Schwann cell myelination requires Dynein function

The expanding clinical and genetic spectrum of DYNC1H1-related disorders

Intracellular trafficking involves an intricate machinery of motor complexes, including the dynein complex, to shuttle cargo for autophagolysosomal degradation. Deficiency in dynein axonemal chains, as well as cytoplasmic light and intermediate chains, have been linked with ciliary dyskinesia and skeletal dysplasia. The cytoplasmic dynein 1 heavy chain protein (DYNC1H1) serves as a core complex for retrograde trafficking in neuronal axons. Dominant pathogenic variants in DYNC1H1 have been previously implicated in peripheral neuromuscular disorders (NMD) and neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD). As heavy-chain dynein is ubiquitously expressed, the apparent selectivity of heavy chain dyneinopathy for motor neuronal phenotypes remains currently unaccounted for. Here, we aimed to evaluate the full DYNC1H1-related clinical, molecular and imaging spectrum, including multisystem features and novel phenotypes presenting throughout life. We identified 47 cases from 43 families with pathogenic heterozygous variants in DYNC1H1 (aged 0-59 years) and collected phenotypic data via a comprehensive standardized survey and clinical follow-up appointments. Most patients presented with divergent and previously unrecognized neurological and multisystem features, leading to significant delays in genetic testing and establishing the correct diagnosis. Neurological phenotypes include novel autonomic features, previously rarely described behavioral disorders, movement disorders and periventricular lesions. Sensory neuropathy was identified in nine patients (median age of onset 10.6 years), of which five were only diagnosed after the second decade of life, and three had a progressive age-dependent sensory neuropathy. Novel multisystem features included primary immunodeficiency, bilateral sensorineural hearing loss, organ anomalies and skeletal manifestations, resembling the phenotypic spectrum of other dyneinopathies. We also identified an age-dependent biphasic disease course with developmental regression in the first decade and, following a period of stability, neurodegenerative progression after the second decade of life. Of note, we observed several cases in whom neurodegeneration appeared to be prompted by intercurrent systemic infections with double-stranded DNA viruses (Herpesviridae) or single-stranded RNA viruses (Ross River fever, SARS-CoV-2). Moreover, the disease course appeared to be exacerbated by viral infections regardless of age and/or severity of neurodevelopmental disorder manifestations, indicating a role of dynein in anti-viral immunity and neuronal health. In summary, our findings expand the clinical, imaging and molecular spectrum of pathogenic DYNC1H1 variants beyond motor neuropathy disorders and suggest a life-long continuum and age-related progression due to deficient intracellular trafficking. This study will facilitate early diagnosis and improve counselling and health surveillance of affected patients.

Patient-specific mutation of Dync1h1 in mice causes brain and behavioral deficits

AIMS

Cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain (DYNC1H1) is a multi-subunit protein complex that provides motor force for movement of cargo on microtubules and traffics them back to the soma. In humans, mutations along the DYNC1H1 gene result in intellectual disabilities, cognitive delays, and neurologic and motor deficits. The aim of the study was to generate a mouse model to a newly identified de novo heterozygous DYNC1H1 mutation, within a functional ATPase domain (c9052C > T(P3018S)), identified in a child with motor deficits, and intellectual disabilities.

RESULTS

P3018S heterozygous (HET) knockin mice are viable; homozygotes are lethal. Metabolic and EchoMRI™ testing show that HET mice have a higher metabolic rate, are more active, and have less body fat compared to wildtype mice. Neurobehavioral studies show that HET mice perform worse when traversing elevated balance beams, and on the negative geotaxis test. Immunofluorescent staining shows neuronal migration abnormalities in the dorsal and lateral neocortex with heterotopia in layer I. Neuron-subtype specific transcription factors CUX1 and CTGF identified neurons from layers II/III and VI respectively in cortical layer I, and abnormal pyramidal neurons with MAP2+ dendrites projecting downward from the pial surface.

CONCLUSION

The HET mice are a good model for the motor deficits seen in the child, and highlights the importance of cytoplasmic dynein in the maintenance of cortical function and dendritic orientation relative to the pial surface. Our results are discussed in the context of other dynein mutant mice and in relation to clinical presentation in humans with DYNC1H1 mutations.

Transcriptomic Profile Reveals Deregulation of Hearing-Loss Related Genes in Vestibular Schwannoma Cells Following Electromagnetic Field Exposure

Hearing loss (HL) is the most common sensory disorder in the world population. One common cause of HL is the presence of vestibular schwannoma (VS), a benign tumor of the VIII cranial nerve, arising from Schwann cell (SC) transformation. In the last decade, the increasing incidence of VS has been correlated to electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure, which might be considered a pathogenic cause of VS development and HL. Here, we explore the molecular mechanisms underlying the biologic changes of human SCs and/or their oncogenic transformation following EMF exposure. Through NGS technology and RNA-Seq transcriptomic analysis, we investigated the genomic profile and the differential display of HL-related genes after chronic EMF. We found that chronic EMF exposure modified the cell proliferation, in parallel with intracellular signaling and metabolic pathways changes, mostly related to translation and mitochondrial activities. Importantly, the expression of HL-related genes such as NEFL, TPRN, OTOGL, GJB2, and REST appeared to be deregulated in chronic EMF exposure. In conclusion, we suggest that, at a preclinical stage, EMF exposure might promote the transformation of VS cells and contribute to HL.

Spinal cord precursors utilize neural crest cell mechanisms to generate hybrid peripheral myelinating glia

During development, oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells myelinate central and peripheral nervous system axons, respectively, while motor exit point (MEP) glia are neural tube-derived, peripheral glia that myelinate axonal territory between these populations at MEP transition zones. From which specific neural tube precursors MEP glia are specified, and how they exit the neural tube to migrate onto peripheral motor axons, remain largely unknown. Here, using zebrafish, we found that MEP glia arise from lateral floor plate precursors and require foxd3 to delaminate and exit the spinal cord. Additionally, we show that similar to Schwann cells, MEP glial development depends on axonally derived neuregulin1. Finally, our data demonstrate that overexpressing axonal cues is sufficient to generate additional MEP glia in the spinal cord. Overall, these studies provide new insight into how a novel population of hybrid, peripheral myelinating glia are generated from neural tube precursors and migrate into the periphery.

Schwann cell development: From neural crest to myelin sheath

Vertebrate nervous system function requires glial cells, including myelinating glia that insulate axons and provide trophic support that allows for efficient signal propagation by neurons. In vertebrate peripheral nervous systems, neural crest-derived glial cells known as Schwann cells (SCs) generate myelin by encompassing and iteratively wrapping membrane around single axon segments. SC gliogenesis and neurogenesis are intimately linked and governed by a complex molecular environment that shapes their developmental trajectory. Changes in this external milieu drive developing SCs through a series of distinct morphological and transcriptional stages from the neural crest to a variety of glial derivatives, including the myelinating sublineage. Cues originate from the extracellular matrix, adjacent axons, and the developing SC basal lamina to trigger intracellular signaling cascades and gene expression changes that specify stages and transitions in SC development. Here, we integrate the findings from in vitro neuron-glia co-culture experiments with in vivo studies investigating SC development, particularly in zebrafish and mouse, to highlight critical factors that specify SC fate. Ultimately, we connect classic biochemical and mutant studies with modern genetic and visualization tools that have elucidated the dynamics of SC development. This article is categorized under: Signaling Pathways > Cell Fate Signaling Nervous System Development > Vertebrates: Regional Development.

Zebrafish is a central model to dissect the peripheral neuropathy

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed with all nerves extended from the brain and spinal cord, which are the central nervous system to other organs of the body. Dysfunctional peripheral motion resulting from the regressive neuronal axons in the defected PNS leads to several peripheral neuropathies including both inherited and non-inherited disorders. Because of poor understanding of cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the peripheral neuropathy, there is currently non-targeted treatment of the disorder. Basic researches have paid attention to dissect roles of causative genes, identified from the inherited peripheral neuropathies, in PNS development. However, recent studies focusing on investigation of therapeutic targets have suggested that successful regeneration of the impaired peripheral nerves may be most effective treatment. The regeneration studies have been limited in the rodents system due to some of practical and physiological disadvantages until zebrafish model has emerged as an ideal system. Hence, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the advantages of zebrafish as a model for the peripheral neuropathy researches and to suggest the disease genes-involved potential mechanisms targeting the PNS regeneration that may be demonstrated in zebrafish.

Dynein promotes sustained axonal growth and Schwann cell remodeling early during peripheral nerve regeneration

Following injury, axons of the peripheral nervous system have retained the capacity for regeneration. While it is well established that injury signals require molecular motors for their transport from the injury site to the nucleus, whether kinesin and dynein motors play additional roles in peripheral nerve regeneration is not well understood. Here we use genetic mutants of motor proteins in a zebrafish peripheral nerve regeneration model to visualize and define in vivo roles for kinesin and dynein. We find that both kinesin-1 and dynein are required for zebrafish peripheral nerve regeneration. While loss of kinesin-1 reduced the overall robustness of axonal regrowth, loss of dynein dramatically impaired axonal regeneration and also reduced injury-induced Schwann cell remodeling. Chimeras between wild type and dynein mutant embryos demonstrate that dynein function in neurons is sufficient to promote axonal regrowth. Finally, by simultaneously monitoring actin and microtubule dynamics in regenerating axons we find that dynein appears dispensable to initiate axonal regrowth, but is critical to stabilize microtubules, thereby sustaining axonal regeneration. These results reveal two previously unappreciated roles for dynein during peripheral nerve regeneration, initiating injury induced Schwann cell remodeling and stabilizing axonal microtubules to sustain axonal regrowth.

Nerve regeneration requires coordinated responses from multiple cell types after injury. Axons must extend from the neuronal cell body back towards their targets, while surrounding Schwann cells enter a repair cell state in which they promote regeneration. While nerves of the peripheral nervous system can regrow, it is estimated that fewer than 10 percent of patients fully recover function after nerve injury. In order to understand the mechanisms by which peripheral nerves regrow, we used live cell imaging in the zebrafish to observe the process of nerve regeneration, monitoring axons and Schwann cells simultaneously during this process. Using genetic mutants, we identified a role for the molecular motors kinesin-1 and dynein in promoting axonal regrowth. Furthermore, we found that dynein plays an additional role in Schwann cell response to injury. Thus, we demonstrate that molecular motors are required in multiple cell types to promote nerve regeneration.

High-affinity heterotetramer formation between the large myelin-associated glycoprotein and the dynein light chain DYNLL1

The close association of myelinated axons and their myelin sheaths involves numerous intercellular molecular interactions. For example, myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) mediates myelin-to-axon adhesion and signalling via molecules on the axonal surface. However, knowledge about intracellular binding partners of myelin proteins, including MAG, has remained limited. The two splice isoforms of MAG, S- and L-MAG, display distinct cytoplasmic domains and spatiotemporal expression profiles. We used yeast two-hybrid screening to identify interaction partners of L-MAG and found the dynein light chain DYNLL1 (also termed dynein light chain 8). DYNLL1 homodimers are known to facilitate dimerization of target proteins. L-MAG and DYNLL1 associate with high affinity, as confirmed with recombinant proteins in vitro. Structural analyses of the purified complex indicate that the DYNLL1-binding segment is localized close to the L-MAG C terminus, next to the Fyn kinase Tyr phosphorylation site. The crystal structure of the complex between DYNLL1 and its binding segment on L-MAG shows 2 : 2 binding in a parallel arrangement, indicating a heterotetrameric complex. The homology between L-MAG and previously characterized DYNLL1-ligands is limited, and some details of binding site interactions are unique for L-MAG. The structure of the complex between the entire L-MAG cytoplasmic domain and DYNLL1, as well as that of the extracellular domain of MAG, were modelled based on small-angle X-ray scattering data, allowing structural insights into L-MAG interactions on both membrane surfaces. Our data imply that DYNLL1 dimerizes L-MAG, but not S-MAG, through the formation of a specific 2 : 2 heterotetramer. This arrangement is likely to affect, in an isoform-specific manner, the functions of MAG in adhesion and myelin-to-axon signalling. OPEN SCIENCE BADGES: This article has received a badge for *Open Materials* because it provided all relevant information to reproduce the study in the manuscript. The complete Open Science Disclosure form for this article can be found at the end of the article. More information about the Open Practices badges can be found at https://cos.io/our-services/open-science-badges/. Read the Editorial Highlight for this article on page 712.

Axonal transport in a peripheral diabetic neuropathy model: sex-dimorphic features

Background

Disruption of axonal transport plays a pivotal role in diabetic neuropathy. A sex-dimorphism exists in the incidence and symptomatology of diabetic neuropathy; however, no studies so far have addressed sex differences in axonal motor proteins expression in early diabetes as well as the possible involvement of neuroactive steroids. Interestingly, recent data point to a role for mitochondria in the sexual dimorphism of neurodegenerative diseases. Mitochondria have a fundamental role in axonal transport by producing the motors’ energy source, ATP. Moreover, neuroactive steroids can also regulate mitochondrial function.

Methods

Here, we investigated the impact of short-term diabetes in the peripheral nervous system of male and female rats on key motor proteins important for axonal transport, mitochondrial function, and neuroactive steroids levels.

Results

We show that short-term diabetes alters mRNA levels and axoplasm protein contents of kinesin family member KIF1A, KIF5B, KIF5A and Myosin Va in male but not in female rats. Similarly, the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ co-activator-1α, a subunit of the respiratory chain complex IV, ATP levels and the key regulators of mitochondrial dynamics were affected in males but not in females. Concomitant analysis of neuroactive steroid levels in sciatic nerve showed an alteration of testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and allopregnanolone in diabetic males, whereas no changes were observed in female rats.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that sex-specific decrease in neuroactive steroid levels in male diabetic animals may cause an alteration in their mitochondrial function that in turn might impact in axonal transport, contributing to the sex difference observed in diabetic neuropathy.

Transmission Electron Microscopy for Zebrafish Larvae and Adult Lateral Line Nerve

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) enables visualization of the ultrastructure of the myelin sheath. Schwann cells on the posterior lateral line nerves and motor nerves can be imaged by TEM. Here, we detail the multiday processing of larval trunks and dissected posterior lateral line for TEM, as well as how to trim embedded samples, section, and stain grids for imaging.

Whole Mount In Situ Hybridization and Immunohistochemistry for Zebrafish Larvae

In situ hybridization enables visualization of mRNA localization, and immunohistochemistry enables visualization of protein localization within a tissue or organism. Both techniques have been extensively utilized in zebrafish (Thisse et al., Development 119:1203-1215, 1993; Dutton et al., Development 128:4113-4125, 2001; Gilmour et al., Neuron 34:577-588, 2002; Lyons et al., Curr Biol 15:513-524, 2005) including for visualization of mRNA localization in Schwann cells (Lyons et al., Curr Biol 15:513-524, 2005; Monk et al., Science 325:1402-1405, 2009). For in situ hybridization, here, we outline how to generate RNA probes, conduct whole mount in situ hybridization for larvae, and list RNA probes that label different stages of Schwann cell development in zebrafish. For immunohistochemistry, the protocol we outline can be used to mark Schwann cells of sensory and motor nerves to examine properties such as developmental stage, morphology, proliferation, and apoptosis.

Dynein/dynactin is necessary for anterograde transport of Mbp mRNA in oligodendrocytes and for myelination in vivo

Oligodendrocytes in the brain insulate neuronal axons in layers of fatty myelin to facilitate fast electrical signaling. Myelin basic protein (MBP), an important myelin component, is transported as mRNA away from the cell body before being translated into protein. In zebrafish, the anterograde motor kinesin transports mbp mRNA away from the cell body. We now identify myelination defects in zebrafish caused by a mutation in the retrograde motor complex dynein/dynactin, which normally transports cargos back toward the cell body. However, this mutant displays defects in anterograde mbp mRNA transport. We confirm in mammalian oligodendrocyte cultures that drug inhibition of dynein arrests transport in both directions and decreases MBP protein levels. Thus, dynein/dynactin is paradoxically required for anterograde mbp mRNA transport.

Oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system produce myelin, a lipid-rich, multilamellar sheath that surrounds axons and promotes the rapid propagation of action potentials. A critical component of myelin is myelin basic protein (MBP), expression of which requires anterograde mRNA transport followed by local translation at the developing myelin sheath. Although the anterograde motor kinesin KIF1B is involved in mbp mRNA transport in zebrafish, it is not entirely clear how mbp transport is regulated. From a forward genetic screen for myelination defects in zebrafish, we identified a mutation in actr10, which encodes the Arp11 subunit of dynactin, a critical activator of the retrograde motor dynein. Both the actr10 mutation and pharmacological dynein inhibition in zebrafish result in failure to properly distribute mbp mRNA in oligodendrocytes, indicating a paradoxical role for the retrograde dynein/dynactin complex in anterograde mbp mRNA transport. To address the molecular mechanism underlying this observation, we biochemically isolated reporter-tagged Mbp mRNA granules from primary cultured mammalian oligodendrocytes to show that they indeed associate with the retrograde motor complex. Next, we used live-cell imaging to show that acute pharmacological dynein inhibition quickly arrests Mbp mRNA transport in both directions. Chronic pharmacological dynein inhibition also abrogates Mbp mRNA distribution and dramatically decreases MBP protein levels. Thus, these cell culture and whole animal studies demonstrate a role for the retrograde dynein/dynactin motor complex in anterograde mbp mRNA transport and myelination in vivo.

Mice lacking BCAS1, a novel myelin-associated protein, display hypomyelination, schizophrenia-like abnormal behaviors, and upregulation of inflammatory genes in the brain

The abnormal expression and function of myelin-related proteins contribute to nervous system dysfunction associated with neuropsychiatric disorders; however, the underlying mechanism of this remains unclear. We found here that breast carcinoma amplified sequence 1 (BCAS1), a basic protein abundant in the brain, was expressed specifically in oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, and that its expression level was decreased by demyelination. This suggests that BCAS1 is a novel myelin-associated protein. BCAS1 knockout mice displayed schizophrenia-like behavioral abnormalities and a tendency toward reduced anxiety-like behaviors. Moreover, we found that the loss of BCAS1 specifically induced hypomyelination and the expression of inflammation-related genes in the brain. These observations provide a novel insight into the functional link between oligodendrocytes and inflammation and/or abnormal behaviors.

Analysis of myelinated axon formation in zebrafish

Myelin is a lipid-rich sheath formed by the spiral wrapping of specialized glial cells around axon segments. Myelinating glia allow for rapid transmission of nerve impulses and metabolic support of axons, and the absence of or disruption to myelin results in debilitating motor, cognitive, and emotional deficits in humans. Because myelin is a jawed vertebrate innovation, zebrafish are one of the simplest vertebrate model systems to study the genetics and development of myelinating glia. The morphogenetic cellular movements and genetic program that drive myelination are conserved between zebrafish and mammals, and myelin develops rapidly in zebrafish larvae, within 3-5days postfertilization. Myelin ultrastructure can be visualized in the zebrafish from larval to adult stages via transmission electron microscopy, and the dynamic development of myelinating glial cells may be observed in vivo via transgenic reporter lines in zebrafish larvae. Zebrafish are amenable to genetic and pharmacological screens, and screens for myelinating glial phenotypes have revealed both genes and drugs that promote myelin development, many of which are conserved in mammalian glia. Recently, zebrafish have been employed as a model to understand the complex dynamics of myelinating glia during development and regeneration. In this chapter, we describe these key methodologies and recent insights into mechanisms that regulate myelination using the zebrafish model.

Pharmacological treatment and BBB-targeted genetic therapy for MCT8-dependent hypomyelination in zebrafish

Hypomyelination is a key symptom of Allan-Herndon-Dudley syndrome (AHDS), a psychomotor retardation associated with mutations in the thyroid-hormone (TH) transporter MCT8 (monocarboxylate transporter 8). AHDS is characterized by severe intellectual deficiency, neuromuscular impairment and brain hypothyroidism. In order to understand the mechanism for TH-dependent hypomyelination, we developed an mct8 mutant (mct8^-/-) zebrafish model. The quantification of genetic markers for oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) and mature oligodendrocytes revealed reduced differentiation of OPCs into oligodendrocytes in mct8^-/- larvae and adults. Live imaging of single glial cells showed that the number of oligodendrocytes and the length of their extensions are reduced, and the number of peripheral Schwann cells is increased, in mct8^-/- larvae compared with wild type. Pharmacological analysis showed that TH analogs and clemastine partially rescued the hypomyelination in the CNS of mct8^-/- larvae. Intriguingly, triiodothyronine (T3) treatment rescued hypomyelination in mct8^-/- embryos before the maturation of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), but did not affect hypomyelination in older larvae. Thus, we expressed Mct8-tagRFP in the endothelial cells of the vascular system and showed that even relatively weak mosaic expression completely rescued hypomyelination in mct8^-/- larvae. These results suggest potential pharmacological treatments and BBB-targeted gene therapy that can enhance myelination in AHDS and possibly in other TH-dependent brain disorders.

Oligodendrocyte differentiation

In the nervous system, axons transmit information in the form of electrical impulses over long distances. The speed of impulse conduction is enhanced by myelin, a lipid-rich membrane that wraps around axons. Myelin also is required for the long-term health of axons by providing metabolic support. Accordingly, myelin deficiencies are implicated in a wide range of neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders, intellectual disabilities, and neurodegenerative conditions. Central nervous system myelin is formed by glial cells called oligodendrocytes. During development, oligodendrocyte precursor cells migrate from their origins to their target axons, extend long membrane processes that wrap axons, and produce the proteins and lipids that provide myelin membrane with its unique characteristics. Myelination is a dynamic process that involves intricate interactions between multiple cell types. Therefore, an in vivo myelination model, such as the zebrafish, which allows for live observation of cell dynamics and cell-to-cell interactions, is well suited for investigating oligodendrocyte development. Zebrafish offer several advantages to investigating myelination, including the use of transgenic reporter lines, live imaging, forward genetic screens, chemical screens, and reverse genetic approaches. This chapter will describe how these tools and approaches have provided new insights into the regulatory mechanisms that guide myelination.

Fbxw7 Limits Myelination by Inhibiting mTOR Signaling

An important characteristic of vertebrate CNS development is the formation of specific amounts of insulating myelin membrane on axons. CNS myelin is produced by oligodendrocytes, glial cells that extend multiple membrane processes to wrap multiple axons. Recent data have shown that signaling mediated by the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) serine/threonine kinase promotes myelination, but factors that regulate mTOR activity for myelination remain poorly defined. Through a forward genetic screen in zebrafish, we discovered that mutation of fbxw7, which encodes the substrate recognition subunit of a SCF ubiquitin ligase that targets proteins for degradation, causes hypermyelination. Among known Fbxw7 targets is mTOR. Here, we provide evidence that mTOR signaling activity is elevated in oligodendrocyte lineage cells of fbxw7 mutant zebrafish larvae. Both genetic and pharmacological inhibition of mTOR function suppressed the excess myelin gene expression resulting from loss of Fbxw7 function, indicating that mTOR is a functionally relevant target of Fbxw7 in oligodendrocytes. fbxw7 mutant larvae wrapped axons with more myelin membrane than wild-type larvae and oligodendrocyte-specific expression of dominant-negative Fbxw7 produced longer myelin sheaths. Our data indicate that Fbxw7 limits the myelin-promoting activity of mTOR, thereby serving as an important brake on developmental myelination.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Myelin, a specialized, proteolipid-rich membrane that ensheaths and insulates nerve fibers, facilitates the rapid conduction of electrical impulses over long distances. Abnormalities in myelin formation or maintenance result in intellectual and motor disabilities, raising a need for therapeutic strategies designed to promote myelination. The mTOR kinase is a powerful driver of myelination, but the mechanisms that regulate mTOR function in myelination are not well understood. Our studies reveal that Fbxw7, a subunit of a ubiquitin ligase that targets other proteins for degradation, acts as a brake on myelination by limiting mTOR function. These findings suggest that Fbxw7 helps tune the amount of myelin produced during development and raise the possibility that Fbxw7 could be a target of myelin-promoting therapies.

CNS myelination requires cytoplasmic dynein function

BACKGROUND

Cytoplasmic dynein provides the main motor force for minus-end-directed transport of cargo on microtubules. Within the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS), proliferation, neuronal migration, and retrograde axon transport are among the cellular functions known to require dynein. Accordingly, mutations of DYNC1H1, which encodes the heavy chain subunit of cytoplasmic dynein, have been linked to developmental brain malformations and axonal pathologies. Oligodendrocytes, the myelinating glial cell type of the CNS, migrate from their origins to their target axons and subsequently extend multiple long processes that ensheath axons with specialized insulating membrane. These processes are filled with microtubules, which facilitate molecular transport of myelin components. However, whether oligodendrocytes require cytoplasmic dynein to ensheath axons with myelin is not known.

RESULTS

We identified a mutation of zebrafish dync1h1 in a forward genetic screen that caused a deficit of oligodendrocytes. Using in vivo imaging and gene expression analyses, we additionally found evidence that dync1h1 promotes axon ensheathment and myelin gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to its well known roles in axon transport and neuronal migration, cytoplasmic dynein contributes to neural development by promoting myelination.

Mutation screen reveals novel variants and expands the phenotypes associated with DYNC1H1

Dynein, cytoplasmic 1, heavy chain 1 (DYNC1H1) encodes a necessary subunit of the cytoplasmic dynein complex, which traffics cargo along microtubules. Dominant DYNC1H1 mutations are implicated in neural diseases, including spinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity dominance (SMA-LED), intellectual disability with neuronal migration defects, malformations of cortical development, and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, type 2O. We hypothesized that additional variants could be found in these and novel motoneuron and related diseases. Therefore, we analyzed our database of 1024 whole exome sequencing samples of motoneuron and related diseases for novel single nucleotide variations. We filtered these results for significant variants, which were further screened using segregation analysis in available family members. Analysis revealed six novel, rare, and highly conserved variants. Three of these are likely pathogenic and encompass a broad phenotypic spectrum with distinct disease clusters. Our findings suggest that DYNC1H1 variants can cause not only lower, but also upper motor neuron disease. It thus adds DYNC1H1 to the growing list of spastic paraplegia related genes in microtubule-dependent motor protein pathways.

Transplantation of neurotrophin-3-transfected bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells for the repair of spinal cord injury

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell transplantation has been shown to be therapeutic in the repair of spinal cord injury. However, the low survival rate of transplanted bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in vivo remains a problem. Neurotrophin-3 promotes motor neuron survival and it is hypothesized that its transfection can enhance the therapeutic effect. We show that in vitro transfection of neurotrophin-3 gene increases the number of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in the region of spinal cord injury. These results indicate that neurotrophin-3 can promote the survival of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells transplanted into the region of spinal cord injury and potentially enhance the therapeutic effect in the repair of spinal cord injury.

Zebrafish as a model to investigate CNS myelination

Myelin plays a critical role in proper neuronal function by providing trophic and metabolic support to axons and facilitating energy-efficient saltatory conduction. Myelination is influenced by numerous molecules including growth factors, hormones, transmembrane receptors and extracellular molecules, which activate signaling cascades that drive cellular maturation. Key signaling molecules and downstream signaling cascades controlling myelination have been identified in cell culture systems. However, in vitro systems are not able to faithfully replicate the complex in vivo signaling environment that occurs during development or following injury. Currently, it remains time-consuming and expensive to investigate myelination in vivo in rodents, the most widely used model for studying mammalian myelination. As such, there is a need for alternative in vivo myelination models, particularly ones that can test molecular mechanisms without removing oligodendrocyte lineage cells from their native signaling environment or disrupting intercellular interactions with other cell types present during myelination. Here, we review the ever-increasing role of zebrafish in studies uncovering novel mechanisms controlling vertebrate myelination. These innovative studies range from observations of the behavior of single cells during in vivo myelination as well as mutagenesis- and pharmacology-based screens in whole animals. Additionally, we discuss recent efforts to develop novel models of demyelination and oligodendrocyte cell death in adult zebrafish for the study of cellular behavior in real time during repair and regeneration of damaged nervous systems.

Motoneuron development influences dorsal root ganglia survival and Schwann cell development in a vertebrate model of spinal muscular atrophy

Low levels of the survival motor neuron protein (SMN) cause the disease spinal muscular atrophy. A primary characteristic of this disease is motoneuron dysfunction and paralysis. Understanding why motoneurons are affected by low levels of SMN will lend insight into this disease and to motoneuron biology in general. Motoneurons in zebrafish smn mutants develop abnormally; however, it is unclear where Smn is needed for motoneuron development since it is a ubiquitously expressed protein. We have addressed this issue by expressing human SMN in motoneurons in zebrafish maternal-zygotic (mz) smn mutants. First, we demonstrate that SMN is present in axons, but only during the period of robust motor axon outgrowth. We also conclusively demonstrate that SMN acts cell autonomously in motoneurons for proper motoneuron development. This includes the formation of both axonal and dendritic branches. Analysis of the peripheral nervous system revealed that Schwann cells and dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons developed abnormally in mz-smn mutants. Schwann cells did not wrap axons tightly and had expanded nodes of Ranvier. The majority of DRG neurons had abnormally short peripheral axons and later many of them failed to divide and died. Expressing SMN just in motoneurons rescued both of these cell types showing that their failure to develop was secondary to the developmental defects in motoneurons. Driving SMN just in motoneurons did not increase survival of the animal, suggesting that SMN is needed for motoneuron development and motor circuitry, but that SMN in other cells types factors into survival.

Zebrafish models of human motor neuron diseases: advantages and limitations

Motor neuron diseases (MNDs) are an etiologically heterogeneous group of disorders of neurodegenerative origin, which result in degeneration of lower (LMNs) and/or upper motor neurons (UMNs). Neurodegenerative MNDs include pure hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), which involves specific degeneration of UMNs, leading to progressive spasticity of the lower limbs. In contrast, spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) involves the specific degeneration of LMNs, with symmetrical muscle weakness and atrophy. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), the most common adult-onset MND, is characterized by the degeneration of both UMNs and LMNs, leading to progressive muscle weakness, atrophy, and spasticity. A review of the comparative neuroanatomy of the human and zebrafish motor systems showed that, while the zebrafish was a homologous model for LMN disorders, such as SMA, it was only partially relevant in the case of UMN disorders, due to the absence of corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts in its central nervous system. Even considering the limitation of this model to fully reproduce the human UMN disorders, zebrafish offer an excellent alternative vertebrate model for the molecular and genetic dissection of MND mechanisms. Its advantages include the conservation of genome and physiological processes and applicable in vivo tools, including easy imaging, loss or gain of function methods, behavioral tests to examine changes in motor activity, and the ease of simultaneous chemical/drug testing on large numbers of animals. This facilitates the assessment of the environmental origin of MNDs, alone or in combination with genetic traits and putative modifier genes. Positive hits obtained by phenotype-based small-molecule screening using zebrafish may potentially be effective drugs for treatment of human MNDs.

In vivo cell biology in zebrafish - providing insights into vertebrate development and disease

Over the past decades, studies using zebrafish have significantly advanced our understanding of the cellular basis for development and human diseases. Zebrafish have rapidly developing transparent embryos that allow comprehensive imaging of embryogenesis combined with powerful genetic approaches. However, forward genetic screens in zebrafish have generated unanticipated findings that are mirrored by human genetic studies: disruption of genes implicated in basic cellular processes, such as protein secretion or cytoskeletal dynamics, causes discrete developmental or disease phenotypes. This is surprising because many processes that were assumed to be fundamental to the function and survival of all cell types appear instead to be regulated by cell-specific mechanisms. Such discoveries are facilitated by experiments in whole animals, where zebrafish provides an ideal model for visualization and manipulation of organelles and cellular processes in a live vertebrate. Here, we review well-characterized mutants and newly developed tools that underscore this notion. We focus on the secretory pathway and microtubule-based trafficking as illustrative examples of how studying cell biology in vivo using zebrafish has broadened our understanding of the role fundamental cellular processes play in embryogenesis and disease.