disease. In this review, we discuss the pathological alterations in the central nervous system (CNS) cells that occur, following HSV-1 infection. We describe the changes in neurons, astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes related to the production of inflammatory factors, transition of glial cells into a reactive state, oxidative damage, Aβ secretion, tau hyperphosphorylation, apoptosis, and autophagy. Further, HSV-1 infection can affect processes observed during brain aging, and advanced age favors HSV-1 reactivation as well as the entry of the virus into the brain. The host activates pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) for an effective antiviral response during HSV-1 brain infection, which primarily engages type I interferons (IFNs). Future studies regarding the influence of innate immune deficits on AD development, as well as supporting the neuroprotective properties of glial cells, would reveal valuable information on how to harness cytotoxic inflammatory milieu to counter AD initiation and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matylda Barbara Mielcarska
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences–SGGW, Jana Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-22-59-36063
| | - Katarzyna Skowrońska
- Department of Neurotoxicology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Adolfa Pawińskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Zbigniew Wyżewski
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, Dewajtis 5, 01-815 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Felix Ngosa Toka
- Department of Preclinical Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences–SGGW, Jana Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland;
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre 42123, Saint Kitts and Nevis
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10
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Zhu H, Zheng C. The Race between Host Antiviral Innate Immunity and the Immune Evasion Strategies of Herpes Simplex Virus 1. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2020; 84:e00099-20. [PMID: 32998978 PMCID: PMC7528619 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00099-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is very successful in establishing acute and latent infections in humans by counteracting host antiviral innate immune responses. HSV-1 has evolved various strategies to evade host antiviral innate immunity and some cellular survival-associated pathways. Since there is still no vaccine available for HSV-1, a continuous update of information regarding the interaction between HSV-1 infection and the host antiviral innate immunity will provide novel insights to develop new therapeutic strategies for HSV-1 infection and its associated diseases. Here, we update recent studies about how HSV-1 evades the host antiviral innate immunity, specifically how HSV-1 proteins directly or indirectly target the adaptors in the antiviral innate immunity signaling pathways to downregulate the signal transduction. Additionally, some classical intracellular stress responses, which also play important roles in defense of viral invasion, will be discussed here. With a comprehensive review of evasion mechanisms of antiviral innate immunity by HSV-1, we will be able to develop potential new targets for therapies and a possible vaccine against HSV-1 infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huifang Zhu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Neonatal/Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Children's Medical Center, First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
| | - Chunfu Zheng
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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11
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Jeffries AM, Marriott I. Cytosolic DNA Sensors and CNS Responses to Viral Pathogens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:576263. [PMID: 33042875 PMCID: PMC7525022 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.576263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral central nervous system (CNS) infections can lead to life threatening encephalitis and long-term neurological deficits in survivors. Resident CNS cell types, such as astrocytes and microglia, are known to produce key inflammatory and antiviral mediators following infection with neurotropic DNA viruses. However, the mechanisms by which glia mediate such responses remain poorly understood. Recently, a class of intracellular pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), collectively known as DNA sensors, have been identified in both leukocytic and non-leukocytic cell types. The ability of such DNA sensors to initiate immune mediator production and contribute to infection resolution in the periphery is increasingly recognized, but our understanding of their role in the CNS remains limited at best. In this review, we describe the evidence for the expression and functionality of DNA sensors in resident brain cells, with a focus on their role in neurotropic virus infections. The available data indicate that glia and neurons can constitutively express, and/or can be induced to express, various disparate DNA sensing molecules previously described in peripheral cell types. Furthermore, multiple lines of investigation suggest that these sensors are functional in resident CNS cells and are required for innate immune responses to viral infections. However, it is less clear whether DNA sensormediated glial responses are beneficial or detrimental, and the answer to this question appears to dependent on the context of the infection with regard to the identity of the pathogen, host cell type, and host species. Defining such parameters will be essential if we are to successfully target these molecules to limit damaging inflammation while allowing beneficial host responses to improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin M Jeffries
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States
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12
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Liu ZH, Niu FJ, Xie YX, Xie SM, Liu YN, Yang YY, Zhou CZ, Wan XH. A review: Natural polysaccharides from medicinal plants and microorganisms and their anti-herpetic mechanism. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 129:110469. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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13
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Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Interactions with the Interferon System. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21145150. [PMID: 32708188 PMCID: PMC7404291 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21145150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interferon (IFN) system is one of the first lines of defense activated against invading viral pathogens. Upon secretion, IFNs activate a signaling cascade resulting in the production of several interferon stimulated genes (ISGs), which work to limit viral replication and establish an overall anti-viral state. Herpes simplex virus type 1 is a ubiquitous human pathogen that has evolved to downregulate the IFN response and establish lifelong latent infection in sensory neurons of the host. This review will focus on the mechanisms by which the host innate immune system detects invading HSV-1 virions, the subsequent IFN response generated to limit viral infection, and the evasion strategies developed by HSV-1 to evade the immune system and establish latency in the host.
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14
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Jeffries AM, Truman AW, Marriott I. The intracellular DNA sensors cGAS and IFI16 do not mediate effective antiviral immune responses to HSV-1 in human microglial cells. J Neurovirol 2020; 26:544-555. [PMID: 32488842 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-020-00852-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Glia play a key role in immunosurveillance within the central nervous system (CNS) and can recognize a wide range of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS) via members of multiple pattern recognition receptor (PRR) families. Of these, the expression of cytosolic/nuclear RNA and DNA sensors by glial cells is of particular interest as their ability to interact with intracellular nucleic acids suggests a critical role in the detection of viral pathogens. The recently discovered DNA sensors cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and interferon gamma-inducible protein 16 (IFI16) have been reported to be important for the recognition of DNA pathogens such as herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) in peripheral human cell types, and we have recently demonstrated that human glia express cGAS and its downstream adaptor molecule stimulator of interferon genes (STING). Here, we have demonstrated that human microglial cells functionally express cGAS and exhibit robust constitutive IFI16 expression. While cGAS serves as a significant component in IRF3 activation and IFN-β production by human microglial cells in response to foreign intracellular DNA, IFI16 is not required for such responses. Surprisingly, neither of these sensors mediate effective antiviral responses to HSV-1 in microglia, and this may be due, at least in part, to viral suppression of cGAS and/or IFI16 expression. As such, this ability may represent an important HSV immune evasion strategy in glial cells, and approaches that mitigate such suppression might represent a novel strategy to limit HSV-1-associated neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin M Jeffries
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Andrew W Truman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
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15
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Cai M, Liao Z, Zou X, Xu Z, Wang Y, Li T, Li Y, Ou X, Deng Y, Guo Y, Peng T, Li M. Herpes Simplex Virus 1 UL2 Inhibits the TNF-α-Mediated NF-κB Activity by Interacting With p65/p50. Front Immunol 2020; 11:549. [PMID: 32477319 PMCID: PMC7237644 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) is a large double-stranded DNA virus that encodes at least 80 viral proteins, many of which are involved in the virus-host interaction and are beneficial to the viral survival and reproduction. However, the biological functions of some HSV-1-encoded proteins are not fully understood. Nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation is the major antiviral innate response, which can be triggered by various signals induced by cellular receptors from different pathways. Here, we demonstrated that HSV-1 UL2 protein could antagonize the tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)-mediated NF-κB activation. Co-immunoprecipitation assays showed that UL2 could interact with the NF-κB subunits p65 and p50, which also revealed the region of amino acids 9 to 17 of UL2 could suppress the NF-κB activation and interact with p65 and p50, and UL2 bound to the immunoglobulin-like plexin transcription factor functional domain of p65. However, UL2 did not affect the formation of p65/p50 dimerization and their nuclear localizations. Yet, UL2 was demonstrated to inhibit the NF-κB activity by attenuating TNF-α-induced p65 phosphorylation at Ser536 and therefore decreasing the expression of downstream inflammatory chemokine interleukin 8. Taken together, the attenuation of NF-κB activation by UL2 may contribute to the escape of host's antiviral innate immunity for HSV-1 during its infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingsheng Cai
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zongmin Liao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Scientific Research and Education, Yuebei People's Hospital, Shaoguan, China
| | - Xingmei Zou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zuo Xu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuanfang Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tong Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yiwen Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaowen Ou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yangxi Deng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingjie Guo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tao Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Diseases, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,South China Vaccine Corporation Limited, Guangzhou Science Park, Guangzhou, China
| | - Meili Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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16
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Johnson MB, Halman JR, Burmeister AR, Currin S, Khisamutdinov EF, Afonin KA, Marriott I. Retinoic acid inducible gene-I mediated detection of bacterial nucleic acids in human microglial cells. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:139. [PMID: 32357908 PMCID: PMC7195775 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01817-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bacterial meningitis and meningoencephalitis are associated with devastating neuroinflammation. We and others have demonstrated the importance of glial cells in the initiation of immune responses to pathogens invading the central nervous system (CNS). These cells use a variety of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to identify common pathogen motifs and the cytosolic sensor retinoic acid inducible gene-1 (RIG-I) is known to serve as a viral PRR and initiator of interferon (IFN) responses. Intriguingly, recent evidence indicates that RIG-I also has an important role in the detection of bacterial nucleic acids, but such a role has not been investigated in glia. Methods In this study, we have assessed whether primary or immortalized human and murine glia express RIG-I either constitutively or following stimulation with bacteria or their products by immunoblot analysis. We have used capture ELISAs and immunoblot analysis to assess human microglial interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) activation and IFN production elicited by bacterial nucleic acids and novel engineered nucleic acid nanoparticles. Furthermore, we have utilized a pharmacological inhibitor of RIG-I signaling and siRNA-mediated knockdown approaches to assess the relative importance of RIG-I in such responses. Results We demonstrate that RIG-I is constitutively expressed by human and murine microglia and astrocytes, and is elevated following bacterial infection in a pathogen and cell type-specific manner. Additionally, surface and cytosolic PRR ligands are also sufficient to enhance RIG-I expression. Importantly, our data demonstrate that bacterial RNA and DNA both trigger RIG-I-dependent IRF3 phosphorylation and subsequent type I IFN production in human microglia. This ability has been confirmed using our nucleic acid nanoparticles where we demonstrate that both RNA- and DNA-based nanoparticles can stimulate RIG-I-dependent IFN responses in these cells. Conclusions The constitutive and bacteria-induced expression of RIG-I by human glia and its ability to mediate IFN responses to bacterial RNA and DNA and nucleic acid nanoparticles raises the intriguing possibility that RIG-I may be a potential target for therapeutic intervention during bacterial infections of the CNS, and that the use of engineered nucleic acid nanoparticles that engage this sensor might be a method to achieve this goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Brittany Johnson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Justin R Halman
- Nanoscale Science Program, Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Amanda R Burmeister
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA
| | - Saralynn Currin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | | | - Kirill A Afonin
- Nanoscale Science Program, Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Blvd, Charlotte, NC, 28223, USA.
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17
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Koehler HS, Feng Y, Mandal P, Mocarski ES. Recognizing limits of Z-nucleic acid binding protein (ZBP1/DAI/DLM1) function. FEBS J 2020; 287:4362-4369. [PMID: 32096322 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Z-nucleic acid binding protein (ZBP)1 (also known as DAI and DLM1) is a pathogen sensor activated by double-strand character RNA to recruit receptor-interacting protein (RIP) kinase via a RIP homotypic interaction motif. The activation of receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIPK)3 and initiation of virus-induced necroptosis were initially reported in a landmark publication Upton et al. (Cell Host Microbe 11: 290, 2012) employing the DNA virus murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV). M45-encoded viral inhibitor of RIP activation prevents virus-induced necroptosis. Additional virus-encoded suppressors of necroptosis were then identified, including herpes simplex virus ICP6 and vaccinia virus E3L. Caspase-8 suppressors encoded by these DNA viruses block apoptosis, unleashing necroptosis mediated through Z-nucleic acid binding protein 1 (ZBP1) recruitment of RIPK3. These studies all utilized ZBP1-deficient mice generated by the Akira Lab (Zbp1-/- AK ) to bring the significance of virus-induced necroptosis to light. C57BL/6 mice were chosen as controls based on the assumption that mutant mice were congenic; however, these mice were recently found to display an unexpected innate immune deficit, lacking C57BL/6-specific NK1.1 and Ly49H natural killer cell subpopulations important in the early control of MCMV infection. Short nucleotide polymorphism analysis of Zbp1-/- AK breeders revealed a mixed genetic background (~ 71% C57BL/6 DNA and ~ 29% 129). Even though this level of 129 strain background does not alter ZBP1 cell-autonomous function as a sensor and mediator of necroptosis, it confounds innate immune response characteristics. In the future, genetic background must be carefully controlled before implicating ZBP1 function in response characteristics that shape immunity, inflammation, metabolism, and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather S Koehler
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Yanjun Feng
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Pratyusha Mandal
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Edward S Mocarski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
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18
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Maelfait J, Liverpool L, Rehwinkel J. Nucleic Acid Sensors and Programmed Cell Death. J Mol Biol 2020; 432:552-568. [PMID: 31786265 PMCID: PMC7322524 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2019.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nucleic acids derived from microorganisms are powerful triggers for innate immune responses. Proteins called RNA and DNA sensors detect foreign nucleic acids and, in mammalian cells, include RIG-I, cGAS, and AIM2. On binding to nucleic acids, these proteins initiate signaling cascades that activate host defense responses. An important aspect of this defense program is the production of cytokines such as type I interferons and IL-1β. Studies conducted over recent years have revealed that nucleic acid sensors also activate programmed cell death pathways as an innate immune response to infection. Indeed, RNA and DNA sensors induce apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis. Cell death via these pathways prevents replication of pathogens by eliminating the infected cell and additionally contributes to the release of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. Interestingly, recent evidence suggests that programmed cell death triggered by nucleic acid sensors plays an important role in a number of noninfectious pathologies. In addition to nonself DNA and RNA from microorganisms, nucleic acid sensors also recognize endogenous nucleic acids, for example when cells are damaged by genotoxic agents and in certain autoinflammatory diseases. This review article summarizes current knowledge on the links between nucleic acid sensing and cell death and explores important open questions for future studies in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Maelfait
- VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, 9052 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Layal Liverpool
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Medical Research Council Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK
| | - Jan Rehwinkel
- Medical Research Council Human Immunology Unit, Medical Research Council Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DS, UK.
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19
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Zyzak J, Mitkiewicz M, Leszczyńska E, Reniewicz P, Moynagh PN, Siednienko J. HSV-1/TLR9-Mediated IFNβ and TNFα Induction Is Mal-Dependent in Macrophages. J Innate Immun 2019; 12:387-398. [PMID: 31851971 DOI: 10.1159/000504542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Innate immune response is a universal mechanism against invading pathogens. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), being part of a first line of defense, are responsible for detecting a variety of microorganisms. Among them TLR9, which is localized in endosomes, acts as a sensor for unmethylated CpG motifs present in bacteria, DNA viruses (e.g., HSV-1), or fungi. TLRs differ from one another by the use of accessory proteins. MyD88 adapter-like (Mal) adapter molecule is considered a positive regulator of TLR2- and TLR4-dependent pathways. It has been reported that this adapter may also negatively control signal transduction induced by TLR3 anchored in the endosome membrane. So far, the role of Mal adapter protein in the TLR9 signaling pathways has not been clarified. We show for the first time that Mal is engaged in TLR9-de-pendent expression of genes encoding IFNβ and TNFα in HSV-1-infected or CpG-C-treated macrophages and requires a noncanonical NF-κB pathway. Moreover, using inhibitor of ERK1/2 we confirmed involvement of these kinases in TLR9-dependent induction of IFNβ and TNFα. Our study points to a new role of Mal in TLR9 signaling through a hitherto unknown mechanism whereby lack of Mal specifically impairs ERK1/2-mediated induction of noncanonical NF-κB pathway and concomitant IFNβ and TNFα production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Zyzak
- Laboratory of Microbiome Immunobiology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland.,Łukasiewicz Research Network - PORT Polish Center for Technology Development, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Mitkiewicz
- Laboratory of Microbiome Immunobiology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Leszczyńska
- Laboratory of Microbiome Immunobiology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland.,Łukasiewicz Research Network - PORT Polish Center for Technology Development, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Patryk Reniewicz
- Laboratory of Microbiome Immunobiology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland.,Łukasiewicz Research Network - PORT Polish Center for Technology Development, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Paul N Moynagh
- Institute of Immunology, Department of Biology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland
| | - Jakub Siednienko
- Laboratory of Microbiome Immunobiology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland, .,Łukasiewicz Research Network - PORT Polish Center for Technology Development, Wroclaw, Poland,
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20
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Wang Y, Jia J, Wang Y, Li F, Song X, Qin S, Wang Z, Kitazato K, Wang Y. Roles of HSV-1 infection-induced microglial immune responses in CNS diseases: friends or foes? Crit Rev Microbiol 2019; 45:581-594. [PMID: 31512533 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2019.1660615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Microglia, as brain-resident macrophages, are the first line of defense against brain invading pathogens. Further, their dysfunction has been recognized to be closely associated with mounting CNS diseases. Of note, chronic HSV-1 infection leads to the persistent activation of microglia, which elicit a comprehensive response by generating certain factors with neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects. CNS infection with HSV-1 results in herpes simplex encephalitis and herpes simplex keratitis. Microglial immune response plays a crucial role in the development of these diseases. Moreover, HSV-1 infection is strongly associated with several CNS diseases, especially Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. These CNS diseases can be effectively ameliorated by eliciting an appropriate immune response, such as inhibition of microglial proliferation and activation. Therefore, it is crucial to reassess the positive and negative roles of microglia in HSV-1 CNS infection for a more comprehensive and detailed understanding of the relationship between microglia and CNS diseases. Hence, the present review focuses on the dual roles of microglia in mediating HSV-1 CNS infection, as well as on the strategy of targeting microglia to ameliorate CNS diseases. Further research in this field can help comprehensively elucidate the dual role of the microglial immune response in HSV-1 CNS infection, providing a theoretical basis for identifying therapeutic targets against overactive microglia in CNS diseases and HSV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiliang Wang
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiaoyan Jia
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yun Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Feng Li
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaowei Song
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shurong Qin
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhaoyang Wang
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioengineering Medicine of Guangdong Province, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kaio Kitazato
- Division of Molecular Pharmacology of Infectious Agents, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Yifei Wang
- Guangzhou Jinan Biomedicine Research and Development Center, Institute of Biomedicine, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Virology of Guangzhou, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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21
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Caggiu E, Arru G, Hosseini S, Niegowska M, Sechi G, Zarbo IR, Sechi LA. Inflammation, Infectious Triggers, and Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol 2019; 10:122. [PMID: 30837941 PMCID: PMC6389614 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta with a reduction of dopamine concentration in the striatum. The complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors seems to play a role in determining susceptibility to PD and may explain the heterogeneity observed in clinical presentations. The exact etiology is not yet clear, but different possible causes have been identified. Inflammation has been increasingly studied as part of the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases, corroborating the hypothesis that the immune system may be the nexus between environmental and genetic factors, and the abnormal immune function can lead to disease. In this review we report the different aspects of inflammation and immune system in Parkinson's disease, with particular interest in the possible role played by immune dysfunctions in PD, with focus on autoimmunity and processes involving infectious agents as a trigger and alpha-synuclein protein (α-syn).
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Caggiu
- Microbiology Section, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giannina Arru
- Microbiology Section, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Sepideh Hosseini
- Microbiology Section, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Magdalena Niegowska
- Microbiology Section, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - GianPietro Sechi
- Department of Clinical, Surgical and Experimental Medicine, Neurological Clinic, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Ignazio Roberto Zarbo
- Department of Clinical, Surgical and Experimental Medicine, Neurological Clinic, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Leonardo A Sechi
- Microbiology Section, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
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22
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Burmeister AR, Marriott I. The Interleukin-10 Family of Cytokines and Their Role in the CNS. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:458. [PMID: 30542269 PMCID: PMC6277801 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Resident cells of the central nervous system (CNS) play an important role in detecting insults and initiating protective or sometimes detrimental host immunity. At peripheral sites, immune responses follow a biphasic course with the rapid, but transient, production of inflammatory mediators giving way to the delayed release of factors that promote resolution and repair. Within the CNS, it is well known that glial cells contribute to the onset and progression of neuroinflammation, but it is only now becoming apparent that microglia and astrocytes also play an important role in producing and responding to immunosuppressive factors that serve to limit the detrimental effects of such responses. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is generally considered to be the quintessential immunosuppressive cytokine, and its ability to resolve inflammation and promote wound repair at peripheral sites is well documented. In the present review article, we discuss the evidence for the production of IL-10 by glia, and describe the ability of CNS cells, including microglia and astrocytes, to respond to this suppressive factor. Furthermore, we review the literature for the expression of other members of the IL-10 cytokine family, IL-19, IL-20, IL-22 and IL-24, within the brain, and discuss the evidence of a role for these poorly understood cytokines in the regulation of infectious and sterile neuroinflammation. In concert, the available data indicate that glia can produce IL-10 and the related cytokines IL-19 and IL-24 in a delayed manner, and these cytokines can limit glial inflammatory responses and/or provide protection against CNS insult. However, the roles of other IL-10 family members within the CNS remain unclear, with IL-20 appearing to act as a pro-inflammatory factor, while IL-22 may play a protective role in some instances and a detrimental role in others, perhaps reflecting the pleiotropic nature of this cytokine family. What is clear is that our current understanding of the role of IL-10 and related cytokines within the CNS is limited at best, and further research is required to define the actions of this understudied family in inflammatory brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda R Burmeister
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, United States
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23
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Mechanisms of Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption in Herpes Simplex Encephalitis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2018; 14:157-172. [PMID: 30456443 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-018-9821-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is often caused by infection with herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), a neurotropic double-stranded DNA virus. HSE infection always impacts the temporal and frontal lobes or limbic system, leading to edema, hemorrhage, and necrotic changes in the brain parenchyma. Additionally, patients often exhibit severe complications following antiviral treatment, including dementia and epilepsy. HSE is further associated with disruptions to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which consists of microvascular endothelial cells, tight junctions, astrocytes, pericytes, and basement membranes. Following an HSV-1 infection, changes in BBB integrity and permeability can result in increased movement of viruses, immune cells, and/or cytokines into the brain parenchyma. This leads to an enhanced inflammatory response in the central nervous system and further damage to the brain. Thus, it is important to protect the BBB from pathogens to reduce brain damage from HSE. Here, we discuss HSE and the normal structure and function of the BBB. We also discuss growing evidence indicating an association between BBB breakdown and the pathogenesis of HSE, as well as future research directions and potential new therapeutic targets. Graphical Abstract During herpes simplex encephalitis, the functions and structures of each composition of BBB have been altered by different factors, thus the permeability and integrity of BBB have been broken. The review aim to explore the potential mechanisms and factors in the process, probe the next research targets and new therapeutic targets.
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Matz KM, Guzman RM, Goodman AG. The Role of Nucleic Acid Sensing in Controlling Microbial and Autoimmune Disorders. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 345:35-136. [PMID: 30904196 PMCID: PMC6445394 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2018.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Innate immunity, the first line of defense against invading pathogens, is an ancient form of host defense found in all animals, from sponges to humans. During infection, innate immune receptors recognize conserved molecular patterns, such as microbial surface molecules, metabolites produces during infection, or nucleic acids of the microbe's genome. When initiated, the innate immune response activates a host defense program that leads to the synthesis proteins capable of pathogen killing. In mammals, the induction of cytokines during the innate immune response leads to the recruitment of professional immune cells to the site of infection, leading to an adaptive immune response. While a fully functional innate immune response is crucial for a proper host response and curbing microbial infection, if the innate immune response is dysfunctional and is activated in the absence of infection, autoinflammation and autoimmune disorders can develop. Therefore, it follows that the innate immune response must be tightly controlled to avoid an autoimmune response from host-derived molecules, yet still unencumbered to respond to infection. In this review, we will focus on the innate immune response activated from cytosolic nucleic acids, derived from the microbe or host itself. We will depict how viruses and bacteria activate these nucleic acid sensing pathways and their mechanisms to inhibit the pathways. We will also describe the autoinflammatory and autoimmune disorders that develop when these pathways are hyperactive. Finally, we will discuss gaps in knowledge with regard to innate immune response failure and identify where further research is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keesha M Matz
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - R Marena Guzman
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Alan G Goodman
- School of Molecular Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States; Paul G. Allen School for Global Animal Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.
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Rainville JR, Tsyglakova M, Hodes GE. Deciphering sex differences in the immune system and depression. Front Neuroendocrinol 2018; 50:67-90. [PMID: 29288680 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Certain mood disorders and autoimmune diseases are predominately female diseases but we do not know why. Here, we explore the relationship between depression and the immune system from a sex-based perspective. This review characterizes sex differences in the immune system in health and disease. We explore the contribution of gonadal and stress hormones to immune function at the cellular and molecular level in the brain and body. We propose hormonal and genetic sex specific immune mechanisms that may contribute to the etiology of mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Rainville
- Department of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1981 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Mariya Tsyglakova
- Department of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1981 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016, USA
| | - Georgia E Hodes
- Department of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1981 Kraft Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA.
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Jeffries AM, Marriott I. Human microglia and astrocytes express cGAS-STING viral sensing components. Neurosci Lett 2017; 658:53-56. [PMID: 28830822 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.08.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
While microglia and astrocytes are known to produce key inflammatory and anti-viral mediators following infection with replicative DNA viruses, the mechanisms by which these cell types perceive such threats are poorly understood. Recently, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) has been identified as an important cytosolic sensor for DNA viruses and retroviruses in peripheral leukocytes. Here we confirm the ability of human microglial and astrocytic cell lines and primary human glia to respond to foreign intracellular double stranded DNA. Importantly, we provide the first demonstration that human microglia and astrocytes show robust levels of cGAS protein expression at rest and following activation. Furthermore, we show these cell types also constitutively express the critical downstream cGAS adaptor protein, stimulator of interferon genes (STING). The present finding that human glia express the principle components of the cGAS-STING pathway provides a foundation for future studies to investigate the relative importance of these molecules in clinically relevant viral CNS infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin M Jeffries
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA.
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Cytosolic DNA Sensor Upregulation Accompanies DNA Electrotransfer in B16.F10 Melanoma Cells. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2016; 5:e322. [PMID: 27271988 PMCID: PMC5022127 DOI: 10.1038/mtna.2016.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In several preclinical tumor models, antitumor effects occur after intratumoral electroporation, also known as electrotransfer, of plasmid DNA devoid of a therapeutic gene. In mouse melanomas, these effects are preceded by significant elevation of several proinflammatory cytokines. These observations implicate the binding and activation of intracellular DNA-specific pattern recognition receptors or DNA sensors in response to DNA electrotransfer. In tumors, IFNβ mRNA and protein levels significantly increased. The mRNAs of several DNA sensors were detected, and DAI, DDX60, and p204 tended to be upregulated. These effects were accompanied with reduced tumor growth and increased tumor necrosis. In B16.F10 cells in culture, IFNβ mRNA and protein levels were significantly upregulated. The mRNAs for several DNA sensors were present in these cells; DNA-dependent activator of interferon regulatory factor (DAI), DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box polypeptide 60 (DDX60), and p204 were significantly upregulated while DDX60 protein levels were coordinately upregulated. Upregulation of DNA sensors in tumors could be masked by the lower transfection efficiency compared to in vitro or to dilution by other tumor cell types. Mirroring the observation of tumor necrosis, cells underwent a significant DNA concentration-dependent decrease in proliferation and survival. Taken together, these results indicate that DNA electrotransfer may cause the upregulation of several intracellular DNA sensors in B16.F10 cells, inducing effects in vitro and potentially in vivo.
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Herpes Simplex Virus and Interferon Signaling Induce Novel Autophagic Clusters in Sensory Neurons. J Virol 2016; 90:4706-4719. [PMID: 26912623 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02908-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) establishes lifelong infection in the neurons of trigeminal ganglia (TG), cycling between productive infection and latency. Neuronal antiviral responses are driven by type I interferon (IFN) and are crucial to controlling HSV-1 virulence. Autophagy also plays a role in this neuronal antiviral response, but the mechanism remains obscure. In this study, HSV-1 infection of murine TG neurons triggered unusual clusters of autophagosomes, predominantly in neurons lacking detectable HSV-1 antigen. Treatment of neurons with IFN-β induced a similar response, and cluster formation by infection or IFN treatment was dependent upon an intact IFN-signaling pathway. The autophagic clusters were decorated with both ISG15, an essential effecter of the antiviral response, and p62, a selective autophagy receptor. The autophagic clusters were not induced by rapamycin or starvation, consistent with a process of selective autophagy. While clusters were triggered by other neurotropic herpesviruses, infection with unrelated viruses failed to induce this response. Following ocular infection in vivo, clusters formed exclusively in the infected ophthalmic branch of the TG. Taken together, our results show that infection with HSV and antiviral signaling in TG neurons produce an unorthodox autophagic response. This autophagic clustering is associated with antiviral signaling, the presence of viral genome, and the absence of HSV protein expression and may therefore represent an important neuronal response to HSV infection and the establishment of latency. IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a ubiquitous virus and a significant cause of morbidity and some mortality. It is the causative agent of benign cold sores, but it can also cause blindness and life-threatening encephalitis. The success of HSV-1 is largely due to its ability to establish lifelong latent infections in neurons and to occasionally reactivate. The exact mechanisms by which neurons defend against virus infection is poorly understood, but such defense is at least partially mediated by autophagy, an intracellular pathway by which pathogens and other unwanted cargoes are degraded. The study demonstrates and investigates a new autophagic structure that appears to be specific to the interaction between neurotropic herpesviruses and murine primary sensory neurons. This work may therefore have important implications for our understanding of latency and reactivation.
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Abstract
Detecting pathogenic DNA by intracellular receptors termed "sensors" is critical toward galvanizing host immune responses and eliminating microbial infections. Emerging evidence has challenged the dogma that sensing of viral DNA occurs exclusively in sub-cellular compartments normally devoid of cellular DNA. The interferon-inducible protein IFI16 was shown to bind nuclear viral DNA and initiate immune signaling, culminating in antiviral cytokine secretion. Here, we review the newly characterized nucleus-originating immune signaling pathways, their links to other crucial host defenses, and unique mechanisms by which viruses suppress their functions. We frame these findings in the context of human pathologies associated with nuclear replicating DNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Diner
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
| | - Krystal K Lum
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
| | - Ileana M Cristea
- From the Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544
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Desai DV, Kulkarni SS. Herpes Simplex Virus: The Interplay Between HSV, Host, and HIV-1. Viral Immunol 2015; 28:546-55. [PMID: 26331265 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2015.0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus proteins interact with host (human) proteins and create an environment conducive for its replication. Genital ulceration due to herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infections is an important clinical manifestation reported to increase the risk of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) acquisition and replication in HIV-1/HSV-2 coinfection. Dampening the innate and adaptive immune responses of the skin-resident dendritic cells, HSV-2 not only helps itself, but creates a "yellow brick road" for one of the most dreaded viruses HIV, which is transmitted mainly through the sexual route. Although, data from clinical trials show that HSV-2 suppression reduces HIV-1 viral load, there are hardly any reports presenting conclusive evidence on the impact of HSV-2 coinfection on HIV-1 disease progression. Be that as it may, understanding the interplay between these three characters (HSV, host, and HIV-1) is imperative. This review endeavors to collate studies on the influence of HSV-derived proteins on the host response and HIV-1 replication. Studying such complex interactions may help in designing and developing common strategies for the two viruses to keep these "partners in crime" at bay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipen Vijay Desai
- Department of Virology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute , Pune, India
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Wang Q, Liu X, Zhou Q, Wang C. Cytosolic sensing of aberrant DNA: arming STING on the endoplasmic reticulum. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2015. [PMID: 26220155 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2015.1067303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Detection of pathogen-derived nucleic acids is a general and effective strategy used by the host to perceive the presence of invading microorganisms and initiate an innate immune response. However, inappropriate detection of aberrant self nucleic acids is implicated in the development of autoimmune diseases. Recently, ER-resident stimulator of interferon genes (STING) has been uncovered as a key component in the innate immune response to cytosolic nucleic acids and a direct sensor for bacterial cyclic dinucleotides. The elucidation of STING-mediated signaling will provide insight into host-microbial interactions and contribute to the development of novel strategies for anti-infection therapies. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes the cellular and molecular processes of host sensing and responding to microbial or endogenous aberrant DNA species, highlighting the essential function of STING and the corresponding regulatory mechanisms. The authors also attempt to delineate the role for the DNA-sensing signaling during the onset and progression of autoimmune diseases and suggest improvements in the immunogenicity of DNA vaccines. EXPERT OPINION It is essential to elucidate how the STING-dependent signaling mediates the DNA vaccines action as well as the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. The relevant knowledge will greatly benefit the treatment of infectious diseases and identify potential targets for effective drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Wang
- a 1 Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Xing Liu
- a 1 Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Qin Zhou
- b 2 Chongqing Medical University, The College of Laboratory Medicine , 1 Yixueyuan Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing 400016, China
| | - Chen Wang
- a 1 Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Innovation Center for Cell Signaling Network, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Shanghai 200031, China
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Piret J, Boivin G. Innate immune response during herpes simplex virus encephalitis and development of immunomodulatory strategies. Rev Med Virol 2015. [PMID: 26205506 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses are large double-stranded DNA viruses. These viruses have the ability to establish a lifelong latency in sensory ganglia and to invade and replicate in the CNS. Apart from relatively benign mucosal infections, HSV is responsible for severe illnesses including HSV encephalitis (HSE). HSE is the most common cause of sporadic, potentially fatal viral encephalitis in Western countries. If left untreated, the mortality rate associated with HSE is approximately 70%. Despite antiviral therapy, the mortality is still higher than 30%, and almost 60% of surviving individuals develop neurological sequelae. It is suggested that direct virus-related and indirect immune-mediated mechanisms contribute to the damages occurring in the CNS during HSE. In this manuscript, we describe the innate immune response to HSV, the development of HSE in mice knock-out for proteins of the innate immune system as well as inherited deficiencies in key components of the signaling pathways involved in the production of type I interferon that could predispose individuals to develop HSE. Finally, we review several immunomodulatory strategies aimed at modulating the innate immune response at a critical time after infection that were evaluated in mouse models and could be combined with antiviral therapy to improve the prognosis of HSE. In conclusion, the cerebral innate immune response that develops during HSE is a "double-edged sword" as it is critical to control viral replication in the brain early after infection, but, if left uncontrolled, may also result in an exaggerated inflammatory response that could be detrimental to the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyne Piret
- Research Center in Infectious Diseases, CHU de Québec and Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - Guy Boivin
- Research Center in Infectious Diseases, CHU de Québec and Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
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Crill EK, Furr-Rogers SR, Marriott I. RIG-I is required for VSV-induced cytokine production by murine glia and acts in combination with DAI to initiate responses to HSV-1. Glia 2015; 63:2168-80. [PMID: 26146945 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A defining feature of viral central nervous system (CNS) infection is the rapid onset of severe neuroinflammation. However, the mechanisms underlying glial responses to replicative neurotropic viruses are only now becoming apparent with the discovery of a number of cytosolic sensors for viral nucleic acids. We have described the expression by murine and human glial cells of two disparate pattern recognition receptors, retinoic acid inducible gene-I (RIG-I) and DNA-dependent activator of interferon regulatory factors (DAI), receptors for viral RNA and DNA moieties, respectively. In the present study, we demonstrate the functional significance of RIG-I expression in primary murine microglia and astrocytes. Our data indicate that murine glial immune responses to a model neurotropic RNA virus, vesicular stomatitis virus, are RIG-I dependent and independent of levels of DAI expression or RNA polymerase III activity. In contrast, maximal glial inflammatory and antiviral responses to the DNA virus herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) are dependent on the expression of both RIG-I and DAI, and require RNA polymerase III activity. These findings indicate that the RNA sensor, RIG-I, acts in parallel with DAI in an RNA polymerase III-dependent manner to initiate glial responses to HSV-1. We therefore suggest that RIG-I plays a significant role in the detection of both RNA and DNA pathogens by microglia and astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma K Crill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina
| | - Samantha R Furr-Rogers
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina
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Zhu W, Zhao S, Liu Z, Cheng L, Wang Q, Yan K, Chen Q, Wu H, Han D. Pattern Recognition Receptor–Initiated Innate Antiviral Responses in Mouse Epididymal Epithelial Cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 194:4825-35. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Sun X, Shi L, Zhang H, Li R, Liang R, Liu Z. Effects of Toll-like receptor 3 on herpes simplex virus type-1-infected mouse neural stem cells. Can J Microbiol 2014; 61:201-8. [PMID: 25633775 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2014-0540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) infection on the phosphorylation of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) and the expression of interferon-β (IFN-β), as well as to clarify the functions of toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) in mouse neural stem cells (NSCs) infected with HSV-1. In HSV-1-infected cultured NSCs, immunofluorescence, reverse transcription - polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and ELISA were performed to reveal the expression patterns of TLR3, IRF3, and IFN-β. Then, lentivirus-mediated RNA interference (RNAi) was used to block the expression of TLR3, and its effect on host resistance to HSV-1 infection was investigated. Under uninfected conditions, NSCs expressed TLR3 and phosphorylated IRF3, but after infection, the expression level of TLR3 was upregulated and the phosphorylation level of IRF3 in the nucleus was significantly enhanced, while IFN-β was also expressed. After TLR3 expression was blocked by lentivirus-mediated RNAi, IRF3 phosphorylation and IFN-β expression were downregulated. Therefore, HSV-1 upregulated the expression of TLR3 in NSCs and promoted nuclear translocation after IRF3 was phosphorylated to induce IFN-β expression. TLR3 exhibited an anti-HSV-1 infection capacity via innate immune functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuning Sun
- Department of Parasitology, Weifang Medical University, Shandong 261053, People's Republic of China
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Cooley ID, Chauhan VS, Donneyz MA, Marriott I. Astrocytes produce IL-19 in response to bacterial challenge and are sensitive to the immunosuppressive effects of this IL-10 family member. Glia 2014; 62:818-28. [PMID: 24677051 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Revised: 01/25/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
There is growing appreciation that resident glial cells can initiate and/or regulate inflammation following trauma or infection in the central nervous system (CNS). We have previously demonstrated the ability of microglia and astrocytes to respond to bacterial pathogens or their products by rapid production of inflammatory mediators, followed by the production of the immunosuppressive cytokine interleukin (IL)−10. IL-19, another member of the IL-10 family of cytokines, has been studied in the context of a number of inflammatory conditions in the periphery and is known to modulate immune cell activity. In the present study, we demonstrate the constitutive and/or inducible expression of IL-19 and its cognate receptor subunits, IL-19Rα and IL-19Rβ (also known as IL-20R1 and IL-20R2, and IL-20RA and IL-20RB), in mouse brain tissue, and by primary murine and human astrocytes. We also provide evidence for the presence of a novel truncated IL-19Rα transcript variant in mouse brain tissue, but not glial cells, that shows reduced expression following bacterial infection. Importantly, IL-19R functionality in glia is indicated by the ability of IL-19 to regulate signaling component expression in these cells. Furthermore, while IL-19 itself had no effect on glial cytokine production, IL-19 treatment of bacterially infected or Toll-like receptor ligand stimulated astrocytes significantly attenuated pro-inflammatory cytokine production. The bacterially induced production of IL-19 by these resident CNS cells, the constitutive expression of its cognate receptor subunits, and the immunomodulatory effects of this cytokine, suggest a novel mechanism by which astrocytes can regulate CNS inflammation.
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Tomasello E, Pollet E, Vu Manh TP, Uzé G, Dalod M. Harnessing Mechanistic Knowledge on Beneficial Versus Deleterious IFN-I Effects to Design Innovative Immunotherapies Targeting Cytokine Activity to Specific Cell Types. Front Immunol 2014; 5:526. [PMID: 25400632 PMCID: PMC4214202 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Type I interferons (IFN-I) were identified over 50 years ago as cytokines critical for host defense against viral infections. IFN-I promote anti-viral defense through two main mechanisms. First, IFN-I directly reinforce or induce de novo in potentially all cells the expression of effector molecules of intrinsic anti-viral immunity. Second, IFN-I orchestrate innate and adaptive anti-viral immunity. However, IFN-I responses can be deleterious for the host in a number of circumstances, including secondary bacterial or fungal infections, several autoimmune diseases, and, paradoxically, certain chronic viral infections. We will review the proposed nature of protective versus deleterious IFN-I responses in selected diseases. Emphasis will be put on the potentially deleterious functions of IFN-I in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection, and on the respective roles of IFN-I and IFN-III in promoting resolution of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. We will then discuss how the balance between beneficial versus deleterious IFN-I responses is modulated by several key parameters including (i) the subtypes and dose of IFN-I produced, (ii) the cell types affected by IFN-I, and (iii) the source and timing of IFN-I production. Finally, we will speculate how integration of this knowledge combined with advanced biochemical manipulation of the activity of the cytokines should allow designing innovative immunotherapeutic treatments in patients. Specifically, we will discuss how induction or blockade of specific IFN-I responses in targeted cell types could promote the beneficial functions of IFN-I and/or dampen their deleterious effects, in a manner adapted to each disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Tomasello
- UM2, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), Aix-Marseille University , Marseille , France ; U1104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) , Marseille , France ; UMR7280, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) , Marseille , France
| | - Emeline Pollet
- UM2, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), Aix-Marseille University , Marseille , France ; U1104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) , Marseille , France ; UMR7280, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) , Marseille , France
| | - Thien-Phong Vu Manh
- UM2, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), Aix-Marseille University , Marseille , France ; U1104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) , Marseille , France ; UMR7280, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) , Marseille , France
| | - Gilles Uzé
- UMR 5235, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), University Montpellier II , Montpellier , France
| | - Marc Dalod
- UM2, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy (CIML), Aix-Marseille University , Marseille , France ; U1104, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) , Marseille , France ; UMR7280, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) , Marseille , France
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Astragalus Polysaccharide Protects Astrocytes from Being Infected by HSV-1 through TLR3/NF-κB Signaling Pathway. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2014; 2014:285356. [PMID: 25057274 PMCID: PMC4098889 DOI: 10.1155/2014/285356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) is the most immunoreactive substance in Astragalus. APS can regulate the body's immunity and is widely used in many immune related diseases. However, till now, there is little information about its contribution to the protection of astrocytes infected by virus. Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) is a key component of the innate immune system and has the ability to detect virus infection and trigger host defence responses. This study was undertaken to elucidate the protective effect of APS on herpes simplex virus (HSV-1) infected astrocytes and the underlying mechanisms. The results showed that APS protected the astrocytes from HSV-1 induced proliferation inhibition along with increasing expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) markedly. Moreover, APS significantly promoted the expression of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in astrocytes. In addition, while astrocytes were pretreated with TLR3 antibody before adding HSV-1 and APS, the expression of TLR3, TNF-α, and IL-6 and the activation of NF-κB decreased sharply. These results indicate that APS can protect astrocytes by promoting immunological function provoked by HSV-1 through TLR3/NF-κB pathway.
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Carty M, Reinert L, Paludan SR, Bowie AG. Innate antiviral signalling in the central nervous system. Trends Immunol 2014; 35:79-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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40
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Owens T, Khorooshi R, Wlodarczyk A, Asgari N. Interferons in the central nervous system: A few instruments play many tunes. Glia 2013; 62:339-55. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.22608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Trevor Owens
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine; University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
| | - Reza Khorooshi
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine; University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
| | - Agnieszka Wlodarczyk
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine; University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
| | - Nasrin Asgari
- Department of Neurobiology Research, Institute of Molecular Medicine; University of Southern Denmark; Odense Denmark
- Department of Neurology; Vejle Hospital; Denmark
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41
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Ma Y, He B. Recognition of herpes simplex viruses: toll-like receptors and beyond. J Mol Biol 2013; 426:1133-47. [PMID: 24262390 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2013.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex viruses (HSVs) are human pathogens that establish lytic and latent infections. Reactivation from latency occurs intermittently, which represents a lifelong source of recurrent infection. In this complex process, HSV triggers and neutralizes innate immunity. Therefore, a dynamic equilibrium between HSV and the innate immune system determines the outcome of viral infection. Detection of HSV involves pathogen recognition receptors that include Toll-like receptors, retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptors, and cytosolic DNA sensors. Moreover, innate components or pathways exist to sense membrane fusion upon viral entry into host cells. Consequently, this surveillance network activates downstream transcription factors, leading to the induction of type I interferon and inflammatory cytokines. Not surprisingly, with the capacity to establish chronic infection HSV has evolved strategies that modulate or evade innate immunity. In this review, we describe recent advances pertinent to the interplay of HSV and the induction of innate immunity mediated by pathogen recognition receptors or pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijie Ma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Bin He
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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42
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Unterholzner L. The interferon response to intracellular DNA: why so many receptors? Immunobiology 2013; 218:1312-21. [PMID: 23962476 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2013.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Revised: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The detection of intracellular DNA has emerged to be a key event in the innate immune response to viruses and intracellular bacteria, and during conditions of sterile inflammation and autoimmunity. One of the consequences of the detection of DNA as a 'stranger' and a 'danger' signal is the production of type I interferons and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Much work has been dedicated to the elucidation of the signalling cascades that activate this DNA-induced gene expression programme. However, while many proteins have been proposed to act as sensors for intracellular DNA in recent years, none has been met with universal acceptance, and a theory linking all the recent observations is, as yet, lacking. This review presents the evidence for the various interferon-inducing DNA receptors proposed to date, and examines the hypotheses that might explain why so many different receptors appear to be involved in the innate immune recognition of intracellular DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie Unterholzner
- Division of Cell Signalling and Immunology, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK.
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43
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Bryant-Hudson K, Conrady CD, Carr DJJ. Type I interferon and lymphangiogenesis in the HSV-1 infected cornea - are they beneficial to the host? Prog Retin Eye Res 2013; 36:281-91. [PMID: 23876483 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a highly successful pathogen that can result in significant human morbidity. Within the cornea, it was thought the initial recognition of the pathogen was through Toll-like receptors expressed on/in resident cells that then elicit pro-inflammatory cytokine production, activation of anti-viral pathways, and recruitment of leukocytes. However, our lab has uncovered a novel, TLR-independent innate sensor that supersedes TLR induction of anti-viral pathways following HSV-1 infection. In addition, we have also found HSV-1 induces the genesis of lymphatic vessels into the cornea proper by a mechanism independent of TLRs and unique in the field of neovascularization. This review will focus on these two innate immune events during acute HSV-1 infection of the cornea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Bryant-Hudson
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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44
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Jensen CJ, Massie A, De Keyser J. Immune players in the CNS: the astrocyte. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2013; 8:824-39. [PMID: 23821340 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-013-9480-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the finely balanced environment of the central nervous system astrocytes, the most numerous cell type, play a role in regulating almost every physiological system. First found to regulate extracellular ions and pH, they have since been shown to regulate neurotransmitter levels, cerebral blood flow and energy metabolism. There is also growing evidence for an essential role of astrocytes in central immunity, which is the topic of this review. In the healthy state, the central nervous system is potently anti-inflammatory but under threat astrocytes readily respond to pathogens and to both sterile and pathogen-induced cell damage. In response, astrocytes take on some of the roles of immune cells, releasing cyto- and chemokines to influence effector cells, modulating the blood-brain barrier and forming glial scars. To date, much of the data supporting a role for astrocytes in immunity have been obtained from in vitro systems; however data from experimental models and clinical samples support the suggestion that astrocytes perform similar roles in more complex environments. This review will discuss some aspects of the role of astrocytes in central nervous system immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy J Jensen
- Department of Neurology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel-VUB, Brussels, Belgium.
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45
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Hastie E, Cataldi M, Marriott I, Grdzelishvili VZ. Understanding and altering cell tropism of vesicular stomatitis virus. Virus Res 2013; 176:16-32. [PMID: 23796410 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2013] [Revised: 06/06/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) is a prototypic nonsegmented negative-strand RNA virus. VSV's broad cell tropism makes it a popular model virus for many basic research applications. In addition, a lack of preexisting human immunity against VSV, inherent oncotropism and other features make VSV a widely used platform for vaccine and oncolytic vectors. However, VSV's neurotropism that can result in viral encephalitis in experimental animals needs to be addressed for the use of the virus as a safe vector. Therefore, it is very important to understand the determinants of VSV tropism and develop strategies to alter it. VSV glycoprotein (G) and matrix (M) protein play major roles in its cell tropism. VSV G protein is responsible for VSV broad cell tropism and is often used for pseudotyping other viruses. VSV M affects cell tropism via evasion of antiviral responses, and M mutants can be used to limit cell tropism to cell types defective in interferon signaling. In addition, other VSV proteins and host proteins may function as determinants of VSV cell tropism. Various approaches have been successfully used to alter VSV tropism to benefit basic research and clinically relevant applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Hastie
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 9201 University City Boulevard, Charlotte, NC 28223, United States
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46
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Chauhan VS, Nelson DA, Marriott I, Bost KL. Alpha beta-crystallin expression and presentation following infection with murine gammaherpesvirus 68. Autoimmunity 2013; 46:399-408. [PMID: 23586607 DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2013.785535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Alpha beta-crystallin (CRYAB) is a small heat shock protein that can function as a molecular chaperone and has protective effects for cells undergoing a variety of stressors. Surprisingly, CRYAB has been identified as one of the dominant autoantigens in multiple sclerosis. It has been suggested that autoimmune mediated destruction of this small heat shock protein may limit its protective effects, thereby exacerbating inflammation and cellular damage during multiple sclerosis. It is not altogether clear how autoimmunity against CRYAB might develop, or whether there are environmental factors which might facilitate the presentation of this autoantigen to CD4+ T lymphocytes. In the present study, we utilized an animal model of an Epstein Barr Virus (EBV)-like infection, murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (HV-68), to question whether such a virus could modulate the expression of CRYAB by antigen presenting cells. Following exposure to HV-68 and several other stimuli, in vitro secretion of CRYAB and subsequent intracellular accumulation were observed in cultured macrophages and dendritic cells. Following infection of mice with this virus, it was possible to track CRYAB expression in the spleen and in antigen presenting cell subpopulations, as well as its secretion into the blood. Mice immunized with human CRYAB mounted a significant immune response against this heat shock protein. Further, dendritic cells that were exposed to HV-68 could stimulate CD4+ T cells from CRYAB immunized mice to secrete interferon gamma. Taken together these studies are consistent with the notion of a gammaherpesvirus-induced CRYAB response in professional antigen presenting cells in this mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinita S Chauhan
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
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47
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Hofer MJ, Campbell IL. Type I interferon in neurological disease-the devil from within. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2013; 24:257-67. [PMID: 23548179 DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2013.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 03/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The members of the type I interferon (IFN-I) family of cytokines are pleiotropic factors that have seminal roles in host defence, acting as antimicrobial and antitumor mediators as well as potent immunomodulatory factors that bridge the innate and adaptive immune responses. Despite these beneficial actions there is mounting evidence that link inappropriate or chronic production of IFN-I in the CNS to the development of a number of severe neuroinflammatory disorders. The most persuasive example is the genetically determined inflammatory encephalopathy, Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS) in which patients have chronically elevated IFN-α production in the CNS. The presentation of AGS can often mimic congenital viral infection, however, molecular genetic studies have identified mutations in six genes that can cause AGS, most likely via dysregulated nucleic acid metabolism and activation of the innate immune response leading to increased intrathecal production of IFN-α. The role of IFN-α as a pathogenic factor in AGS and other neurological disorders has gained considerable support from experimental studies. In particular, a transgenic mouse model with CNS-restricted production of IFN-α replicates many of the cardinal neuropathologic features of AGS and reveal IFN-I to be the "devil from within", mediating molecular and cellular damage within the CNS. Thus, targeting IFN-I may be an effective strategy for the treatment of AGS as well as some other autoimmune and infectious neurological "interferonopathies".
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus J Hofer
- School of Molecular Bioscience and the Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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48
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STING and the innate immune response to nucleic acids in the cytosol. Nat Immunol 2013; 14:19-26. [PMID: 23238760 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 373] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cytosolic detection of pathogen-derived nucleic acids is critical for the initiation of innate immune defense against diverse bacterial, viral and eukaryotic pathogens. Conversely, inappropriate responses to cytosolic nucleic acids can produce severe autoimmune pathology. The host protein STING has been identified as a central signaling molecule in the innate immune response to cytosolic nucleic acids. STING seems to be especially critical for responses to cytosolic DNA and the unique bacterial nucleic acids called 'cyclic dinucleotides'. Here we discuss advances in the understanding of STING and highlight the many unresolved issues in the field.
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49
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Pham TH, Kwon KM, Kim YE, Kim KK, Ahn JH. DNA sensing-independent inhibition of herpes simplex virus 1 replication by DAI/ZBP1. J Virol 2013; 87:3076-86. [PMID: 23283962 PMCID: PMC3592125 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02860-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA-dependent activator of interferon regulatory factor (DAI) acts as a cytosolic B-form DNA sensor that induces type I interferons. However, DAI is not required for DNA sensing in certain cell types due to redundancy of the DNA sensing system. Here, we investigated the effect of DAI on herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection in HepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cells. DAI transcription was induced after gamma interferon (IFN-γ) treatment or HSV-1 infection. HSV-1 replication was enhanced by DAI knockdown, and ectopic DAI expression repressed viral replication in a manner requiring the Zβ and D3 domains, but not the Zα domain. This activity of DAI was more prominent at low multiplicity of infection (MOI) and correlated with the reduced expression of viral immediate-early genes. Consistently, DAI repressed the activation of ICP0 promoter in reporter gene assays. DAI knockdown did not affect the B-DNA-mediated IFN-β transcription and IRF3 activation, and overexpression of DAI and RIP1 did not enhance NF-κB activation by B-DNA treatment, demonstrating that DAI is not essential for the B-DNA-mediated IFN production in HepG2 cells. DAI colocalized with ICP0 in a subset of nuclear and cytoplasmic foci in infected cells and interacted with ICP0 in coimmunoprecipitation assays. The anti-HSV-1 effect of DAI was not observed in ICP0-deleted mutant virus infection at a high MOI in HepG2 cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Degradation of IFI16 and PML by ICP0 was enhanced in infection of DAI-knockdown cells. Collectively, these results demonstrate that DAI can suppress HSV-1 growth independent of DNA sensing through mechanisms involving suppression of viral genomes and regulation of ICP0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanh H Pham
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Republic of Korea
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50
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Conrady CD, Zheng M, van Rooijen N, Drevets DA, Royer D, Alleman A, Carr DJJ. Microglia and a functional type I IFN pathway are required to counter HSV-1-driven brain lateral ventricle enlargement and encephalitis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2013; 190:2807-17. [PMID: 23382563 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1203265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
HSV-1 is the leading cause of sporadic viral encephalitis, with mortality rates approaching 30% despite treatment with the antiviral drug of choice, acyclovir. Permanent neurologic deficits are common in patients that survive, but the mechanism leading to this pathology is poorly understood, impeding clinical advancements in treatment to reduce CNS morbidity. Using magnetic resonance imaging and type I IFN receptor-deficient mouse chimeras, we demonstrate HSV-1 gains access to the murine brain stem and subsequently brain ependymal cells, leading to enlargement of the cerebral lateral ventricle and infection of the brain parenchyma. A similar enlargement in the lateral ventricles is found in a subpopulation of herpes simplex encephalitic patients. Associated with encephalitis is an increase in CXCL1 and CXCL10 levels in the cerebral spinal fluid, TNF-α expression in the ependymal region, and the influx of neutrophils of encephalitic mouse brains. Reduction in lateral ventricle enlargement using anti-secretory factor peptide 16 reduces mortality significantly in HSV-1-infected mice without any effect on expression of inflammatory mediators, infiltration of leukocytes, or changes in viral titer. Microglial cells but not infiltrating leukocytes or other resident glial cells or neurons are the principal source of resistance in the CNS during the first 5 d postinfection through a Toll/IL-1R domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-β-dependent, type I IFN pathway. Our results implicate lateral ventricle enlargement as a major cause of mortality in mice and speculate such an event transpires in a subpopulation of human HSV encephalitic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Conrady
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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