Mucins in ovarian cancer diagnosis and therapy

Nanoengineered Polymeric RNA Nanoparticles for Controlled Biodistribution and Efficient Targeted Cancer Therapy

RNA nanotechnology, including rolling circle transcription (RCT), has gained increasing interest as a fascinating siRNA delivery nanoplatform for biostable and tumor-targetable RNA-based therapies. However, due to the lack of fine-tuning technologies for RNA nanostructures, the relationship between physicochemical properties and siRNA efficacy of polymeric siRNA nanoparticles (PRNs) with different sizes has not yet been fully elucidated. Herein, we scrutinized the effects of size/surface chemistry-tuned PRNs on the biological and physiological interactions with tumors. PRNs with adjusted size and surface properties were prepared using sequential engineering processes: RCT, condensation, and nanolayer deposition of functional biopolymers. Through the RCT process, nanoparticles of three sizes with a diameter of 50-200 nm were fabricated and terminated with three types of biopolymers: poly-l-lysine (PLL), poly-l-glutamate (PLG), and hyaluronic acid (HA) for different surface properties. Among the PRNs, HA-layered nanoparticles with a diameter of ∼200 nm exhibited the most effective systemic delivery, resulting in superior anticancer effects in an orthotopic breast tumor model due to the CD44 receptor targeting and optimized nanosized structure. Depending on the type of PRNs, the in vivo siRNA delivery with protein expression inhibition differed by up to approximately 20-fold. These findings indicate that the types of layered biopolymers and the PRNs size mediate efficient polymeric siRNA delivery to the targeted tumors, resulting in high RNAi-induced therapeutic efficacy. This RNA-nanotechnology-based size/surface editing can overcome the limitations of siRNA therapeutics and represents a potent built-in module method to design RNA therapeutics tailored for targeted cancer therapy.

Deciphering cellular and molecular mechanism of MUC13 mucin involved in cancer cell plasticity and drug resistance

There has been a surge of interest in recent years in understanding the intricate mechanisms underlying cancer progression and treatment resistance. One molecule that has recently emerged in these mechanisms is MUC13 mucin, a transmembrane glycoprotein. Researchers have begun to unravel the molecular complexity of MUC13 and its impact on cancer biology. Studies have shown that MUC13 overexpression can disrupt normal cellular polarity, leading to the acquisition of malignant traits. Furthermore, MUC13 has been associated with increased cancer plasticity, allowing cells to undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasize. Notably, MUC13 has also been implicated in the development of chemoresistance, rendering cancer cells less responsive to traditional treatment options. Understanding the precise role of MUC13 in cellular plasticity, and chemoresistance could pave the way for the development of targeted therapies to combat cancer progression and enhance treatment efficacy.

Cancer immune exclusion: breaking the barricade for a successful immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has changed the course of cancer treatment. The initial steps were made through tumor-specific antibodies that guided the setup of an antitumor immune response. A new and successful generation of antibodies are designed to target immune checkpoint molecules aimed to reinvigorate the antitumor immune response. The cellular counterpart is the adoptive cell therapy, where specific immune cells are expanded or engineered to target cancer cells. In all cases, the key for achieving positive clinical resolutions rests upon the access of immune cells to the tumor. In this review, we focus on how the tumor microenvironment architecture, including stromal cells, immunosuppressive cells and extracellular matrix, protects tumor cells from an immune attack leading to immunotherapy resistance, and on the available strategies to tackle immune evasion.

Monoclonal antibodies in breast cancer: A critical appraisal

In breast cancer, mAbs can play multifunctional roles like targeting cancer cells, sometimes directly attacking them, helping in locating and delivering therapeutic drugs to targets, inhibiting cell growth and blocking immune system inhibitors, etc. Monoclonal antibodies are also one of the important successful treatment strategies especially against HER2 but they have not been explored much for other types of breast cancers especially in triple negative breast cancers. Monoclonal antibodies impact the feasibility of antigen specificity, bispecific and trispecific mAbs have opened new doors for more targeted specific efficacy. Monoclonal antibodies can be used diversly and with efficacy as compared to other methods of treatment thus maining it a suitable candidate for breast cancer treatment. However, mAbs treatment also causes various side effects such as fever, trembling, fatigue, headache and muscle pain, nausea/vomiting, difficulty in breathing, rashes and bleeding. Understanding the pros and cons of this strategy, we have explored in this review, the current and future potential capabilities of monoclonal antibodies with respect to diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. DATA AVAILABILITY: Not applicable.

Mucin 13 (MUC13) as a candidate biomarker for ovarian cancer detection: potential to complement CA125 in detecting non-serous subtypes

OBJECTIVES

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecological malignancy in developed countries. One of the key associations with the high mortality rate is diagnosis at late stages. This clinical limitation is primarily due to a lack of distinct symptoms and detection at the early stages. The ovarian cancer biomarker, CA125, is mainly effective for identifying serous ovarian carcinomas, leaving a gap in non-serous ovarian cancer detection. Mucin 13 (MUC13) is a transmembrane, glycosylated protein with aberrant expression in malignancies, including ovarian cancer. We explored the potential of MUC13 to complement CA125 as an ovarian cancer biomarker, by evaluating its ability to discriminate serous and non-serous subtypes of ovarian cancer at FIGO stages I-IV from benign conditions.

METHODS

We used our newly developed, high sensitivity ELISA to measure MUC13 protein in a large, well-defined cohort of 389 serum samples from patients with ovarian cancer and benign conditions.

RESULTS

MUC13 and CA125 serum levels were elevated in malignant compared to benign cases (p<0.0001). Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed similar area under the curve (AUC) of 0.74 (MUC13) and 0.76 (CA125). MUC13 concentrations were significantly higher in mucinous adenocarcinomas compared to benign controls (p=0.0005), with AUC of 0.80. MUC13 and CA125 showed significant elevation in early-stage cases (stage I-II) in relation to benign controls (p=0.0012 and p=0.014, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

We report the novel role of MUC13 as a serum ovarian cancer biomarker, where it could complement CA125 for detecting some subtypes of non-serous ovarian carcinoma and early-stage disease.

Trefoil factor family proteins as potential diagnostic markers for mucinous invasive ovarian carcinoma

Introduction

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the leading cause of gynecological cancer-related death. Of the main OC histologic subtypes, invasive mucinous carcinomas (MC) account for only 3% of OC cases and are frequently associated with favorable prognosis. Nevertheless, MCs differ greatly from the other OC histotypes in clinical, pathological, and biological behavior. However, the origin and molecular pathogenesis of MC are not yet fully understood. Therefore, identification of novel diagnostic markers could potentially facilitate early diagnosis of OC, particularly the MC histotype, thereby leading to the development of histotype-specific treatment regimens and improved survival rates.

Methods

In the present study, Trefoil factor gene family members (TFF1, TFF2 and TFF3) were identified as MC histotype-specific biomarkers using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data for 95 stage I-II OCs. The diagnostic value of TFF1, TFF2 and TFF3 was then evaluated by immunohistochemistry on 206 stage I-II OCs stratified by histotype (high-grade serous carcinoma [HGSC], endometrioid carcinoma [EC], clear cell carcinoma [CCC], and MC).

Results

We showed significantly elevated intracytoplasmic protein expression levels for TFF1, TFF2 and TFF3 in MC samples, thereby revealing an association between expression of Trefoil factor gene family members and the MC histotype. Taken together, these findings suggest that the TFF proteins may play a pivotal role in tumor initiation and progression for the MC histotype.

Conclusion

Taken together, these findings suggest that the TFF proteins may play a pivotal role in tumor initiation and progression for the MC histotype. Moreover, these novel histotype-specific diagnostic biomarkers may not only improve patient stratification of early-stage ovarian carcinomas but may also be candidates for the development of molecular targeted therapies.

Pathological Implications of Mucin Signaling in Metastasis

The dynamic mucosal layer provides a selective protective barrier for the epithelial cells lining the body cavities. Diverse human malignancies exploit their intrinsic role to protect and repair epithelia for promoting growth and survival. Aberrant expression of mucin has been known to be associated with poor prognosis of many cancers. However, the emergence of new paradigms in the study of metastasis recognizes the involvement of MUC1, MUC4, MUC5AC, MUC5B, and MUC16 during metastasis initiation and progression. Hence mucins can be used as an attractive target in future diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. In this review, we discuss in detail about mucin family and its domains and the role of different mucins in regulating cancer progression and metastasis. In addition, we briefly discuss insights into mucins as a therapeutic agent.

Measuring the multifaceted roles of mucin-domain glycoproteins in cancer

Mucin-domain glycoproteins are highly O-glycosylated cell surface and secreted proteins that serve as both biochemical and biophysical modulators. Aberrant expression and glycosylation of mucins are known hallmarks in numerous malignancies, yet mucin-domain glycoproteins remain enigmatic in the broad landscape of cancer glycobiology. Here we review the multifaceted roles of mucins in cancer through the lens of the analytical and biochemical methods used to study them. We also describe a collection of emerging tools that are specifically equipped to characterize mucin-domain glycoproteins in complex biological backgrounds. These approaches are poised to further elucidate how mucin biology can be understood and subsequently targeted for the next generation of cancer therapeutics.

Isolation, culture, and characterisation of bovine ovarian fetal fibroblasts and gonadal ridge epithelial-like cells and comparison to their adult counterparts

During ovarian development, gonadal ridge epithelial-like (GREL) cells arise from the epithelial cells of the ventral surface of the mesonephros. They ultimately develop into follicular granulosa cells or into ovarian surface epithelial cells. Stromal fibroblasts arise from the mesonephros and penetrate the ovary. We developed methods for isolating and culturing fetal ovarian GREL cells and ovarian fibroblasts by expansion of colonies without passage. In culture, these two cell types were morphologically different. We examined the expression profile of 34 genes by qRT-PCR, of which 24 genes had previously been studied in whole fetal ovaries. Expression of nine of the 10 newly-examined genes in fetal ovaries correlated with gestational age (MUC1, PKP2, CCNE1 and CCNE2 negatively; STAR, COL4A1, GJA1, LAMB2 and HSD17B1 positively). Comparison between GREL cells and fetal fibroblasts revealed higher expression of KRT19, PKP2, OCLN, MUC1, ESR1 and LGR5 and lower expression of GJA1, FOXL2, NR2F2, FBN1, COL1A1, NR5A1, CCND2, CCNE1 and ALDH1A1. Expression of CCND2, CCNE1, CCNE2, ESR2 and TGFBR1 was higher in the fetal fibroblasts than in adult fibroblasts; FBN1 was lower. Expression of OCLN, MUC1, LAMB2, NR5A1, ESR1, ESR2, and TGFBR3 was lower in GREL cells than ovarian surface epithelial cells. Expression of KRT19, DSG2, PKP2, OCLN, MUC1, FBN1, COL1A1, COL3A1, STAR and TGFBR2 was higher and GJA1, CTNNB1, LAMB2, NR5A1, CYP11A1, HSD3B1, CYP19A1, HSD17B1, FOXL2, ESR1, ESR2, TGFBR3 and CCND2 was lower in GREL cells compared to granulosa cells. TGFβ1 altered the expression of COL1A1, COL3A1 and FBN1 in fetal fibroblasts and epidermal growth factor altered the expression of FBN1 and COL1A1. In summary, the two major somatic cell types of the developing ovary have distinct gene expression profiles. They, especially GREL cells, also differ from the cells they ultimately differentiate in to. The regulation of cell fate determination, particularly of the bi-potential GREL cells, remains to be elucidated.

An in-Depth Analysis of Ovarian Cancer: Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestation

Ovarian cancer is characterized by the establishment of tolerance, the recurrence of disease, as well as a poor prognosis. Gene signatures in ovarian cancer cells enable cancer medicine research, therapy, prevention, & management problematic. Notwithstanding advances in tumor puncture surgery, novel combinations regimens, and abdominal radiation, which can provide outstanding reaction times, the bulk of gynecological tumor patients suffer from side effects & relapse. As a consequence, more therapy alternatives for individuals with ovarian cancer must always be studied to minimize side effects and improve progression-free and total response rates. The development of cancer medications is presently undergoing a renaissance in the quest for descriptive and prognostic ovarian cancer biomarkers. Nevertheless, abnormalities in the BRCA2 or BRCA1 genes, a variety of hereditary predispositions, unexplained onset and progression, molecular tumor diversity, and illness staging can all compromise the responsiveness and accuracy of such indicators. As a result, current ovarian cancer treatments must be supplemented with broad-spectrum & customized targeted therapeutic approaches. The objective of this review is to highlight recent contributions to the knowledge of the interrelations between selected ovarian tumor markers, various perception signs, and biochemical and molecular signaling processes, as well as one's interpretation of much more targeted and effective treatment interventions.

Diagnostic potential of nanoparticle aided assays for MUC16 and MUC1 glycovariants in ovarian cancer

Our study reports the discovery and evaluation of nanoparticle aided sensitive assays for glycovariants of MUC16 and MUC1 in a unique collection of paired ovarian cyst fluids and serum samples obtained at or prior to surgery for ovarian carcinoma suspicion. Selected glycovariants and the immunoassays for CA125, CA15‐3 and HE4 were compared and validated in 347 cyst fluid and serum samples. Whereas CA125 and CA15‐3 performed poorly in cyst fluid to separate carcinoma and controls, four glycovariants including MUC16^MGL, MUC16^STn, MUC1^STn and MUC1^Tn provided highly improved separations. In serum, the two STn glycovariants outperformed conventional CA125, CA15‐3 and HE4 assays in all subcategories analyzed with main benefits obtained at high specificities and at postmenopausal and early‐stage disease. Serum MUC16^STn performed best at high specificity (90%‐99%), but sensitivity was also improved by the other glycovariants and CA15‐3. The highly improved specificity, excellent analytical sensitivity and robustness of the nanoparticle assisted glycovariant assays carry great promise for improved identification and early detection of ovarian carcinoma in routine differential diagnostics.

Recent advances on smart glycoconjugate vaccines in infections and cancer

Vaccination is one of the greatest achievements in biomedical research preventing death and morbidity in many infectious diseases through the induction of pathogen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. Currently, no effective vaccines are available for pathogens with a highly variable antigenic load, such as the human immunodeficiency virus or to induce cellular T-cell immunity in the fight against cancer. The recent SARS-CoV-2 outbreak has reinforced the relevance of designing smart therapeutic vaccine modalities to ensure public health. Indeed, academic and private companies have ongoing joint efforts to develop novel vaccine prototypes for this virus. Many pathogens are covered by a dense glycan-coat, which form an attractive target for vaccine development. Moreover, many tumor types are characterized by altered glycosylation profiles that are known as "tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens". Unfortunately, glycans do not provoke a vigorous immune response and generally serve as T-cell-independent antigens, not eliciting protective immunoglobulin G responses nor inducing immunological memory. A close and continuous crosstalk between glycochemists and glycoimmunologists is essential for the successful development of efficient immune modulators. It is clear that this is a key point for the discovery of novel approaches, which could significantly improve our understanding of the immune system. In this review, we discuss the latest advancements in development of vaccines against glycan epitopes to gain selective immune responses and to provide an overview on the role of different immunogenic constructs in improving glycovaccine efficacy.

Nanostructure-Based Electrochemical Immunosensors as Diagnostic Tools

Electrochemical immunosensors are affinity-based biosensors characterized by several useful features such as specificity, miniaturizability, low cost and simplicity, making them very interesting for many applications in several scientific fields. One of the significant issues in the design of electrochemical immunosensors is to increase the system’s sensitivity. Different strategies have been developed, one of the most common is the use of nanostructured materials as electrode materials, nanocarriers, electroactive or electrocatalytic nanotracers because of their abilities in signal amplification and biocompatibility. In this review, we will consider some of the most used nanostructures employed in the development of electrochemical immunosensors (e.g., metallic nanoparticles, graphene, carbon nanotubes) and many other still uncommon nanomaterials. Furthermore, their diagnostic applications in the last decade will be discussed, referring to two relevant issues of present-day: the detection of tumor markers and viruses.

An enzymatic toolkit for selective proteolysis, detection, and visualization of mucin-domain glycoproteins

Densely O-glycosylated mucin domains are found in a broad range of cell surface and secreted proteins, where they play key physiological roles. In addition, alterations in mucin expression and glycosylation are common in a variety of human diseases, such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, and inflammatory bowel diseases. These correlations have been challenging to uncover and establish because tools that specifically probe mucin domains are lacking. Here, we present a panel of bacterial proteases that cleave mucin domains via distinct peptide- and glycan-based motifs, generating a diverse enzymatic toolkit for mucin-selective proteolysis. By mutating catalytic residues of two such enzymes, we engineered mucin-selective binding agents with retained glycoform preferences. StcE^E447D is a pan-mucin stain derived from enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli that is tolerant to a wide range of glycoforms. BT4244^E575A derived from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron is selective for truncated, asialylated core 1 structures commonly associated with malignant and premalignant tissues. We demonstrated that these catalytically inactive point mutants enable robust detection and visualization of mucin-domain glycoproteins by flow cytometry, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry. Application of our enzymatic toolkit to ascites fluid and tissue slices from patients with ovarian cancer facilitated characterization of patients based on differences in mucin cleavage and expression patterns.

Tuning Nanoparticle Interactions with Ovarian Cancer through Layer-by-Layer Modification of Surface Chemistry

Nanoparticle surface chemistry is a fundamental engineering parameter that governs tumor-targeting activity. Electrostatic assembly generates controlled polyelectrolyte complexes through the process of adsorption and charge overcompensation utilizing synthetic polyions and natural biomacromolecules; it can yield films with distinctive hydration, charge, and presentation of functional groups. Here, we used electrostatic layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly to screen 10 different surface chemistries for their ability to preferentially target human ovarian cancer in vitro. Our screen identified that poly-l-aspartate, poly-l-glutamate, and hyaluronate-coated LbL nanoparticles have striking specificity for ovarian cancer, while sulfated poly(β-cyclodextrin) nanoparticles target noncancerous stromal cells. We validated top candidates for tumor-homing ability with a murine model of metastatic disease and with patient-derived ovarian cancer spheroids. Nanoparticle surface chemistry also influenced subcellular trafficking, indicating strategies to target the cell membrane, caveolae, and perinuclear vesicles. Our results confirm LbL is a powerful tool to systematically engineer nanoparticles and achieve specific targeting.

Cancer-associated mucins: role in immune modulation and metastasis

Mucins (MUC) protect epithelial barriers from environmental insult to maintain homeostasis. However, their aberrant overexpression and glycosylation in various malignancies facilitate oncogenic events from inception to metastasis. Mucin-associated sialyl-Tn (sTn) antigens bind to various receptors present on the dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages, and natural killer (NK) cells, resulting in overall immunosuppression by either receptor masking or inhibition of cytolytic activity. MUC1-mediated interaction of tumor cells with innate immune cells hampers cross-presentation of processed antigens on MHC class I molecules. MUC1 and MUC16 bind siglecs and mask Toll-like receptors (TLRs), respectively, on DCs promoting an immature DC phenotype that in turn reduces T cell effector functions. Mucins, such as MUC1, MUC2, MUC4, and MUC16, interact with or form aggregates with neutrophils, macrophages, and platelets, conferring protection to cancer cells during hematological dissemination and facilitate their spread and colonization to the metastatic sites. On the contrary, poor glycosylation of MUC1 and MUC4 at the tandem repeat region (TR) generates cancer-specific immunodominant epitopes. The presence of MUC16 neo-antigen-specific T cell clones and anti-MUC1 antibodies in cancer patients suggests that mucins can serve as potential targets for developing cancer therapeutics. The present review summarizes the molecular events involved in mucin-mediated immunomodulation, and metastasis, as well as the utility of mucins as targets for cancer immunotherapy and radioimmunotherapy.

Tumor Microenvironment-Associated Extracellular Matrix Components Regulate NK Cell Function

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is composed of multiple infiltrating host cells (e.g., endothelial cells, fibroblasts, lymphocytes, and myeloid cells), extracellular matrix, and various secreted or cell membrane-presented molecules. Group 1 innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), which includes natural killer (NK) cells and ILC1, contribute to protecting the host against cancer and infection. Both subsets are able to quickly produce cytokines such as interferon gamma (IFN-γ), chemokines, and other growth factors in response to activating signals. However, the TME provides many molecules that can prevent the potential effector function of these cells, thereby protecting the tumor. For example, TME-derived tumor growth factor (TGF)-β and associated members of the superfamily downregulate NK cell cytotoxicity, cytokine secretion, metabolism, proliferation, and induce effector NK cells to upregulate ILC1-like characteristics. In concert, a family of carbohydrate-binding proteins called galectins, which can be produced by different cells composing the TME, can downregulate NK cell function. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase (ADAM) are also enzymes that can remodel the extracellular matrix and shred receptors from the tumor cell surface, impairing the activation of NK cells and leading to less effective effector functions. Gaining a better understanding of the characteristics of the TME and its associated factors, such as infiltrating cells and extracellular matrix, could lead to tailoring of new personalized immunotherapy approaches. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge on the impact of the TME and extracellular matrix-associated components on differentiation, impairment, and function of NK cells.

MUC1 gene silencing inhibits proliferation, invasion, and migration while promoting apoptosis of oral squamous cell carcinoma cells

The aim of the present study is to investigate the role of RNA interference in the inhibition of MUC1 gene expression in occurrence and metastasis of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) and its in-depth mechanisms. The OSCC and normal oral mucosa tissues, as well as normal oral epithelial cell line HOK and OSCC cell line SCC-4, Cal-27, TSCCA, Tca8113 were obtained to detect the expression of MUC1. Slug expression in OSCC and normal oral mucosa tissues was also determined. The OSCC cells were grouped to investigate the role of MUC1 gene silencing on proliferation, DNA replication, cell cycle distribution, apoptosis, colony formation ability, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), invasion, and migration of OSCC cells. We first found higher positive rate of MUC1 and Slug expression in OSCC tissues. Next, it was determined that higher expression of MUC1 was found in OSCC tissues and cells. Furthermore, silencing of MUC1 declined Slug expression, inhibited the proliferation, DNA replication, cell cycle progression, and EMT while inducing apoptosis of OSCC cells. Our study suggests that overexpression of MUC1 is found in OSCC, and MUC1 gene silencing could inhibit the proliferation, invasion, and migration while inducing apoptosis of OSCC cells.

Horizons of nanotechnology applications in female specific cancers

Female-specific cancers are the most common cancers in women worldwide. Early detection methods remain unavailable for most of these cancers, signifying that most of them are diagnosed at later stages. Furthermore, current treatment options for most female-specific cancers are surgery, radiation and chemotherapy. Although important milestones in molecularly targeted approaches have been achieved lately, current therapeutic strategies for female-specific cancers remain limited, ineffective and plagued by the emergence of chemoresistance, which aggravates prognosis. Recently, the application of nanotechnology to the medical field has allowed the development of novel nano-based approaches for the management and treatment of cancers, including female-specific cancers. These approaches promise to improve patient survival rates by reducing side effects, enabling selective delivery of drugs to tumor tissues and enhancing the uptake of therapeutic compounds, thus increasing anti-tumor activity. In this review, we focus on the application of nano-based technologies to the design of novel and innovative diagnostic and therapeutic strategies in the context of female-specific cancers, highlighting their potential uses and limitations.

The effect of streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia on N-and O-linked protein glycosylation in mouse ovary

Post-translational modification of proteins namely glycosylation influences cellular behavior, structural properties and interactions including during ovarian follicle development and atresia. However, little is known about protein glycosylation changes occurring in diabetes mellitus in ovarian tissues despite the well-known influence of diabetes on the outcome of successful embryo implantation. In our study, the use of PGC chromatography-ESI mass spectrometry in negative ion mode enabled the identification of 138 N-glycans and 6 O-glycans on the proteins of Streptozotocin-induced (STZ) diabetic mouse ovarian tissues (n = 3). Diabetic mouse ovaries exhibited a relative decrease in sialylation, fucosylation and, to a lesser extent, branched N-linked glycan structures, as well as an increase in oligomannose structures on their proteins, compared with nondiabetic mouse ovaries. Changes in N-glycans occurred in the diabetic liver tissue but were more evident in diabetic ovarian tissue of the same mouse, suggesting an organ-specific effect of diabetes mellitus on protein glycosylation. Although at a very low amount, O-GalNAc glycans of mice ovaries were present as core type 1 and core type 2 glycans; with a relative increase in the NeuGc:NeuAc ratio as the most significant difference between control and diabetic ovarian tissues. STZ-treated mice also showed a trend towards an increase in TNF-α and IL1-B inflammatory cytokines, which have previously been shown to influence protein glycosylation.

Role of immune system in tumor progression and carcinogenesis

Tumor micro-environment has potential to customize the behavior of the immune cell according to their need. In immune-eliminating phase, immune cells eliminate transformed cells but after tumor establishment innate and adaptive immune cells synergistically provide shelter as well as fulfill their requirement that helps in progression. In between eliminating and establishment phase, equilibrium and escaping phase regulate the immune cells response. During immune-escaping, (1) the antigenic response generated is either inadequate, or focused entirely on tolerance, and (2) immune response generated is specific and effective, but the tumor skips immune recognition. In this review, we are discussing the critical role of immune cells and their cytokines before and after the establishment of tumor which might play a critical role during immunotherapy.

High expression of Mucin13 associates with grimmer postoperative prognosis of patients with non-metastatic clear-cell renal cell carcinoma

Background

Mucin13 (MUC13) is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is aberrantly expressed in ovarian and gastro-intestinal tumors, but its role in renal cell carcinoma remains elusive. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the prognostic value of MUC13 expression in patients with non-metastatic clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) after surgical resection.

Results

MUC13 high expression was associated with high Fuhrman grade (p < 0.001), high SSIGN score (p = 0.011), early recurrence (p < 0.001) and poor survival (p < 0.001). Multivariate Cox regression analysis identified MUC13 expression as an independent prognostic factor for RFS and OS of ccRCC patients. A nomogram integrating MUC13 expression and other independent prognosticators was established to predict RFS and OS of ccRCC patients. Optimal agreement was shown between the predictions and observations in calibration curves.

Matrials and methods

This study enrolled 410 postoperative non-metastatic ccRCC patients at a single institution. Clinicopathologic variables, recurrence-free survival (RFS), and overall survival (OS) were recorded. MUC13 expression was detected by immunohistochemical staining in tumor specimens. Association of MUC13 expression with clinicopathological factors was explored. Kaplan-Meier analysis was performed to compare survival curves. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression models were used to analyze the impact of prognostic factors on RFS and OS. A prognostic nomogram was constructed based on the independent prognostic factors identified by multivariate analysis.

Conclusions

MUC13 high expression is a novel independent adverse prognostic factor of clinical outcome in non-metastatic ccRCC patients after surgery.

MUC13 interaction with receptor tyrosine kinase HER2 drives pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma progression

Although MUC13, a transmembrane mucin, is aberrantly expressed in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and generally correlates with increased expression of HER2, the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Herein, we found that MUC13 co-localizes and interacts with HER2 in PDAC cells (reciprocal co-immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescence, proximity ligation, co-capping assays) and tissues (immunohistofluorescence). The results from this study demonstrate that MUC13 functionally interacts and activates HER2 at p1248 in PDAC cells, leading to stimulation of HER2 signaling cascade including, ERK1/2, FAK, AKT and PAK1 as well as regulation of the growth, cytoskeleton remodeling and motility and invasion of PDAC cells - all collectively contributing to PDAC progression. Interestingly, all of these phenotypic effects of MUC13-HER2 co-localization could be effectively compromised by depleting MUC13 and mediated by the first and second EGF-like domains of MUC13. Further, MUC13-HER2 co-localization also holds true in PDAC tissues with a strong functional correlation with events contributing to increased degree of disorder and cancer aggressiveness. In brief, findings presented here provide compelling evidence of a functional ramification of MUC13-HER2: this interaction could be potentially exploited for targeted therapeutics in a subset of patients harboring an aggressive form of PDAC.

MicroRNA-145 targets MUC13 and suppresses growth and invasion of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer has a poor prognosis due to late diagnosis and ineffective therapeutic multimodality. MUC13, a transmembrane mucin is highly involved in pancreatic cancer progression. Thus, understanding its regulatory molecular mechanisms may offer new avenue of therapy for prevention/treatment of pancreatic cancer. Herein, we report a novel microRNA (miR-145)-mediated mechanism regulating aberrant MUC13 expression in pancreatic cancer. We report that miR-145 expression inversely correlates with MUC13 expression in pancreatic cancer cells and human tumor tissues. miR-145 is predominantly present in normal pancreatic tissues and early Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC) precursor lesions (PanIN I) and is progressively suppressed over the course of development from PanIN II/III to late stage poorly differentiated PDAC. We demonstrate that miR-145 targets 3′ untranslated region of MUC13 and thus downregulates MUC13 protein expression in cells. Interestingly, transfection of miR-145 inhibits cell proliferation, invasion and enhances gemcitabine sensitivity. It causes reduction of HER2, P-AKT, PAK1 and an increase in p53. Similar results were found when MUC13 was specifically inhibited by shRNA directed at MUC13. Additionally, intratumoral injections of miR-145 in xenograft mice inhibited tumor growth via suppression of MUC13 and its downstream target, HER2. These results suggest miR-145 as a novel regulator of MUC13 in pancreatic cancer.

Exploring the role and diversity of mucins in health and disease with special insight into non-communicable diseases

Mucins are major glycoprotein components of the mucus that coats the surfaces of cells lining the respiratory, digestive, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts. They function to protect epithelial cells from infection, dehydration and physical or chemical injury, as well as to aid the passage of materials through a tract i.e., lubrication. They are also implicated in the pathogenesis of benign and malignant diseases of secretory epithelial cells. In Human there are two types of mucins, membrane-bound and secreted that are originated from mucous producing goblet cells localized in the epithelial cell layer or in mucous producing glands and encoded by MUC gene. Mucins belong to a heterogeneous family of high molecular weight proteins composed of a long peptidic chain with a large number of tandem repeats that form the so-called mucin domain. The molecular weight is generally high, ranging between 0.2 and 10 million Dalton and all mucins contain one or more domains which are highly glycosylated. The size and number of repeats vary between mucins and the genetic polymorphism represents number of repeats (VNTR polymorphisms), which means the size of individual mucins can differ substantially between individuals which can be used as markers. In human it is only MUC1 and MUC7 that have mucin domains with less than 40% serine and threonine which in turn could reduce number of PTS domains. Mucins can be considered as powerful two-edged sword, as its normal function protects from unwanted substances and organisms at an arm's length while, malfunction of mucus may be an important factor in human diseases. In this review we have unearthed the current status of different mucin proteins in understanding its role and function in various non-communicable diseases in human with special reference to its organ specific locations. The findings described in this review may be of direct relevance to the major research area in biomedicine with reference to mucin and mucin associated diseases.

The O-Linked Glycome and Blood Group Antigens ABO on Mucin-Type Glycoproteins in Mucinous and Serous Epithelial Ovarian Tumors

BACKGROUND

Mucins are heavily O-glycosylated proteins where the glycosylation has been shown to play an important role in cancer. Normal epithelial ovarian cells do not express secreted mucins, but their abnormal expression has previously been described in epithelial ovarian cancer and may relate to tumor formation and progression. The cyst fluids were shown to be a rich source for acidic glycoproteins. The study of these proteins can potentially lead to the identification of more effective biomarkers for ovarian cancer.

METHODS

In this study, we analyzed the expression of the MUC5AC and the O-glycosylation of acidic glycoproteins secreted into ovarian cyst fluids. The samples were obtained from patients with serous and mucinous ovarian tumors of different stages (benign, borderline, malignant) and grades. The O-linked oligosaccharides were released and analyzed by negative-ion graphitized carbon Liquid Chromatography (LC) coupled to Electrospray Ionization tandem Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MSn). The LC-ESI-MSn of the oligosaccharides from ovarian cyst fluids displayed differences in expression of fucose containing structures such as blood group ABO antigens and Lewis-type epitopes.

RESULTS

The obtained data showed that serous and mucinous benign adenomas, mucinous low malignant potential carcinomas (LMPs, borderline) and mucinous low-grade carcinomas have a high level of blood groups and Lewis type epitopes. In contrast, this type of fucosylated structures were low abundant in the high-grade mucinous carcinomas or in serous carcinomas. In addition, the ovarian tumors that showed a high level of expression of blood group antigens also revealed a strong reactivity towards the MUC5AC antibody. To visualize the differences between serous and mucinous ovarian tumors based on the O-glycosylation, a hierarchical cluster analysis was performed using mass spectrometry average compositions (MSAC).

CONCLUSION

Mucinous benign and LMPs along with mucinous low-grade carcinomas appear to be different from serous and high-grade mucinous carcinomas based on their O-glycan profiles.

Differential mucin expression by respiratory syncytial virus and human metapneumovirus infection in human epithelial cells

Mucins (MUC) constitute an important component of the inflammatory and innate immune response. However, the expression of these molecules by respiratory viral infections is still largely unknown. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and human metapneumovirus (hMPV) are two close-related paramyxoviruses that can cause severe low respiratory tract disease in infants and young children worldwide. Currently, there is not vaccine available for neither virus. In this work, we explored the differential expression of MUC by RSV and hMPV in human epithelial cells. Our data indicate that the MUC expression by RSV and hMPV differs significantly, as we observed a stronger induction of MUC8, MUC15, MUC20, MUC21, and MUC22 by RSV infection while the expression of MUC1, MUC2, and MUC5B was dominated by the infection with hMPV. These results may contribute to the different immune response induced by these two respiratory viruses.

Effect of diallyl trisulfide on human ovarian cancer SKOV- 3/DDP cell apoptosis

AIM

To investigate the effects of diallyl trisulfide (DT) on apoptosis of cisplatin (DDP)-resistant human epithelial ovarian cancer SKOV-3 cells (SKOV-3/DDP), and the role of p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA).

METHODS

SKOV-3/DDP cells were randomly divided into control, DT, DPP and DPP+DT groups, which were treated with DT or combined DT and DDP. All cells were incubated for 48 h. and apoptosis rates were assessed by flow cytometry. mRNA and protein expression of PUMA, Bax and Bcl-2 was determined by RT-PCR and Western blot assays, respectively.

RESULTS

Compared with control group, the apoptosis rates of SKOV-3/DDP cells in DT groups were obviously increased, with dose-dependence (P < 0.05), the mRNA and protein expressions of PUMA, Bax also being up-regulated (P < 0.05), while those of Bcl-2 were down-regulated (P < 0.05). Compared with DT groups, the apoptosis rate in the DDP+DT group was significantly increased (P < 0.05). After knockdown of PUMA with specific siRNA, the apoptosis rate of SKOV-3/DDP cells was obviously decreased (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

DT can promote the apoptosis of SKOV-3/DDP cells with PUMA playing a critical role.

Molecular expression of adenosine receptors in OVCAR-3, Caov-4 and SKOV-3 human ovarian cancer cell lines

Adenosine receptors (A1, A2a, A2b and A3) have several physiological and pathological roles in cancer cell lines. The present study was carried out to evaluate the mRNA and protein expression profile and functional role of adenosine receptors in OVCAR-3, Caov-4 and SKOV-3 ovarian cancer cell lines. The levels of mRNA and protein expression of A1, A2a, A2b and A3 adenosine receptors in the ovarian cancer cell lines were measured by Real-time PCR and western blotting. The functional roles of adenosine receptors were investigated through measurement of cAMP levels after agonist treatment. The mRNA and protein of all adenosine receptors subtypes were expressed in the ovarian cancer cell lines. Our findings demonstrated that A2b and A3 had the most mRNA and protein expression. Moreover, cAMP assay confirmed the functional role of A2b and A3 adenosine receptors. This findings demonstrated that A2b and A3 subtypes are most important adenosine receptors in humn ovarian cancer cell lines. This information provide a strong possibility into the relationship of A2b and A3 adenosine receptor and ovarian cancer.

Potential application of curcumin and its analogues in the treatment strategy of patients with primary epithelial ovarian cancer

Recent findings on the molecular basis of ovarian cancer development and progression create new opportunities to develop anticancer medications that would affect specific metabolic pathways and decrease side systemic toxicity of conventional treatment. Among new possibilities for cancer chemoprevention, much attention is paid to curcumin—A broad-spectrum anticancer polyphenolic derivative extracted from the rhizome of Curcuma longa L. According to ClinicalTrials.gov at present there are no running pilot studies, which could assess possible therapeutic benefits from curcumin supplementation to patients with primary epithelial ovarian cancer. Therefore, the goal of this review was to evaluate potential preclinical properties of curcumin and its new analogues on the basis of in vivo and in vitro ovarian cancer studies. Curcumin and its different formulations have been shown to display multifunctional mechanisms of anticancer activity, not only in platinum-resistant primary epithelial ovarian cancer, but also in multidrug resistant cancer cells/xenografts models. Curcumin administered together with platinum-taxane chemotherapeutics have been reported to demonstrate synergistic effects, sensitize resistant cells to drugs, and decrease their biologically effective doses. An accumulating body of evidence suggests that curcumin, due to its long-term safety and an excellent profile of side effects should be considered as a beneficial support in ovarian cancer treatment strategies, especially in patients with platinum-resistant primary epithelial recurrent ovarian cancer or multidrug resistant disease. Although the prospect of curcumin and its formulations as anticancer agents in ovarian cancer treatment strategy appears to be challenging, and at the same time promising, there is a further need to evaluate its effectiveness in clinical studies.

Immunohistological insight into the correlation between neuropilin-1 and epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers in epithelial ovarian cancer

The mechanism by which neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) induces malignancy in Epithelial Ovarian Cancer (EOC) is still unknown. This study is the first to demonstrate the relationship between NRP-1 expression and EMT markers vimentin, N-cadherin, E-cadherin and Slug. We used tissue microarrays containing the three main subtypes of EOC tumors: serous, mucinous cystadenocarcinoma and endometrioid adenocarcinoma and representative cases retrieved from our pathology archives. Immunohistochemistry was performed to detect the expression levels and location of NRP-1 and the aforementioned EMT proteins. NRP-1 was mainly expressed on cancer cells but not in normal ovarian surface epithelium (OSE). The Immunoreactive Scoring (IRS) values revealed that the expression of NRP-1, Slug and E-cadherin in the malignant subtypes of ovarian tissues was significantly higher (5.18 ± 0.64, 4.84 ± 0.7, 4.98 ± 0.68, respectively) than their expression in the normal and benign tissues (1.04 ± 0.29, 0.84 ± 0.68, 1.71 ± 0.66, respectively), with no significant differences among the studied subtypes. Vimentin was expressed in the cancer cell component of 43% of tumors and it was exclusively localized in the stroma of all mucinous tumors. The Spearman's rho value indicated that NRP-1 is positively related to the EMT markers E-cadherin and Slug. This notion might indicate that NRP-1 is a partner in the EMT process in EOC tumors.

Circulating microRNA biomarkers for glioma and predicting response to therapy

The need for glioma biomarkers with improved sensitivity and specificity has sparked research into short non-coding RNA known as microRNA (miRNA). Altered miRNA biogenesis and expression in glioma plays a vital role in important signaling pathways associated with a range of tumor characteristics including gliomagenesis, invasion, and malignancy. This review will discuss current research into the role of miRNA in glioma and altered miRNA expression in biofluids as candidate biomarkers with a particular focus on glioblastoma, the most malignant form of glioma. The isolation and characterization of miRNA using cellular and molecular biology techniques from the circulation of glioma patients could potentially be used for improved diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment decisions. We aim to highlight the links between research into miRNA function, their use as biomarkers, and how these biomarkers can be used to predict response to therapy. Furthermore, increased understanding of miRNA in glioma biology through biomarker research has led to the development of miRNA therapeutics which could restore normal miRNA expression and function and improve the prognosis of glioma patients. A panel of important miRNA biomarkers for glioma in various biofluids discovered to date has been summarized here. There is still a need, however, to standardize techniques for biomarker characterization to bring us closer to clinically relevant miRNA-based diagnostic and therapeutic signatures. A clinically validated biomarker panel has potential to improve time to diagnosis, predicting response to treatment and ultimately the prognosis of glioma patients.

Mucin 15 is lost but mucin 13 remains in uterine luminal epithelial cells and the blastocyst at the time of implantation in the rat

The glycocalyx of the uterine luminal epithelium in the rat undergoes considerable reduction before implantation. In particular, the reduction of some mucins is necessary to facilitate blastocyst adhesion and subsequent implantation. The present study investigated the localisation, abundance and hormonal control of two mucin proteins, Muc13 and Muc15, in rat uterine epithelial cells during early pregnancy to determine whether they are likely to play a role in uterine receptivity for implantation. Muc13 and Muc15 are localised to the uterine luminal epithelium but show a presence and an absence, respectively, at the apical cell surface at the time of implantation. This localisation corresponds to changes in the molecular weights of Muc13 and Muc15, as shown with western blotting analysis. Furthermore, the localisation of Muc13 and Muc15 was shown to be controlled by the ovarian hormones, oestrogen and progesterone, and they were also localised in preimplantation rat blastocysts. Our results suggest that Muc15 may operate in an anti-adhesive capacity to prevent implantation while Muc13 potentially functions in either an adhesive or cell-signalling role in the events of implantation.

The potentials of nanotechnology-based drug delivery system for treatment of ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer is one of the leading causes for death of women. Every year the percentage of mortality rate is increasing day by day. Various chemotherapeutic agents are used to increase the survival rate of patients with ovarian cancer, but the available conventional dosage forms/marketed preparations are associated with several limitations. The use of nanotechnology in drug delivery contributes to their small size (10-100 nm), which improves the circulation and enables superior accumulation of therapeutic drugs at the tumor sites. In future, the use of nanotechnology will enable passive targeting and further improvements can be made using targeting moieties.

Enhanced apoptosis of ovarian cancer cells via nanocarrier-mediated codelivery of siRNA and doxorubicin

A folate conjugated ternary copolymer, FA–PEG–PEI–PCL, of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(ethylene imine) (PEI), and poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) was synthesized. The copolymer self-assembled into cationic micelles capable of co-delivering siRNA and the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). This dual functional nanocarrier demonstrated low cytotoxicity and high performance in drug/siRNA delivery. Upon the codelivery of siRNA, targeting the Bcl-2 gene, and DOX, using the folate-targeted nanocarrier, DOX-induced apoptosis in the skov-3 cells overexpressing folate receptor was significantly enhanced through a mechanism of downregulating the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, while simultaneously upregulating the proapoptotic protein Bax. This work suggested that the combination of Bcl-2 siRNA and DOX therapies is feasible, based on our dual functional nanocarrier, which set up a good basis for a future in vivo test.

O-Linked glycome and proteome of high-molecular-mass proteins in human ovarian cancer ascites: Identification of sulfation, disialic acid and O-linked fucose

The O-linked glycosylation of the main acidic high-molecular-weight glycoprotein from ascites fluid from patients with ovarian cancer were analyzed. The O-linked oligosaccharides were shown to consist of mainly highly sialylated core 1 and 2 structures with a smaller amount of sulfated core 2 structures. These structures were shown to be able to be further extended into small keratan sulfate (KS)-type oligosaccharides with up to four N-acetyllactosamine units. Proteomic studies of the acidic fraction of ascites fluid from patients with ovarian cancer showed that this fraction was enriched in proteoglycans. Among them, lumican, agrin, versican and dystroglycans were potential candidates, with threonine- and serine-rich domains that could carry a significant amount of O-linked glycosylation, including also the O-linked KS. Glycomic analysis using liquid chromatography (LC)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) also showed that the disialic acid NeuAc-NeuAc- was frequently found as the terminating structure on the O-linked core 1 and 2 oligosaccharides from one ascites sample. Also, a small amount of the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-associated O-linked fucose structure Gal-GlcNAc-Fucitol was detected with and without sialic acid in the LC-MS/MS analysis. Candidate proteins containing O-linked fucose were suggested to be proteoglycan-type molecules containing the O-linked fucose EGF consensus domain.

Optimizing molecular-targeted therapies in ovarian cancer: the renewed surge of interest in ovarian cancer biomarkers and cell signaling pathways

The hallmarks of ovarian cancer encompass the development of resistance, disease recurrence and poor prognosis. Ovarian cancer cells express gene signatures which pose significant challenges for cancer drug development, therapeutics, prevention and management. Despite enhancements in contemporary tumor debulking surgery, tentative combination regimens and abdominal radiation which can achieve beneficial response rates, the majority of ovarian cancer patients not only experience adverse effects, but also eventually relapse. Therefore, additional therapeutic possibilities need to be explored to minimize adverse events and prolong progression-free and overall response rates in ovarian cancer patients. Currently, a revival in cancer drug discovery is devoted to identifying diagnostic and prognostic ovarian cancer biomarkers. However, the sensitivity and reliability of such biomarkers may be complicated by mutations in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes, diverse genetic risk factors, unidentified initiation and progression elements, molecular tumor heterogeneity and disease staging. There is thus a dire need to expand existing ovarian cancer therapies with broad-spectrum and individualized molecular targeted approaches. The aim of this review is to profile recent developments in our understanding of the interrelationships among selected ovarian tumor biomarkers, heterogeneous expression signatures and related molecular signal transduction pathways, and their translation into more efficacious targeted treatment rationales.

MUC13 mucin augments pancreatic tumorigenesis

The high death rate of pancreatic cancer is attributed to the lack of reliable methods for early detection and underlying molecular mechanisms of its aggressive pathogenesis. Although MUC13, a newly identified transmembrane mucin, is known to be aberrantly expressed in ovarian and gastro-intestinal cancers, its role in pancreatic cancer is unknown. Herein, we investigated the expression profile and functions of MUC13 in pancreatic cancer progression. The expression profile of MUC13 in pancreatic cancer was investigated using a recently generated monoclonal antibody (clone PPZ0020) and pancreatic tissue microarrays. The expression of MUC13 was significantly (P < 0.005) higher in cancer samples compared with normal/nonneoplastic pancreatic tissues. For functional analyses, full-length MUC13 was expressed in MUC13 null pancreatic cancer cell lines, MiaPaca and Panc1. MUC13 overexpression caused a significant (P < 0.05) increase in cell motility, invasion, proliferation, and anchorage-dependent or -independent clonogenicity while decreasing cell-cell and cell-substratum adhesion. Exogenous MUC13 expression significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced pancreatic tumor growth and reduced animal survival in a xenograft mouse model. These tumorigenic characteristics correlated with the upregulation/phosphorylation of HER2, p21-activated kinase 1 (PAK1), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), Akt, and metastasin (S100A4), and the suppression of p53. Conversely, suppression of MUC13 in HPAFII pancreatic cancer cells by short hairpin RNA resulted in suppression of tumorigenic characteristics, repression of HER2, PAK1, ERK, and S100A4, and upregulation of p53. MUC13 suppression also significantly (P < 0.05) reduced tumor growth and increased animal survival. These results imply a role of MUC13 in pancreatic cancer and suggest its potential use as a diagnostic and therapeutic target.

Mucin 13: structure, function, and potential roles in cancer pathogenesis

Mucin 13 (MUC13) is a high-molecular-weight transmembrane glycoprotein that is frequently and aberrantly expressed in a variety of epithelial carcinomas, including gastric, colorectal, and ovarian cancers. On the basis of the high expression of MUC13 in cancer cells as well as recent laboratory findings suggesting a malignant phenotype of MUC13-transfected cell lines, the oncogenic potential of MUC13 has emerged. The various functional domains of MUC13 may confer oncogenic potential to MUC13. For example, the bulky extracellular domain with extensive modification with glycan chains may prevent cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix binding whereas the cytoplasmic tail containing serine and tyrosine residues for potential phosphorylation may participate in cell signaling. MUC13 exhibits the characteristics suitable as an early marker for cancer screening and presents a promising target for antibody-guided targeted therapy.

Design and engineering of nanogels for cancer treatment

Here, we provide a comprehensive insight into current advances in the use of nanogel-mediated chemotherapy for cancer treatment. Nanogels are composed of cross-linked three-dimensional polymer chain networks that are formed via covalent linkages or self-assembly processes. The porosity between the cross-linked networks of nanogels not only provides an ideal reservoir for loading drugs, oligonucleotides and imaging agents, but also protects them from environmental degradation and hazards. Here, we focus mainly on novel synthetic strategies and key considerations in the design of nanogel-based drug delivery systems for controlled and targeted cancer therapeutic applications.

Gene-expression signatures can distinguish gastric cancer grades and stages

Microarray gene-expression data of 54 paired gastric cancer and adjacent noncancerous gastric tissues were analyzed, with the aim to establish gene signatures for cancer grades (well-, moderately-, poorly- or un-differentiated) and stages (I, II, III and IV), which have been determined by pathologists. Our statistical analysis led to the identification of a number of gene combinations whose expression patterns serve well as signatures of different grades and different stages of gastric cancer. A 19-gene signature was found to have discerning power between high- and low-grade gastric cancers in general, with overall classification accuracy at 79.6%. An expanded 198-gene panel allows the stratification of cancers into four grades and control, giving rise to an overall classification agreement of 74.2% between each grade designated by the pathologists and our prediction. Two signatures for cancer staging, consisting of 10 genes and 9 genes, respectively, provide high classification accuracies at 90.0% and 84.0%, among early-, advanced-stage cancer and control. Functional and pathway analyses on these signature genes reveal the significant relevance of the derived signatures to cancer grades and progression. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first study on identification of genes whose expression patterns can serve as markers for cancer grades and stages.

Scope of nanotechnology in ovarian cancer therapeutics

This review describes the use of polymer micelle nanotechnology based chemotherapies for ovarian cancer. While various chemotherapeutic agents can be utilized to improve the survival rate of patients with ovarian cancer, their distribution throughout the entire body results in high normal organ toxicity. Polymer micelle nanotechnology aims to improve the therapeutic efficacy of anti-cancer drugs while minimizing the side effects. Herein, different types of polymer micelle technology based nanotherapies such as PLGA, polymerosomes, acid cleavable, thermosensitive, pH sensitive, and cross-linked micelles are introduced and structural differences are explained. Additionally, production methods, stability, sustainability, drug incorporation and drug release profiles of various polymer micelle based nanoformulations are discussed. An important feature of polymer micelle nanotechnology is the small size (10-100 nm) of particles which improves circulation and enables superior accumulation of the therapeutic drugs at the tumor sites. This review provides a comprehensive evaluation of different types of polymer micelles and their implications in ovarian cancer therapeutics.