Molecular mechanism of anti-cancer activity of phycocyanin in triple-negative breast cancer cells

C-Phycocyanin: A Phycobiliprotein from Spirulina with Metabolic Syndrome and Oxidative Stress Effects

Spirulina maxima is a cyanobacterium considered a "superfood" due to its metabolites and nutrient content. These include a complex mixture of minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, proteins, and accessory pigments. In recent years, it has positioned itself as a promising source of bioactive molecules for the treatment of several diseases, including metabolic syndrome, coronary diseases, cancer, and the improvement of health modulating oxidative stress. C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a photosynthetic pigment from green-blue cyanobacterium and the most abundant phycobiliprotein in the Spirulina genus with various pharmacological properties attributed due to its antioxidant capacity but has no specific cellular target. This has made it a molecule of great interest in biomedical research. This review focuses on the pharmacological effects and the benefits on metabolic syndrome and oxidative stress of C-PC.

Progress in culture technology and active substance research on Nostoc sphaeroides Kützing

Nostoc sphaeroides Kützing is a freshwater edible cyanobacterium that is rich in active substances such as polysaccharides, proteins and lipids; it has a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor and cholesterol-lowering effects; and is often used as a traditional Chinese medicine with many potential applications in food, cosmetics, medical diagnostics and disease treatment. However, to meet the needs of different fields, such as medicine, there is an urgent need for basic research and technological innovation in culture technology, extraction and preparation of active substances, and the pharmacological mechanism of N. sphaeroides. This paper reviews the pharmacological effects of N. sphaeroides active substances, discusses current culture techniques and methods for extracting active components, and outlines the challenges encountered in cultivating and industrializing N. sphaeroides while discussing future development trends. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Nutraceutical Features of the Phycobiliprotein C-Phycocyanin: Evidence from Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina)

Arthrospira platensis, commonly known as Spirulina, is a photosynthetic filamentous cyanobacterium (blue-green microalga) that has been utilized as a food source since ancient times. More recently, it has gained significant popularity as a dietary supplement due to its rich content of micro- and macro-nutrients. Of particular interest is a water soluble phycobiliprotein derived from Spirulina known as phycocyanin C (C-PC), which stands out as the most abundant protein in this cyanobacterium. C-PC is a fluorescent protein, with its chromophore represented by the tetrapyrrole molecule phycocyanobilin B (PCB-B). While C-PC is commonly employed in food for its coloring properties, it also serves as the molecular basis for numerous nutraceutical features associated with Spirulina. Indeed, the comprehensive C-PC, and to some extent, the isolated PCB-B, has been linked to various health-promoting effects. These benefits encompass conditions triggered by oxidative stress, inflammation, and other pathological conditions. The present review focuses on the bio-pharmacological properties of these molecules, positioning them as promising agents for potential new applications in the expanding nutraceutical market.

Effects of the algae derivatives on performance, intestinal histomorphology, ileal microflora, and egg yolk biochemistry of laying Japanese quail

We examined the effect of the Persian Gulf algae derivates, phycocyanin (PC) and fucoidan (FUC), on production performance, egg quality, intestinal histomorphology, ileal microflora, and egg yolk biochemistry of laying Japanese quail. A total of 250 six-wk-old Japanese quails with an average body weight of 215 ± 10 g were allocated to 5 treatments, 5 replicates and 10 birds in each replicate in a completely randomized design. The treatment groups received PC (from Spirulina platensis) and FUC (from brown seaweed) in their drinking water while control groups did not. Treatment groups received PC and FUC at 20 or 40 mg/L levels (denoted as PC20, PC40, FUC20, and FUC40, respectively). All birds were fed the same diet. All treatments significantly improved the percentage of hen day egg production (HDEP) (P = 0.002), egg mass (P = 0.002), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) (P = 0.022) but no difference was noted in egg weight (EW) and feed intake (FI). Different levels of PC and FUC significantly increased the thickness of eggshells (P = 0.022); however, the weight of the digestive tract (liver, spleen, proventriculus, gizzard, and pancreas) and oviduct was not affected. Algal derivates improved the villus height (P = 0.007) and crypt depth (P = 0.007) of the duodenum, as well as, the villus height (P = 0.005) and crypt depth (P = 0.026) of the jejunum. Both algal derivates positively affected the intestinal microflora (populations of Lactobacillus (P = 0.017), Coliform (P = 0.005), and Clostridium (P = 0.000)) whereas aerobic bacteria were unaffected. Yolk cholesterol P = 0.012) and yolk malondialdehyde P = 0.050) content were significantly reduced in experimental treatments compared to the control group. In conclusion, our results showed that the treatment of laying Japanese quails with algal derivates positively affects quail performance, intestinal morphology, intestinal microflora, and yolk cholesterol and malondialdehyde. Additional studies exploring optimal dosages and mechanisms of action is warranted to fully understand the scope of the algae derivates in poultry production.

Hepatoprotective Effect Assessment of C-Phycocyanin on Hepatocellular Carcinoma Rat Model by Using Photoacoustic Spectroscopy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary neoplasia of the liver with elevated mortality. Experimental treatment with antioxidants has a beneficial effect on the experimental models of HCC. Arthrospira maxima (spirulina) and its phycocyanin have antitumoral action on different tumoral cells. However, it is unknown whether phycocyanin is the responsible molecule for the antitumoral effect on HCC. Photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS) stands out among other spectroscopy techniques for its versatility of samples analyzed. This technique makes it possible to obtain the optical absorption spectrum of solid or liquid, dark or transparent samples. Previous studies report that assessing liver damage in rats produced by the modified resistant hepatocyte model (MRHM) is possible by analyzing their blood optical absorption spectrum. This study aimed to investigate, by PAS, the effect of phycocyanin obtained from spirulina on hepatic dysfunction. The optical absorption spectra analysis of the rat blood indicates the damage level induced by the MRHM group, being in concordance with the carried out biological conventional studies results, indicating an increase in the activity of hepatic enzymes, oxidative stress, Bax/Bcl2 ratio, cdk2, and AKT2 expression results, with a reduction in p53 expression. Also, PAS results suggest that phycocyanin decreases induced damage, due to the prevention of the Bax, AKT2, and p53 altered expression and the tumor progression in a HCC rat model.

Phycocyanin/tannic acid complex nanoparticles as Pickering stabilizer with synergistic interfacial antioxidant properties

This study reported a type of phycocyanin (PC)-tannic acid (TA) complex nanoparticles (NPs) fabricated by simply mixing PC with TA at appropriate mass ratios. The assembly of PC-TA NPs was driven by secondary forces involving hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. PC-TA NPs promoted formations of Pickering emulsions with an oil volume fraction (φ) of 0.1-0.8. The interfacial antioxidant ability of PC-TA NPs was evaluated by comparing the contents of hydroperoxides, malonaldehyde, and hexanal due to lipid oxidation. The results showed that PC-TA NPs retarded lipid oxidation more efficiently than did PC, TA, tween 20, or tween 80, which suggested the synergistic antioxidant action of PC and TA. Besides, the PC-TA NPs stabilized high internal phase emulsion facilitated a higher retention of β-carotene under UV irradiation. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that the modification of PC by TA represents a strategy to fabricate PC-TA NPs with enhanced emulsification and antioxidant efficiency.

Muscle cell proliferation using water-soluble extract from nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 for sustainable cultured meat production

Muscle cell cultivation, specifically the culture of artificial meat from livestock-derived cells in serum-free media is an emerging technology and has attracted much attention. However, till now, the high cost of production and environmental load have been significant deterrents. This study aims to provide an alternate growth-promoting substance that is free from animal derivatives and lowers nitrogen pollution. We have extracted water-soluble compounds from the filamentous nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 by the ultrasonication method. The heat-inactivated and molecular weight separation experiments were conducted to identify the bioactive compound present in the extract. Finally, the compounds soluble in water (CW) containing the water-soluble pigment protein, phycocyanin as a bioactive compound, was added as a growth supplement to cultivate muscle cells such as C2C12 muscle cells and quail muscle clone 7 (QM7) cells to analyze the effectiveness of the extract. The results indicated that CW had a positive role in muscle cell proliferation. A three-dimensional (3-D) cell-dense structure was fabricated by culturing QM7 cells using the extract. Furthermore, the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterial extract has vast potential for cultured meat production without animal sera in the near future.

Microalgae: A Promising Source of Bioactive Phycobiliproteins

Phycobiliproteins are photosynthetic light-harvesting pigments isolated from microalgae with fluorescent, colorimetric and biological properties, making them a potential commodity in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Hence, improving their metabolic yield is of great interest. In this regard, the present review aimed, first, to provide a detailed and thorough overview of the optimization of culture media elements, as well as various physical parameters, to improve the large-scale manufacturing of such bioactive molecules. The second section of the review offers systematic, deep and detailed data about the current main features of phycobiliproteins. In the ultimate section, the health and nutritional claims related to these bioactive pigments, explaining their noticeable potential for biotechnological uses in various fields, are examined.

Crystal structure of Synechococcus phycocyanin: implications of light-harvesting and antioxidant properties

Phycobiliproteins is a family of chromophore-containing proteins having light-harvesting and antioxidant capacity. The phycocyanin (PC) is a brilliant blue coloured phycobiliprotein, found in rod structure of phycobilisome and has been widely studied for their therapeutic and fluorescent properties. In the present study, the hexameric assembly structure of phycocyanin (Syn-PC) from Synechococcus Sp. R42DM is characterized by X-ray crystallography to understand its light-harvesting and antioxidant properties. The crystal structure of Syn-PC is solved with 2.15 Å resolution and crystallographic R-factors, Rwork/Rfree, 0.16/0.21. The hexamer of Syn-PC is formed by heterodimer of two polypeptide chains, namely, α- and β-subunits. The structure is analysed at atomic level to reveal the chromophore microenvironment and possible light energy transfer mechanism in Syn-PC. The chromophore arrangement in hexamer, deviation angle and distance between the chromophore contribute to the energy transfer efficiency of protein. The structural attributes responsible for the antioxidant potential of Syn-PC are recognized and annotated on its 3-dimensional structure.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03665-1.

Exploring the Benefits of Phycocyanin: From Spirulina Cultivation to Its Widespread Applications

Large-scale production of microalgae and their bioactive compounds has steadily increased in response to global demand for natural compounds. Spirulina, in particular, has been used due to its high nutritional value, especially its high protein content. Promising biological functions have been associated with Spirulina extracts, mainly related to its high value added blue pigment, phycocyanin. Phycocyanin is used in several industries such as food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, which increases its market value. Due to the worldwide interest and the need to replace synthetic compounds with natural ones, efforts have been made to optimize large-scale production processes and maintain phycocyanin stability, which is a highly unstable protein. The aim of this review is to update the scientific knowledge on phycocyanin applications and to describe the reported production, extraction, and purification methods, including the main physical and chemical parameters that may affect the purity, recovery, and stability of phycocyanin. By implementing different techniques such as complete cell disruption, extraction at temperatures below 45 °C and a pH of 5.5-6.0, purification through ammonium sulfate, and filtration and chromatography, both the purity and stability of phycocyanin have been significantly improved. Moreover, the use of saccharides, crosslinkers, or natural polymers as preservatives has contributed to the increased market value of phycocyanin.

Efficacy of Synthesized Cubic Spirulina Platensis Photosensitizer in Anticancer Photodynamic Therapy: An in vitro study

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is becoming increasingly popular in cancer management. Photosensitizers derived from natural sources can offer additional health benefits and play a crucial role in enhancing the efficacy of PDT in cancer treatment. We herein synthesized a cubic form of spirulina platensis (SP) and compared its anticancer-PDT efficacy with the naturally-occurring microhelical SP (MSP) and phycocyanin (Pc) against a tongue cancer cell-line and fibroblast cells. Cubic SP (CSP) was synthesized and characterized using standard analyses. CAL-27 and HGF cell-lines were incubated at different concentrations with each photosensitizer and were irradiated with 635 nm diode-laser. The viability, cellular-uptake, apoptosis and oxidative stress potential were quantitatively analyzed and statistically compared at P<0.05. Our results demonstrated that all three photosensitizers were non-toxic to normal cells before laser irradiation. In CAL-27, viability significantly decreased after PDT in all photosensitizer groups (P<0.05). Whereas, in HGF, Pc exhibited phototoxicity after laser irradiation (P=0.032). Cell-death was mainly apoptotic in Pc and CSP, but necrotic in MSP. Cellular-uptake was significantly higher in Pc, but was similar in MSP and CSP. Increase in reactive oxygen species was significantly higher in the Pc group compared to both SPs (P<0.05). We concluded that both SPs were safe and efficient photosensitizers for anticancer-PDT. CSP exhibited predominant and significant apoptotic death in CAL-27 and HGF cell-lines, while MSP mainly induced necrotic cell death. Despite the good photosensitizing performance of Pc, its use in higher concentrations should be considered with caution, due to the reduced viability that occurred following its use in PDT.

Sustainable Production of Pigments from Cyanobacteria

Pigments are intensely coloured compounds used in many industries to colour other materials. The demand for naturally synthesised pigments is increasing and their production can be incorporated into circular bioeconomy approaches. Natural pigments are produced by bacteria, cyanobacteria, microalgae, macroalgae, plants and animals. There is a huge unexplored biodiversity of prokaryotic cyanobacteria which are microscopic phototrophic microorganisms that have the ability to capture solar energy and CO2 and use it to synthesise a diverse range of sugars, lipids, amino acids and biochemicals including pigments. This makes them attractive for the sustainable production of a wide range of high-value products including industrial chemicals, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and animal-feed supplements. The advantages of cyanobacteria production platforms include comparatively high growth rates, their ability to use freshwater, seawater or brackish water and the ability to cultivate them on non-arable land. The pigments derived from cyanobacteria and microalgae include chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobiliproteins that have useful properties for advanced technical and commercial products. Development and optimisation of strain-specific pigment-based cultivation strategies support the development of economically feasible pigment biorefinery scenarios with enhanced pigment yields, quality and price. Thus, this chapter discusses the origin, properties, strain selection, production techniques and market opportunities of cyanobacterial pigments.

Assessment of the Anticancer Potentials of the Free and Metal-Organic Framework (UiO-66) - Delivered Phycocyanobilin

Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a constitutive chromoprotein of Arthrospira platensis, which exhibits promising efficacy against different types of cancer. In this study, we cleaved C-PC's chromophore phycocyanobilin (PCB) and demonstrated its ability as an anti-cancer drug for Colorectal cancer (CRC). PCB displayed an anti-cancer effect for CRC (HT-29) cells with IC50 of 108 µg/ml. Assessing the transcripts levels of some biomarkers revealed that the PCB caused an upregulation in the anti-metastatic gene NME1 level and downregulation of the COX-2 level. The flow cytometric results showed the effect of PCB on the arrest of the cell cycle's G1 phase. In addition, we successfully synthesized the UiO-66 (Zr-MOF). We incorporated the PCB into UiO-66 nanoparticles with a loading percentage of 46 %. Assessment of the cytotoxic effects of UiO-66@PCB showed a 2-fold improvement in the IC50 compared to the free PCB. In conclusion, we have shown that PCB displayed a promising potential as an anti-cancer agent. Yet, it is considered a safe and natural substance that can help to mitigate cancer spread and symptoms. In the meantime, UiO-66 can be used as a safe nano-delivery tool for PCB.

Exploring the structural aspects and therapeutic perspectives of cyanobacterial phycobiliproteins

Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) of cyanobacteria and algae possess unique light harvesting capacity which expand the photosynthetically active region (PAR) and allow them to thrive in extreme niches where higher plants cannot. PBPs of cyanobacteria/algae vary in abundance, types, amino acid composition and in structure as a function of species and the habitat that they grow in. In the present review, the key aspects of structure, stability, and spectral properties of PBPs, and their correlation with ecological niche of cyanobacteria are discussed. Besides their role in light-harvesting, PBPs possess antioxidant, anti-aging, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, which can be used in therapeutics. Recent developments in therapeutic applications of PBPs are reviewed with special focus on 'route of PBPs administration' and 'therapeutic potential of PBP-derived peptide and chromophores'.

Spirulina phycocyanin extract and its active components suppress epithelial-mesenchymal transition process in endometrial cancer via targeting TGF-beta1/SMAD4 signaling pathway

Metastasis is a major challenge in aggressive endometrial cancer treatment accounting for the high recurrence risk and poor prognosis of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), regulated by the transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling pathway, facilitates tumor metastasis. Spirulina phycocyanin extract (SPE) and its purified products allophycocyanin (APC) and C-phycocyanin (C-PC), derived from Spirulina platensis, can be considered a nutraceutical compound with the ability to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis. Current study aims to investigate the anti-metastatic potential of SPE, and its purified products APC, and C-PC on endometrial cancer both in vitro and in vivo. Firstly, human endometrial cancer cell lines (HEC-1A and Ishikawa) as an in vitro model. Secondly, HEC-1A cells transfected with luminescence gene were implanted into female nude mice as a xenograft model. MTT assay, transwell migration assay, immunoblotting assay, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assay, and IVIS XRMS analysis techniques were used. The in vitro results showed that SPE and its purified products APC and C-PC inhibited cell migration, and altered the expression of EMT-related phenotypes by reversing the TGFβ/SMADs signaling pathway. The in vivo results indicated that SPE repressed the metastasis of HEC-1A-LUC cells through modulating EMT-related markers expression. Overall, SPE and its efficient components APC and C-PC reversed the EMT through targeting the TGFβ/SMADs signaling pathway, suggesting an effective therapeutic strategy for metastatic endometrial cancer.

The Bioactivities of Phycocyanobilin from Spirulina

Phycocyanobilin (PCB) is a linear open-chain tetrapyrrole chromophore that captures and senses light and a variety of biological activities, such as anti-oxidation, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory. In this paper, the biological activities of PCB are reviewed, and the related mechanism of PCB and its latest application in disease treatment are introduced. PCB can resist oxidation by scavenging free radicals, inhibiting the activity of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, and delaying the activity of antioxidant enzymes. In addition, PCB can also be used as an excellent anti-inflammatory agent to reduce the proinflammatory factors IL-6 and IFN-γ and to up-regulate the production of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 by inhibiting the inflammatory signal pathways NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). Due to the above biological activities of phycocyanobilin PCB, it is expected to become a new effective drug for treating various diseases, such as COVID-19 complications, atherosclerosis, multiple sclerosis (MS), and ischaemic stroke (IS).

Nostoc sphaeroides Cyanobacteria: a review of its nutritional characteristics and processing technologies

Nostoc sphaeroides is an edible Cyanobacterium which has high nutritional value and is widely used in dietary supplements and therapeutic products. N. sphaeroides contains protein, fatty acid, minerals and vitamins. Its polysaccharides, phycobilin, phycobiliproteins and some lipids are highly bioactive. Thus, N. sphaeroides possesses anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation and cholesterol reducing functions. This paper reviews and evaluates the literature on nutritionally and functionally important compounds of N. sphaeroides. It also reviews and evaluates the processing of technologies used to process N. sphaeroides from fresh harvest to dry particulates including pretreatment, sterilization and drying, including their impact on sensorial and nutritional values. This review shows that a suitable combination of ultrasound, radio frequency and pulse spouted microwave with traditional sterilization and drying technologies greatly improves the sensorial and nutritive quality of processed N. sphaeroides and improves their shelf life; however, further research is needed to evaluate these hybrid technologies. Once suitably processed, N. sphaeroides can be used in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical drugs as an ingredient.

Gelatin MAGIC powder as nutrient-delivering 3D spacer for growing cell sheets into cost-effective cultured meat

Cell cultured meat is artificial meat obtained by culturing animal-derived cells in vitro, and received significant attention as an emerging future protein source. The mass proliferation of cells in the cultured meat production is a strenuous process that delays the commercialization of cultured meat because it requires an expensive culture medium for a long period. Herein, we report on a strategy to develop advanced cultured meat using fish gelatin mass growth-inducing culture (MAGIC) powder and myoblast sheets. The MAGIC powder had an edible gelatin microsphere (GMS) structure and exhibited different morphologies and bonding activities depending on the degree of crosslinking. We analyzed the loading and release of nutrients for each GMS with diverse surface properties, and selected the most effective GMSs to improve the proliferation of myoblasts under serum-reduced medium. The GMSs exerted four significant functions in the culture of myoblast sheets, and consequently produced cost- and time-effective meat-like cell sheets than the conventional method. We prepared cultured meats composed of cell sheet containing GMSs and evaluated the quality of the cultured meat by comparing the tissue properties with soy meat and chicken breast.

Evaluating Anticancer and Immunomodulatory Effects of Spirulina (Arthrospira) platensis and Gamma-Tocotrienol Supplementation in a Syngeneic Mouse Model of Breast Cancer

Nutrition can modulate host immune responses as well as promote anticancer effects. In this study, two nutritional supplements, namely gamma-tocotrienol (γT3) and Spirulina, were evaluated for their immune-enhancing and anticancer effects in a syngeneic mouse model of breast cancer (BC). Five-week-old female BALB/c mice were fed Spirulina, γT3, or a combination of Spirulina and γT3 (Spirulina + γT3) for 56 days. The mice were inoculated with 4T1 cells into their mammary fat pad on day 28 to induce BC. The animals were culled on day 56 for various analyses. A significant reduction (p < 0.05) in tumor volume was only observed on day 37 and 49 in animals fed with the combination of γT3 + Spirulina. There was a marked increase (p < 0.05) of CD4/CD127+ T-cells and decrease (p < 0.05) of T-regulatory cells in peripheral blood from mice fed with either γT3 or Spirulina. The breast tissue of the combined group showed abundant areas of necrosis, but did not prevent metastasis to the liver. Although there was a significant increase (p < 0.05) of MIG-6 and Cadherin 13 expression in tumors from γT3-fed animals, there were no significant (p > 0.05) differences in the expression of MIG-6, Cadherin 13, BIRC5, and Serpine1 upon combined feeding. This showed that combined γT3 + Spirulina treatment did not show any synergistic anticancer effects in this study model.

Inhibition of MMP2-PEX by a novel ester of dihydroxy cinnamic and linoleic acid from the seagrass Cymodocea serrulata

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are pivotal for cancer cell migration and metastasis which are generally over-expressed in such cell types. Many drugs targeting MMPs do so by binding to the conserved catalytic domains and thus exhibit poor selectivity due to domain-similarities with other proteases. We report herein the binding of a novel compound [3-(E-3,4-dihydroxycinnamaoyloxyl)-2-hydroxypropyl 9Z, 12Z-octadeca-9, 12-dienoate; Mol. wt: 516.67 Da], (C₁), isolated from a seagrass, Cymodocea serrulata to the unconserved hemopexin-like (PEX) domain of MMP2 (- 9.258 kcal/mol). MD simulations for 25 ns, suggest stable ligand-target binding. In addition, C₁ killed an ovarian cancer cell line, PA1 at IC₅₀: 5.8 μM (lesser than Doxorubicin: 8.6 µM) and formed micronuclei, apoptotic bodies and nucleoplasmic bridges whilst causing DNA laddering, S and G2/M phase dual arrests and MMP disturbance, suggesting intrinsic apoptosis. The molecule increased mRNA transcripts of BAX and BAD and down-regulated cell survival genes, Bcl-xL, Bcl-2, MMP2 and MMP9. The chemical and structural details of C₁ were deduced through FT-IR, GC-MS, ESI-MS, ¹H and ¹³C NMR [both 1D and 2D] spectra.

Phycocyanin content and nutritional profile of Arthrospira platensis from Mexico: efficient extraction process and stability evaluation of phycocyanin

Phycocyanin is a blue natural food colorant with multiple health benefits. Here we propose an efficient phycocyanin extraction method from Arthrospira platensis from Mexico. Three extraction methods were applied to optimize the extraction process, using water and buffer as solvents, with three pH values at two agitation times. The highest phycocyanin, 54.65 mg/g, was extracted from dry biomass with water as a solvent using an ultrasonication bar. The optimum condition of extraction was determined to be 1:50 biomass/solvent ratio for dry biomass, with the freeze/thaw method for 20 min repeated twice, and then agitated at 120 rpm for 24 h. The phycocyanin content was 48.88 mg/g biomass, with a purity of 0.47. For scalable phycocyanin productivity, the sonication method is recommended as there is no statistical difference. The phycocyanin stability was best at - 20 °C storage temperature at pH 7 for 35 days. Partial purification with ammonium sulfate was found to be suitable as a fractional precipitation method, first at 0-20% and then 20-65%, to get purity nearly 1. Total protein was found to be 55.52%, and total amino acids after phycocyanin extraction was 33%. The maximum phycocyanin yield using water as a solvent was the most interesting result regardless of the method used for extraction.

Dietary Phytochemicals as a Potential Source for Targeting Cancer Stem Cells

The tumor microenvironment is composed of various types of cells that lead to tumor heterogeneity. In the middle of these populations, cancer stem cells play a vital role in the initiation and progression of cancer cells and are capable of self-renewal and differentiation processes. These cancer stem cells are resistant to conventional therapy such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. To eradicate the cancer stem cells in the tumor environment, various natural product has been found in recent years. In this review, we have selected some of the natural products based on anticancer potential including targeting cancer cells and cancer stem cells. Further, this review explains the molecular mechanism of action of these natural products in various cancer stem cells. Therefore, targeting a multi-drug resistant cancer stem cell by natural products is a novel method to reduce drug resistance and adverse effect during conventional therapy.

The Potential of Cryptophyte Algae in Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications

Microalgae produce a variety of bioactive components that provide benefits to human and animal health. Cryptophytes are one of the major groups of microalgae, with more than 20 genera comprised of 200 species. Recently, cryptophytes have attracted scientific attention because of their characteristics and biotechnological potential. For example, they are rich in a number of chemical compounds, such as fatty acids, carotenoids, phycobiliproteins and polysaccharides, which are mainly used for food, medicine, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. This paper provides a review of studies that assess protective algal compounds and introduce cryptophytes as a remarkable source of bioactive components that may be usable in biomedical and pharmaceutical sciences.

Phycocyanin from Arthrospira platensis as Potential Anti-Cancer Drug: Review of In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

The application of cytostatic drugs or natural substances to inhibit cancer growth and progression is an important and evolving subject of cancer research. There has been a surge of interest in marine bioresources, particularly algae, as well as cyanobacteria and their bioactive ingredients. Dried biomass products of Arthrospira and Chlorella have been categorized as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Of particular importance is an ingredient of Arthrospira: phycocyanin, a blue-red fluorescent, water-soluble and non-toxic biliprotein pigment. It is reported to be the main active ingredient of Arthrospira and was shown to have therapeutic properties, including anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, immune-modulatory and anti-cancer activities. In the present review, in vitro and in vivo data on the effects of phycocyanin on various tumor cells and on cells from healthy tissues are summarized. The existing knowledge of underlying molecular mechanisms, and strategies to improve the efficiency of potential phycocyanin-based anti-cancer therapies are discussed.

Natural Marine and Terrestrial Compounds as Modulators of Matrix Metalloproteinases-2 (MMP-2) and MMP-9 in Alzheimer's Disease

Several studies have reported neuroprotective effects by natural products. A wide range of natural compounds have been investigated, and some of these may play a beneficial role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a family of zinc-dependent endopeptidases, have been implicated in AD. In particular, MMP-2 and MMP-9 are able to trigger several neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative pathways. In this review, we summarize and discuss existing literature on natural marine and terrestrial compounds, as well as their ability to modulate MMP-2 and MMP-9, and we evaluate their potential as therapeutic compounds for neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases, with a focus on Alzheimer's disease.

The use of cyanobacterial metabolites as natural medical and biotechnological tools: review article

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic, Gram-negative bacteria that are considered one of the most morphologically diverse groups of prokaryotes with a chief role in the global nutrient cycle as they fixed gaseous carbon dioxide and nitrogen to organic materials. Cyanobacteria have significant adaptability to survive in harsh conditions due to they have different metabolic pathways with unique compounds, effective defensive mechanisms, and wide distribution in different habitats. Besides, they are successfully used to face different challenges in several fields, including industry, aquaculture, agriculture, food, dairy products, pollution control, bioenergy, and pharmaceutics. Analysis of 680 publications revealed that nearly 1630 cyanobacterial molecules belong to different families have a wide range of applications in several fields, including cosmetology, agriculture, pharmacology (immunosuppressant, anticancer, antibacterial, antiprotozoal, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, anticoagulant, anti-tuberculosis, antitumor, and antiviral activities) and food industry. In this review, we nearly mentioned 92 examples of cyanobacterial molecules that are considered the most relevant effects related to anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer activities as well as their roles that can be used in various biotechnological fields. These cyanobacterial products might be promising candidates for fighting various diseases and can be used in managing viral and microbial infections.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Phycocyanin of marine Oscillatoria sp. inhibits lipoxygenase by protein-protein interaction-induced change of active site entry apace: A model for non-specific biofunctions of phycocyanins

An overview of the biological properties of phycocyanin (PC) amply illustrates that it may not have any specific functional feature towards any system at which it may elicit a specific function, but for the molecular interactions. Nevertheless, based on existing evidences, it is hypothesized that PC has more than one functional target with the interacting systems; therefore, it has diversity of effects. The mechanism of PC action remains elusive of a comprehensive idea. The present investigation focuses on the pro inflammatory enzyme, lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibiting property of PC purified from Oscillatoria sp. Enzyme kinetics studies show that the molecular composite of PC is required for its inhibition shown on LOX. Isothermal titration calorimetric study proves that one molecule of PC interacts with two molecules of LOX. Molecular dynamics simulation study pertaining to PC-LOX interactions shows it to be appropriate as a model to give molecular mechanistic insight into the varied biological properties of PC, demonstrated elsewhere in experimental studies including animal model studies. It explains that the PC-LOX interaction is of a function-freezing, protein-protein interaction in nature. The wide spectrum of properties of PC might be due to its function as a powerful protein hub showing non-specific protein-protein interactions.

Therapeutic Uses of Red Macroalgae

Red Seaweed “Rhodophyta” are an important group of macroalgae that include approximately 7000 species. They are a rich source of structurally diverse bioactive constituents, including protein, sulfated polysaccharides, pigments, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and phenolic compounds with nutritional, medical, and industrial importance. Polysaccharides are the main components in the cell wall of red algae and represent about 40–50% of the dry weight, which are extensively utilized in industry and pharmaceutical compounds, due to their thickening and gelling properties. The hydrocolloids galactans carrageenans and agars are the main red seaweed cell wall polysaccharides, which had broad-spectrum therapeutic characters. Generally, the chemical contents of seaweed are different according to the algal species, growth stage, environment, and external conditions, e.g., the temperature of the water, light intensity, nutrient concentrations in the ecosystem. Economically, they can be recommended as a substitute source for natural ingredients that contribute to a broad range of bioactivities like cancer therapy, anti-inflammatory agents, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory. This review touches on the main points of the pharmaceutical applications of red seaweed, as well as the exploitation of their specific compounds and secondary metabolites with vital roles.

C-phycocyanin inhibits epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in Caski cells

Background

In cervical cancer, most patients die of metastasis. The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a pivotal and intricate process that increases the metastatic potential of cervical cancer. C-phycocyanin (C-PC) is a natural marine product isolated and purified from Spirulina platensis, has been investigated that has anti-cancer function. The aim of this study was to explore the inhibitory effect of C-phycocyanin on the migration and invasion of cervical cancer cells induced by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), so as to provide a new idea for the treatment and prognosis of cervical cancer.

Methods

A wound-healing assay, an invasion assay, immunofluorescence assay, western blot, flow cytometry and real-time reverse transcriptione polymerase chain reaction were explored in cervical cancer Caski cell lines. TGF-β/smad signaling pathway was evaluated of in Caski cell lines.

Results

Our study indicated that TGF-β1 induced EMT in cervical cancer cells. C-phycocyanin inhibited EMT in Caski cells by down-regulating N-cadherin and up-regulating E-cadherin protein expression. Furthermore, C-phycocyanin could inhibit the expression and proteins Twist, Snail and Zeb1 transcription factors related to EMT. In addition, C-phycocyanin could inhibit the migration and invasion of Caski cells induced by TGF-β1. Besides, C-phycocyanin inhibited EMT through TGF-β/smads signaling pathway. We also found C-phycocyanin induced cell cycle G0/G1 arrest by decreasing protein expression levels of Cyclin D1 and p27.

Conclusions

C-phycocyanin reversed TGF-β1-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in cervical cancer cells and down-regulated the TGF-β/samd signaling pathway induced G0/G1 arrest of tumor cell cycle.

One structure, multiple features: The phycocyanin in biotechnology

Phycocyanine (PC) is a water-soluble, non-toxic and bioactive (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, etc.) phycobiliprotein isolated, mainly, from cyanobacteria. Due to its several properties, PC is considered to be a rising biomolecule for Industrial exploitation, and has become an important research axis in order to promote its production, and optimize its biotechnological applications. The aim of this review article was to discuss the basic, and recent properties and applications of PC, and to bring together data on various aspects of PC stabilization, and PC nanopar-ticles formulation. In addition, an overview of the main structural characteristics and process-ses of PC extraction and purification were also discussed. The recent scientific research findings concluded that PC is a promising both functional, and bioactive additive in industry, especially, in food as a dye, in imaging as a fluorescent labeling agent, and in the phar-maceutical and nano-pharmaceutical field as a bioactive molecule and nanopar-ticles, particularly, due to it antitumor capacity. Phycocyanine is, thus, a promising bio-active molecules in pharmacological, and medical fields.

C-phycocyanin: a natural product with radiosensitizing property for enhancement of colon cancer radiation therapy efficacy through inhibition of COX-2 expression

Different chemical and nanomaterial agents have been introduced for radiosensitizing purposes. However, many researchers believe these agents are far away from clinical application due to side effects and limited knowledge about their behavior in the human body. In this study, C-phycocyanin (C-PC) was used as a natural radiosensitizer for enhancement of radiation therapy (RT) efficacy. C-PC treatment's effect on the COX-2 expression of cancer cells was investigated by flow cytometry, western blot, qRT-PCR analyses in vitro and in vivo. Subsequently, the radiosensitizing effect of C-PC treatment was investigated by MTT and clonogenic cell survival assays for CT-26, DLD-1, HT-29 colon cancer cell lines and the CRL-1831 as normal colonic cells. In addition, the C-PC treatment effect on the radiation therapy efficacy was evaluated according to CT-26 tumor's growth progression and immunohistochemistry analyses of Ki-67 labeling index. C-PC treatment (200 µg/mL) could significantly enhance the radiation therapy efficacy in vitro and in vivo. Synergistic interaction was detected at C-PC and radiation beams co-treatment based on Chou and Talalay formula (combination index <1), especially at 200 µg/mL C-PC and 6 Gy radiation dosages. The acquired DEF of C-PC treatment was 1.39, 1.4, 1.63, and 1.05 for CT-26, DLD-1, HT-29, and CRL-1831 cells, respectively. Also, C-PC + RT treated mice exhibited 35.2% lower mean tumors' volume and about 6 days more survival time in comparison with the RT group (P < 0.05). In addition, C-PC + RT group exhibited 54% lower Ki-67 index in comparison with the RT group. Therefore, C-PC can exhibit high radiosensitizing effects. However, the potential cardiovascular risks of C-PC as a COX-2 inhibitor should be evaluated with extensive preclinical testing before developing this agent for clinical trials.

Spirulina extract enriched for Braun-type lipoprotein (Immulina®) for inhibition of 4T1 breast tumors' growth and metastasis

Spirulina platensis extracts have exhibited considerable anti-cancer effects. To investigate the efficacy of the Spirulina extract enriched for Braun-type lipoprotein (Immulina®) for breast cancer treatment, 4T1 breast tumor-bearing mice were treated with 40 mg/kg Immulina® daily and the tumors' growth and metastasis were assessed. Also, CD4, CD8, and CD56 staining were performed to investigate the Immulina® effect on the immune cells' recruitment to the tumors by immunohistochemistry. Immulina® could significantly (P < 0.001) inhibit 4T1 breast tumors' growth. Immulina®-treated group exhibited a 63% decrease in the tumors' volume in comparison with control (P < 0.001). Also, Immulina® could significantly (P < 0.001) decrease metastatic burden at the vital organs as 68% and 61% decrease in the liver and lungs metastatic colonies were observed, respectively. Also, Immulina® could increase mean survival time of the tumor-bearing mice for 29 days. The Spirulina-treated mice tumors contained significantly more infiltrated NK, CD4+, and CD8+ T lymphocytes in comparison with control. Taking together, Immulina® can be a safe anti-cancer supplement with the ability to cause direct apoptosis to the cancer cells and activate the immune system against tumor. This supplement with natural origin seems to have bright future to help breast cancer patients.

C-Phycocyanin elicited antitumor efficacy via cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis induction, and invasion inhibition in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Objectives: Mounting evidence has demonstrated that C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) exhibits marked antitumor activity in a wide type of tumors, such as pancreas cancer, breast carcinoma, lung cancer, and colon cancer. The current study aimed to confirm the antitumor efficacy of C-PC in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Methods: The efficacy of C-PC was evaluated against the proliferation of ESCC cell lines EC9706 and EC1 by CCK-8 kit and in a mice model of ESCC EC9706. Cell cycle and apoptosis were investigated by flow cytometry, and cell invasion was determined via transwell chamber. Protein expression was examined by Western blots. Results: We found that C-PC exhibited anti-proliferation ability in a time-dependent manner and a dose-dependent manner in ESCC EC9706 and EC1 cells. Besides, C-PC markedly arrested cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase, induced cell apoptosis and suppressed cell invasion ability in both EC9706 and EC1 cells (p < .01). Notably, C-PC evoked the elevations of Bax, PARP, and cleaved-caspase-3 protein, but reduced cyclin D1, CDK4, Bcl-2, MMP-2, and MMP-9 expression levels. Further investigation from in vivo experiment revealed that C-PC displayed significant antitumor efficacy in the xenografted EC9706 model. Conclusions: Our data presented herein suggest C-PC exerts antitumor efficacy in ESCC.

Development of a novel method for the purification of C-phycocyanin pigment from a local cyanobacterial strain Limnothrix sp. NS01 and evaluation of its anticancer properties

C-phycocyanin (C-PC) pigment, as a natural blue dye, has particular applications in various fields. It is a water-soluble protein which has anticancer, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Here, we introduce an efficient procedure for the purification of C-PC pigment, followed by conducting a comprehensive investigation of its cytotoxic effects on human breast cancer (MCF-7) cells and the underlying mechanisms. A novel four-step purification procedure including the adsorption of impurities with chitosan, activated charcoal, ammonium sulfate precipitation, and ion exchange chromatography was employed, achieving a high purity form of C-PC with purity index (PI) of 5.26. SDS-PAGE analysis showed the purified C-PC with two discrete bands, subunit α (17 kD) and β (20 kD), as confirmed its identity by Native-PAGE. A highly purified C-PC was employed to evaluate its anticancer activity and underlying molecular mechanisms of action. The inhibitory effects of highly purified C-PC on the proliferation of human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) have detected by MTT assay. The IC50 values for 24, 48, and 72 hours of exposure to C-PC were determined to be 5.92, 5.66, and 4.52 μg/μl, respectively. Flow cytometric analysis of cells treated with C-PC, by Annexin V/PI double staining, demonstrated to induce MCF-7 cells apoptosis. Also, the results obtained from propidium iodide (PI) staining showed that MCF-7 cells treated with 5.92 μg/μl C-PC for 24 h would arrest at the G2 phase and 5.66 and 4.52 μg/μl C-PC for 48 and 72 h could induce cell cycle arrest at both G2 and S phases. The oxidative damage and mitochondrial dysfunction were evaluated to determine the possible pathways involved in C-PC-induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells. Our findings clearly indicated that the treatment of MCF-7 cells with C-PC (IC50 for 24 h) increased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Consequently, an increase in the lipid peroxidation (LPO) level and a reduction in the ATP level, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), glutathione (GSH) and its oxidized form (GSSG), occurred over time. The reduced expression levels of anti-apoptotic proteins, Bcl2 and Stat3, plus cell cycle regulator protein, Cyclin D1, using Real-Time PCR confirm that the C-PC-induced death of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells occurred through the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. Collectively, the analyses presented here suggest that C-PC has the potential so that to develop it as a chemotherapeutic anticancer drug.

C-Phycocyanin Suppresses the In Vitro Proliferation and Migration of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Cells through Reduction of RIPK1/NF-κB Activity

Phycocyanin, derived from Spirulina platensis, is a type of natural antineoplastic marine protein. It is known that phycocyanin exerts anticancer effects on non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, but its underlying mechanism has not been elucidated. Herein, the antitumor function and regulatory mechanism of phycocyanin were investigated in three NSCLC cell lines for the first time: H358, H1650, and LTEP-a2. Cell phenotype experiments suggested that phycocyanin could suppress the survival rate, proliferation, colony formation, and migration abilities, as well as induce apoptosis of NSCLC cells. Subsequently, transcriptome analysis revealed that receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1) was significantly down-regulated by phycocyanin in the LTEP-a2 cell, which was further validated by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis in two other cell lines. Interestingly, similar to phycocyanin-treated assays, siRNA knockdown of RIPK1 expression also resulted in growth and migration inhibition of NSCLC cells. Moreover, the activity of NF-κB signaling was also suppressed after silencing RIPK1 expression, indicating that phycocyanin exerted anti-proliferative and anti-migratory function through down-regulating RIPK1/NF-κB activity in NSCLC cells. This study proposes a mechanism of action for phycocyanin involving both NSCLC apoptosis and down regulation of NSCLC genes.

Establishment of three-dimensional canine osteosarcoma cell lines showing vasculogenic mimicry and evaluation of biological properties after treatment with 17-AAG

Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) is an alternative type of blood perfusion characterized by formation of non-endothelial cell-lined microcirculatory channels and is responsible for aggressive tumour biology and increased tumour-related mortality. VM-correlated genes are associated with vascular endothelial grown factor receptor 1 (VEGFR1), and hypoxia-related (hypoxia inducible factor 1 α-HIF1α) signalling pathways, whose molecules are client proteins of Hsp90 (heat shock protein 90) and are potential therapeutic targets. This pilot study was aimed to investigate vasculogenic mimicry in a three-dimensional (3D) cell culture system of two aggressive canine osteosarcoma (OSA) cell lines (D22 and D17), and to evaluate the response of these cells to 17-AAG (17-N-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin) treatment in relation to tubular-like structure formation in vitro. Only D17 cell line formed hollow matrix channels in long-term 3D cultures and assumed endothelial morphology, with cells expressing both Hsp90 and VEGFR1, but lacking expression of endothelial marker CD31. 17-AAG treatment inhibited migration of D17 OSA cells, also decreasing VM markers in vitro and inducing a reduction of HIF1α transcript and protein in this cell line. Taken together, these preliminary data indicate that the biological effects of 17-AAG on D17 3D culture and on HIF1α regulation can provide interesting information to translate these findings from the basic research to clinical approach for the treatment of canine OSA as a model in comparative oncology.

Concentration-Dependent Dual Effects of Ciprofloxacin on SB-590885-Resistant BRAFV600E A375 Melanoma Cells

BRAF inhibitors (BRAFi) have been applied to treat melanoma harboring V600E mutations. Several studies showed that BRAFi-resistant melanomas are dependent on mitochondrial biogenesis. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the influence of ciprofloxacin (CIP), a mitochondria-targeting antibiotic, on SB-590885-resistant BRAF^V600E A375 melanoma (A375/SB) cells. The cytotoxicity activity of CIP and SB-590885, a potent and specific BRAFi, on A375 and A375/SB cells was evaluated by MTT, colony formation, migration, and spheroid formation assays. Moreover, SB-590885-induced cell death in A375 cells was analyzed. SB-590885 showed time- and concentration-dependent cytotoxic effects on A375 cells. Twenty-five μg/mL CIP decreased the cell viability of A375 and A375/SB cells in a time-dependent manner. This concentration of CIP markedly decreased clonogenicity in both cells and caused a reduction in the growth of A375/SB spheroids. The cytotoxicity of 5 μg/mL CIP on A375/SB cells was less than that of A375 cells. The colony formation and migration ability of A375/SB cells was increased in the presence of 5 μg/mL CIP. Ten μM SB-590885 induced a massive vacuolization in A375 cells. Cell death assays suggested a simultaneous activation of autophagy, paraptosis, apoptosis, and necrosis. For the first time, this study reveals that CIP at the maximum concentration in serum (5 μg/mL) can enhance the colony formation and migration abilities in BRAFi-resistant melanoma cells, while it has cytotoxic activity against these cells at a higher concentration than serum level. This study suggests that CIP may promote aggressive growth properties in BRAFi-resistant melanomas, at a concentration present in serum.

Mitochondrial dysfunction mediated apoptosis of HT-29 cells through CS-PAC-AgNPs and investigation of genotoxic effects in zebra (Danio rerio) fish model for drug delivery

The present study reports the validation of cancer nanotherapy using proanthocyanidin (PAC). Nowadays, in vitro and in vivo deliveries of nanoparticle (NPs) drugs have been paid more attention, intensively. Moreover, the current chemotherapeutic drugs have few first rate drawbacks including lack of specificity and requirement of excessive drug doses. To overcome this problem of chemotherapy, the attainment of high drug loading in combination with degradable polymer nanoparticles (for instance,chitosan) is a trending research in cancer biology. Hence, in this study, the synthesized PAC-AgNPs were successfully crosslinked with chitosan nanoparticles (CS-PAC-AgNPs), which were found to be spherical or polygonal in shape with a median size of 70.68 nm and 52.16 nm as observed by FTIR, FESEM and TEM analysis; thus, being suitable for drug delivery. CS-PAC-AgNPs were taken up via endocytosis by cancer cells and enabled the release cytochrome-C from mitochondria, followed by dysregulation of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 family, inducing the apoptotic mediated activation of caspase 9 and 3. To identify the genotoxicity of the synthesized CS-PAC-AgNPs, the mortality, hatching rate, malformation and abnormalities of embryo/larvae of the vertebrate zebra fish model (Danio rerio) were observed in a dose-time-dependent manner. This improved cancer nanotherapy can thus be utilized as a novel nanocombination for inducing apoptosis in vitro and in vivo.

Cooperative multi-targeting of signaling networks by angiomiR-204 inhibits vasculogenic mimicry in breast cancer cells

RNA-based multi-target therapies focused in the blocking of signaling pathways represent an attractive approach in cancer. Here, we uncovered a miR-204 cooperative targeting of multiple signaling transducers involved in vasculogenic mimicry (VM). Our data showed that invasive triple negative MDA-MB-231 and Hs-578T breast cancer cells, but not poorly invasive MCF-7 cells, efficiently undergoes matrix-associated VM under hypoxia. Ectopic restoration of miR-204 in MDA-MB-231 cells leads to a potent inhibition of VM and reduction of number of branch points and patterned 3D channels. Further analysis of activation state of multiple signaling pathways using Phosphorylation Antibody Arrays revealed that miR-204 reduced the expression and phosphorylation levels of 13 proteins involved in PI3K/AKT, RAF1/MAPK, VEGF, and FAK/SRC signaling. In agreement with phospho-proteomic profiling, VM was impaired following pharmacological administration of PI3K and SRC inhibitors. Mechanistic studies confirmed that miR-204 exerts a negative post-transcriptional regulation of PI3K-α and c-SRC proto-oncogenes. Moreover, overall survival analysis of a large cohort of breast cancer patients indicates that low miR-204 and high FAK/SRC levels were associated with worst outcomes. In conclusion, our study provides novel lines of evidence indicating that miR-204 may exerts a fine-tuning regulation of the synergistic transduction of PI3K/AKT/FAK mediators critical in VM formation.

The In Vitro Anti-Tumor Activity of Phycocyanin against Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cells

Phycocyanin, a type of functional food colorant, is shown to have a potent anti-cancer property. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most aggressive form of cancers with few effective therapeutic options. Previous studies have demonstrated that phycocyanin exerts a growth inhibitory effect on NSCLC A549 cells. However, its biological function and underlying regulatory mechanism on other cells still remain unknown. Here, we investigated the in vitro function of phycocyanin on three typical NSCLC cell lines, NCI-H1299, NCI-H460, and LTEP-A2, for the first time. The results showed that phycocyanin could significantly induce apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, as well as suppress cell migration, proliferation, and the colony formation ability of NSCLC cells through regulating multiple key genes. Strikingly, phycocyanin was discovered to affect the cell phenotype through regulating the NF-κB signaling of NSCLC cells. Our findings demonstrated the anti-neoplastic function of phycocyanin and provided valuable information for the regulation of phycocyanin in NSCLC cells.

Mechanistic investigation of transcutaneous protein delivery using solid-in-oil nanodispersion: A case study with phycocyanin

Phycocyanin (PC), a water-soluble protein-chromophore complex composed of hexameric (αβ)₆ subunits, has important biological functions in blue-green algae as well as pharmacological activities in biomedicine. We have previously developed a solid-in-oil (S/O) nanodispersion method to deliver biomacromolecules through the skin, although the transcutaneous mechanism has not yet been fully elucidated. To study the mechanism of transcutaneous protein delivery, we therefore enabled S/O nanodispersion by coating PC with hydrophobic surfactants and evaluated how the proteinaceous macromolecules formulated in an oil phase might permeate the skin. The extent of S/O nanodispersion of PC was dependent on the type of surfactant, suggesting that the selection of a suitable surfactant is crucial for encapsulating a large protein having a subunit structure. By measuring the intrinsic fluorescence of PC, we found that S/O nanodispersion facilitated the accumulation of PC in the stratum corneum (SC) of Yucatan micropig skin. Furthermore, after crossing the SC layer, the fluorescent recovery of PC was evident, indicating the release of the biologically active form of PC from the SC into the deeper skin layer.