PARP inhibitors in the management of breast cancer: current data and future prospects

Preclinical evaluation of the potential PARP-imaging probe [carbonyl-11C]DPQ

BACKGROUND

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) enzymes are crucial for the repair of DNA single-strand breaks and have become key therapeutic targets in homologous recombination-deficient cancers, including prostate cancer. To enable non-invasive monitoring of PARP-1 expression, several PARP-1-targeting positron emission tomography (PET) tracers have been developed. Here, we aimed to preclinically investigate [carbonyl-11C]DPQ as an alternative PARP-1 PET tracer as it features a strongly distinct chemotype compared to the frontrunners [18F]FluorThanatrace and [18F]PARPi.

RESULTS

[carbonyl-11C]DPQ was synthesised in a GE TracerLab FXC2 module, yielding sufficient activity (940 ± 410 MBq), molar activity (53 ± 16 GBq/µmol) and radiochemical purity (> 97%) for subsequent preclinical evaluation. [carbonyl-11C]DPQ showed high stability in formulation, in human plasma, and when incubated with human liver microsomes. In vitro, similar specific uptake was observed in both PC3 prostate cancer cells and CHO-K1 Chinese hamster ovary cells. However, in vivo studies using fertilised chicken eggs (in ovo model) revealed poor and non-displaceable tumour accumulation in PC3-derived xenografts, despite confirmed vascularisation and PARP-1 expression. Rapid uptake was observed in the liver (10 min), with less than 30% of the intact compound remaining in the liver 70 min post-injection.

CONCLUSIONS

Although [carbonyl-11C]DPQ demonstrated metabolic stability and specific binding in vitro, suboptimal tumour-targeting properties and pronounced liver metabolism were observed in ovo. Therefore, further animal experiments with mammalian models were not indicated.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase1 (PARP1) and PARP inhibitors: New frontiers in cervical cancer

Cervical cancer affects more than half a million women and treatment options for advanced disease and recurrence is limited. Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase1 (PARP1) is a critical nuclear protein regulating several components and functions of cellular machinery, including cancer. PARP1 expression and activity plays a crucial dynamics in the tumor microenvironment. PARP inhibitors are being considered as a viable option for treating BRCA deficient ovarian and breast cancer patients. However, the role of PARP1 in cervical cancer tumorigenesis is less known. The aim of the present review is to provide a comprehensive insight about the role of PARP1 in cervical cancer pathogenesis in context to PARP1 expression as a molecular marker for identifying cancer and in predicting treatment response and prognosis. PARP1 expression is found to be elevated in cervical cancer tissues in comparison to that in the normal surrounding tissues. The cellular proteins linked with PARP1 have been described along with the association of SNPs in PARP1 gene with cervical cancer. Promising results of PARP inhibitors with immunotherapy and clinical trials with cisplatin have also been discussed. This review provides an up-to-date description of PARP1 expression, its role in cervical cancer pathogenesis and reported clinical trials of PARP inhibitors in adjuvant therapy.

Impact of a Cancer-Associated Mutation on Poly(ADP-ribose) Polymerase1 Inhibition

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase1 (PARP1) plays a vital role in DNA repair and its inhibition in cancer cells may cause cell apoptosis. In this study, we investigated the effects of a PARP1 variant, V762A, which is strongly associated with several cancers in humans, on the inhibition of PARP1 by three FDA approved inhibitors: niraparib, rucaparib and talazoparib. Our work suggests that these inhibitors bind to the V762A mutant more effectively than to the wild-type (WT), with similar binding free energies between them. Talazoparib inhibition uniquely lowers the average residue fluctuations in the mutant than the WT including lower fluctuations of mutant's N- and C-terminal residues, conserved H-Y-E traid residues and donor loop (D-loop) residues which important for catalysis more effectively than other inhibitions. However, talazoparib also enhances destabilizing interactions between the mutation site in the HD domain in the mutant than WT. Further, talazoparib inhibition significantly disrupts the functional fluctuations of terminal regions in the mutant, which are otherwise present in the WT. Lastly, the mutation and inhibition do not significantly affect PARP1's essential dynamics.

Unite and Conquer: Association of Two G-Quadruplex Aptamers Provides Antiproliferative and Antimigration Activity for Cells from High-Grade Glioma Patients

Background: High-grade gliomas remain a virtually incurable form of brain cancer. Current therapies are unable to completely eradicate the tumor, and the tumor cells that survive chemotherapy or radiation therapy often become more aggressive and resistant to further treatment, leading to inevitable relapses. While the antiproliferative effects of new therapeutic molecules are typically the primary focus of research, less attention is given to their influence on tumor cell migratory activity, which can play a significant role in recurrence. A potential solution may lie in the synergistic effects of multiple drugs on the tumor. Objectives: In this study, we investigated the effect of combined exposure to bi-(AID-1-T), an anti-proliferative aptamer, and its analog bi-(AID-1-C), on the migratory activity of human GBM cells. Results: We examined the effects of various sequences of adding bi-(AID-1-T) and bi-(AID-1-C) on five human GBM cell cultures. Our findings indicate that certain sequences significantly reduced the ability of tumor cells to migrate and proliferate. Additionally, the expression of Nestin, PARP1, L1CAM, Caveolin-1, and c-Myc was downregulated in human GBM cells that survived exposure, suggesting that the treatment had a persistent antitumor effect on these cells.

Polθ Inhibitor (ART558) Demonstrates a Synthetic Lethal Effect with PARP and RAD52 Inhibitors in Glioblastoma Cells

DNA repair proteins became the popular targets in research on cancer treatment. In our studies we hypothesized that inhibition of DNA polymerase theta (Polθ) and its combination with Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) or RAD52 inhibition and the alkylating drug temozolomide (TMZ) has an anticancer effect on glioblastoma cells (GBM21), whereas it has a low impact on normal human astrocytes (NHA). The effect of the compounds was assessed by analysis of cell viability, apoptosis, proliferation, DNA damage and cell cycle distribution, as well as gene expression. The main results show that Polθ inhibition causes a significant decrease in glioblastoma cell viability. It induces apoptosis, which is accompanied by a reduction in cell proliferation and DNA damage. Moreover, the effect was stronger when dual inhibition of Polθ with PARP1 or RAD52 was applied, and it is further enhanced by addition of TMZ. The impact on normal cells is much lower, especially when considering cell viability and DNA damage. In conclusion, we would like to highlight that Polθ inhibition used in combination with PARP1 or RAD52 inhibition has great potential to kill glioblastoma cells, and shows a synthetic lethal effect, while sparing normal astrocytes.

Advancements in targeting tumor suppressor genes (p53 and BRCA 1/2) in breast cancer therapy

Globally, among numerous cancer subtypes, breast cancer (BC) is one of the most prevalent forms of cancer affecting the female population. A female's family history significantly increases her risk of developing breast cancer. BC is caused by aberrant breast cells that proliferate and develop into tumors. It is estimated that 5-10% of breast carcinomas are inherited and involve genetic mutations that ensure the survival and prognosis of breast cancer cells. The most common genetic variations are responsible for hereditary breast cancer but are not limited to p53, BRCA1, and BRCA2. BRCA1 and BRCA2 are involved in genomic recombination, cell cycle monitoring, programmed cell death, and transcriptional regulation. When BRCA1 and 2 genetic variations are present in breast carcinoma, p53 irregularities become more prevalent. Both BRCA1/2 and p53 genes are involved in cell cycle monitoring. The present article discusses the current status of breast cancer research, spotlighting the tumor suppressor genes (BRCA1/2 and p53) along with structural activity relationship studies, FDA-approved drugs, and several therapy modalities for treating BC. Breast cancer drugs, accessible today in the market, have different side effects including anemia, pneumonitis, nausea, lethargy, and vomiting. Thus, the development of novel p53 and BRCA1/2 inhibitors with minimal possible side effects is crucial. We have covered compounds that have been examined subsequently (2020 onwards) in this overview which may be utilized as lead compounds. Further, we have covered mechanistic pathways to showcase the critical druggable targets and clinical and post-clinical drugs targeting them for their utility in BC.

[18F]F-Poly(ADP-Ribose) Polymerase Inhibitor Radiotracers for Imaging PARP Expression and Their Potential Clinical Applications in Oncology

Including poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors in managing patients with inoperable tumors has significantly improved outcomes. The PARP inhibitors hamper single-strand deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair by trapping poly(ADP-ribose)polymerase (PARP) at sites of DNA damage, forming a non-functional "PARP enzyme-inhibitor complex" leading to cell cytotoxicity. The effect is more pronounced in the presence of PARP upregulation and homologous recombination (HR) deficiencies such as breast cancer-associated gene (BRCA1/2). Hence, identifying HR-deficiencies by genomic analysis-for instance, BRCA1/2 used in triple-negative breast cancer-should be a part of the selection process for PARP inhibitor therapy. Published data suggest BRCA1/2 germline mutations do not consistently predict favorable responses to PARP inhibitors, suggesting that other factors beyond tumor mutation status may be at play. A variety of factors, including tumor heterogeneity in PARP expression and intrinsic and/or acquired resistance to PARP inhibitors, may be contributing factors. This justifies the use of an additional tool for appropriate patient selection, which is noninvasive, and capable of assessing whole-body in vivo PARP expression and evaluating PARP inhibitor pharmacokinetics as complementary to the currently available BRCA1/2 analysis. In this review, we discuss [18F]Fluorine PARP inhibitor radiotracers and their potential in the imaging of PARP expression and PARP inhibitor pharmacokinetics. To provide context we also briefly discuss possible causes of PARP inhibitor resistance or ineffectiveness. The discussion focuses on TNBC, which is a tumor type where PARP inhibitors are used as part of the standard-of-care treatment strategy.

High affinity and low PARP-trapping benzimidazole derivatives as a potential warhead for PARP1 degraders

PARPi have been explored and applied in the treatment of various cancers with remarkable efficacy, especially BRCA1/2 mutated ovarian, breast, prostate, and pancreatic cancers. However, PARPi renders inevitable drug resistance and showed high toxicity because of PARP-Trapping with long-term clinic tracking. To overcome the drug resistance and the high toxicity of PARPi, many novel methods have been developed including PROTACs. Being an event-driven technology, PROTACs needs a high affinity, low toxicity warhead with no steric hindrance in binding process. Veliparib shows the lowest PARP-Trapping effect but could hardly to be the warhead of PROTACs because of the strong steric hindrance. Other PARP1 inhibitors showed less steric hindrance but owns high PARP-Trapping effect. Thus, the development of novel warhead with high PARP1 affinity, low PARP1-Trapping, and no steric hindrance would be valuable. In this work, we reserved benzimidazole as the motif to reserve the low PARP1-Trapping effect and substituted the pyrrole by aromatic ring to avoiding the steric hindrance in PARP1 binding cave. Thus, a series of benzimidazole derivates were designed and synthesized, and some biological activities in vitro were evaluated including the inhibition for PARP1 enzyme and the PARP-Trapping effect using MDA-MB-436 cell line. Results showed that the compound 19A10 has higher PARP1 affinity(IC50 = 4.62 nM)) and similar low PARP-Trapping effect compared with Veliparib(IC50 (MDA-MB-436) >100 μM). Docking study showed that the compound 19A10 could avoiding the steric hindrance which was much better than Veliparib. So, the compound 19A10 could potentially be a perfect warhead for PARP1 degraders. Besides, because of the depletion of the PARP1 and the decreasing of the binding capability, we suppose that the PROTACs using 19A10 as the warhead would be no-PARP-Trapping effect. Furthermore, QSAR study showed that to develop novel compounds with high PARP1 binding affinity and low PARP-Trapping, we can choose the skeleton with substituent R1H, R2 = piperiazine, and R3 with large tPSA. And, if we want to develop the compounds with high PARP1 binding affinity and high PARP-Trapping which can possibly improve the lethality against tumor cells, we can choose the skeleton with substituent R1F, R2 = 3-methy-piperiazine, and R3 with large tPSA.

Discovery of novel PARP-1 inhibitors using tandem in silico studies: integrated docking, e-pharmacophore, deep learning based de novo and molecular dynamics simulation approach

Cancer accounts for the majority of deaths worldwide, and the increasing incidence of breast cancer is a matter of grave concern. Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) has emerged as an attractive target for the treatment of breast cancer as it has an important role in DNA repair. The focus of the study was to identify novel PARP-1 inhibitors using a blend of tandem structure-based screening (Docking and e-pharmacophore-based screening) and artificial intelligence (deep learning)-based de novo approaches. The scrutiny of compounds having good binding characteristics for PARP-1 was carried out using a tandem mode of screening along with parameters such as binding energy and ADME analysis. The efforts afforded compound Vab1 (PubChem ID 129142036), which was chosen as a seed for obtaining novel compounds through a trained artificial intelligence (AI)-based model. Resultant compounds were assessed for PARP-1 inhibition; binding affinity prediction and interaction pattern analysis were carried out using the extra precision (XP) mode of docking. Two best hits, Vab1-b and Vab1-g, exhibiting good dock scores and suitable interactions, were subjected to 100 nanoseconds (ns) of molecular dynamics simulation in the active site of PARP-1 and compared with the reference Protein-Ligand Complex. The stable nature of PARP-1 upon binding to these compounds was revealed through MD simulation.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

IGFBP3 promotes resistance to Olaparib via modulating EGFR signaling in advanced prostate cancer

Olaparib is a pioneering PARP inhibitor (PARPi) approved for treating castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) tumors harboring DNA repair defects, but clinical resistance has been documented. To study acquired resistance, we developed Olaparib-resistant (OlapR) cell lines through chronic Olaparib treatment of LNCaP and C4-2B cell lines. Here, we found that IGFBP3 is highly expressed in acquired (OlapR) and intrinsic (Rv1) models of Olaparib resistance. We show that IGFBP3 expression promotes Olaparib resistance by enhancing DNA repair capacity through activation of EGFR and DNA-PKcs. IGFBP3 depletion enhances efficacy of Olaparib by promoting DNA damage accumulation and subsequently, cell death in resistant models. Mechanistically, we show that silencing IGFBP3 or EGFR expression reduces cell viability and resensitizes OlapR cells to Olaparib treatment. Inhibition of EGFR by Gefitinib suppressed growth of OlapR cells and improved Olaparib sensitivity, thereby phenocopying IGFBP3 inhibition. Collectively, our results highlight IGFBP3 and EGFR as critical mediators of Olaparib resistance.

Precision Medicine in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer: Advances, Challenges, and the Landscape of PARPi Therapy-A Narrative Review

After recent approvals, poly-adenosine diphosphate [ADP]-ribose polymerase inhibitors (PARPis) have emerged as a frontline treatment for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Unlike their restricted use in breast or ovarian cancers, where approval is limited to those with BRCA1/2 alterations, PARPis in mCRPC are applied across a broader spectrum of genetic aberrations. Key findings from the phase III PROPEL trial suggest that PARPis' accessibility may broaden, even without mandatory testing. An increasing body of evidence underscores the importance of distinct alterations in homologous recombination repair (HRR) genes, revealing unique sensitivities to PARPis. Nonetheless, despite the initial effectiveness of PARPis in treating BRCA-mutated tumors, resistance to therapy is frequently encountered. This review aims to discuss patient stratification based on biomarkers and genetic signatures, offering insights into the nuances of first-line PARPis' efficacy in the intricate landscape of mCRPC.

Design and Synthesis of Aspirin-chalcone Mimic Conjugates as Potential Anticancer Agents

BACKGROUND

Extensive research has been conducted on aspirin, a widely recognized NSAID medication, regarding its potential as an anticancer agent. Studies have revealed its ability to trigger cell death in different types of cancer cells.

METHODS

A set of aspirin-chalcone mimic conjugates 5a-k and 6a-d utilizing the freshly prepared acid chloride of aspirin moiety has been designed and synthesized. To evaluate the newly developed compounds, the NCI 60- cell line panel was employed to assess their anti-proliferative properties. Subsequently, cell cycle analysis was conducted along with an examination of the compounds' impact on the levels of p53, Bax, Bcl-2, active caspase- 3, and their inhibition mechanism of tubulin polymerization.

RESULTS

Derivative 6c displayed the best anticancer activity among the tested series while 6d was the best against breast cancer MDA-MB-468, therefore both of them were selected for the 5-dose stage, however, targeting MDA-MB-468, PI-flow cytometry of compound 6d proved the triggered cell growth arrest at the G1/S phase avoiding the mitotic cycle in MDA-MB-468 cells. Similarly, the upregulation of oncogenic parameters such as caspase-3, p53, and Bax/Bcl-2, along with the inhibition of PARP-1 enzyme level, was observed with compound 6d. This compound also exhibited a significant ability to induce apoptosis and disrupt the intracellular microtubule network through a promising activity as a tubulin polymerization inhibitor with IC50 = 1.065 ± 0.024 ng/ml. Furthermore, to examine the manner in which compound 6d binds to the active pocket of the tubulin polymerization enzyme, a molecular docking study was conducted.

CONCLUSION

The study indicated that compound 6d could be a powerful microtubule-destabilizing agent. Therefore, further research on 6d could be worthwhile.

Widespread BRCA1/2-independent homologous recombination defects are caused by alterations in RNA-binding proteins

Defects in homologous recombination DNA repair (HRD) both predispose to cancer development and produce therapeutic vulnerabilities, making it critical to define the spectrum of genetic events that cause HRD. However, we found that mutations in BRCA1/2 and other canonical HR genes only identified 10%-20% of tumors that display genomic evidence of HRD. Using a networks-based approach, we discovered that over half of putative genes causing HRD originated outside of canonical DNA damage response genes, with a particular enrichment for RNA-binding protein (RBP)-encoding genes. These putative drivers of HRD were experimentally validated, cross-validated in an independent cohort, and enriched in cancer-associated genome-wide association study loci. Mechanistic studies indicate that some RBPs are recruited to sites of DNA damage to facilitate repair, whereas others control the expression of canonical HR genes. Overall, this study greatly expands the repertoire of known drivers of HRD, with implications for basic biology, genetic screening, and therapy stratification.

A Review of PARP-1 Inhibitors: Assessing Emerging Prospects and Tailoring Therapeutic Strategies

Eukaryotic organisms contain an enzyme family called poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs), which is responsible for the poly (ADP-ribosylation) of DNA-binding proteins. PARPs are members of the cell signaling enzyme class. PARP-1, the most common isoform of the PARP family, is responsible for more than 90% of the tasks carried out by the PARP family as a whole. A superfamily consisting of 18 PARPs has been found. In order to synthesize polymers of ADP-ribose (PAR) and nicotinamide, the DNA damage nick monitor PARP-1 requires NAD+ as a substrate. The capability of PARP-1 activation to boost the transcription of proinflammatory genes, its ability to deplete cellular energy pools, which leads to cell malfunction and necrosis, and its involvement as a component in the process of DNA repair are the three consequences of PARP-1 activation that are of particular significance in the process of developing new drugs. As a result, the pharmacological reduction of PARP-1 may result in an increase in the cytotoxicity toward cancer cells.

Hyperpolarised 13C-MRI using 13C-pyruvate in breast cancer: A review

Tumour metabolism can be imaged with a novel imaging technique termed hyperpolarised carbon-13 (13C)-MRI using probes, i.e., endogenously found molecules that are labeled with 13C. Hyperpolarisation of the 13C label increases the sensitivity to a level that allows dynamic imaging of the distribution and metabolism of the probes. Dynamic imaging of [1-13C]pyruvate metabolism is of particular biological interest in cancer because of the Warburg effect resulting in the intratumoural accumulation of [1-13C]pyruvate and conversion to [1-13C]lactate. Numerous preclinical studies in breast cancer and other tumours have shown that hyperpolarised 13C-pyruvate has potential for metabolic phenotyping and response assessment at earlier timepoints than the current clinical imaging techniques allow. The clinical feasibility of hyperpolarised 13C-MRI after the injection of pyruvate in patients with breast cancer has now been demonstrated, with increased 13C-label exchange between pyruvate and lactate present in higher grade tumours with associated increased expression of the monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1), the transmembrane transporter mediating intracellular pyruvate uptake, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) as the enzyme catalysing the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. Furthermore, a study in patients with breast cancer undergoing neoadjuvant chemotherapy suggested that early changes in 13C-label exchange can distinguish between patients who reach pathologic complete response (pCR) and those who do not. This review summarises the current literature on preclinical and clinical research on hyperpolarised 13C-MRI with [1-13C]-pyruvate in breast cancer imaging.

Unlocking Therapeutic Potential of Poly(Adenosine Diphosphate Ribose) Polymerase (PARP) Inhibitors in Metastatic Breast Cancer With BRCA Gene Mutations: A Narrative Review

Breast cancer (BC), a significant global health concern, impacts millions of women worldwide. A key genetic factor in this disease is the presence of BReast CAncer gene (BRCA) mutations, which increase susceptibility to BC. This narrative review explores the crucial role of poly(adenosine diphosphate ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors in treating metastatic BC in individuals with BRCA gene mutations. In BRCA mutation carriers, these inhibitors induce synthetic lethality, leading to cell death due to the accumulation of lethal DNA breaks. Clinical trials have demonstrated the effectiveness of PARP inhibitors, such as olaparib and talazoparib, in extending progression-free survival and response rates, especially in patients without prior chemotherapy. Moreover, this review discusses combination therapies, where PARP inhibitors are combined with cytostatic drugs like platinum-based chemotherapy. Some studies show the synergy of these approaches, even in patients without homologous recombination deficiency. In summary, PARP inhibitors offer hope for improving outcomes in metastatic BC patients with BRCA gene mutations. As research advances, PARP inhibitors continue to hold promise in the fight against BC.

Double trouble for prostate cancer: synergistic action of AR blockade and PARPi in non-HRR mutated patients

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common cancer in men worldwide. Despite better and more intensive treatment options in earlier disease stages, a large subset of patients still progress to metastatic castration-resistant PCa (mCRPC). Recently, poly-(ADP-ribose)-polymerase (PARP)-inhibitors have been introduced in this setting. The TALAPRO-2 and PROpel trials both showed a marked benefit of PARPi in combination with an androgen receptor signaling inhibitor (ARSI), compared with an ARSI alone in both the homologous recombination repair (HRR)-mutated, as well as in the HRR-non-mutated subgroup. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of how maximal AR-blockade via an ARSI in combination with a PARPi has a synergistic effect at the molecular level, leading to synthetic lethality in both HRR-mutated and HRR-non-mutated PCa patients. PARP2 is known to be a cofactor of the AR complex, needed for decompacting the chromatin and start of transcription of AR target genes (including HRR genes). The inhibition of PARP thus reinforces the effect of an ARSI. The deep androgen deprivation caused by combining androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) with an ARSI, induces an HRR-like deficient state, often referred to as "BRCA-ness". Further, PARPi will prevent the repair of single-strand DNA breaks, leading to the accumulation of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). Due to the induced HRR-deficient state, DSBs cannot be repaired, leading to apoptosis.

A phase 1 evaluation of the safety and tolerability of niraparib in combination with everolimus in advanced ovarian and breast cancers

OBJECTIVES

Phase 1 trial to determine the safety and tolerability of everolimus and niraparib in patients with advanced ovarian and breast malignancies.

RESULTS

Fourteen heavily pretreated patients were enrolled (12 high-grade serous ovarian cancer, 1 clear cell ovarian cancer, and 1 triple negative breast cancer). All patients were PARP naïve and received comprehensive genomic profiling prior to enrollment. Two DLTs were experienced in cohort 2 (niraparib 200 mg daily and everolimus 5 mg 3 days per week) with one patient experiencing prolonged thrombocytopenia and the other experiencing severe hypertension. Four additional patients were enrolled after dose de-escalation with one patient again experiencing severe hypertension leading to conclusion of the study. The most frequent grade 3 or greater adverse events were thrombocytopenia, hypertension, anemia, fatigue, neutropenia, and elevated alkaline phosphatase. Two patients had a PR and five patients had SD. ORR was 18% and the CBR was 45% in 11 evaluable patients. Median PFS was 6 months, and median OS is approximately 18 months with three patients still alive at the data cutoff.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of everolimus and niraparib demonstrated significant toxicity at lower doses and is not feasible due to rapid onset and severe hypertension. This limitation possibly blunted the efficacy of the combination as PFS was modest, but OS was surprisingly robust due to three patients with ovarian cancer remaining alive with platinum refractory disease. Further investigation of multiagent blockade of the PI3K pathway combined with PARP is warranted.

Hyperpolarized Carbon-13 MRI in Breast Cancer

One of the hallmarks of cancer is metabolic reprogramming, including high levels of aerobic glycolysis (the Warburg effect). Pyruvate is a product of glucose metabolism, and 13C-MR imaging of the metabolism of hyperpolarized (HP) [1-13C]pyruvate (HP 13C-MRI) has been shown to be a potentially versatile tool for the clinical evaluation of tumor metabolism. Hyperpolarization of the 13C nuclear spin can increase the sensitivity of detection by 4-5 orders of magnitude. Therefore, following intravenous injection, the location of hyperpolarized 13C-labeled pyruvate in the body and its subsequent metabolism can be tracked using 13C-MRI. Hyperpolarized [13C]urea and [1,4-13C2]fumarate are also likely to translate to the clinic in the near future as tools for imaging tissue perfusion and post-treatment tumor cell death, respectively. For clinical breast imaging, HP 13C-MRI can be combined with 1H-MRI to address the need for detailed anatomical imaging combined with improved functional tumor phenotyping and very early identification of patients not responding to standard and novel neoadjuvant treatments. If the technical complexity of the hyperpolarization process and the relatively high associated costs can be reduced, then hyperpolarized 13C-MRI has the potential to become more widely available for large-scale clinical trials.

Homologous Recombination Deficiency (HRD) in Cutaneous Oncology

Skin cancers, including basal cell carcinoma (BCC), cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma, are the most common malignancies in the United States. Loss of DNA repair pathways in the skin plays a significant role in tumorigenesis. In recent years, targeting DNA repair pathways, particularly homologous recombination deficiency (HRD), has emerged as a potential therapeutic approach in cutaneous malignancies. This review provides an overview of DNA damage and repair pathways, with a focus on HRD, and discusses major advances in targeting these pathways in skin cancers. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors have been developed to exploit HRD in cancer cells. PARP inhibitors disrupt DNA repair mechanisms by inhibiting PARP enzymatic activity, leading to the accumulation of DNA damage and cell death. The concept of synthetic lethality has been demonstrated in HR-deficient cells, such as those with BRCA1/2 mutations, which exhibit increased sensitivity to PARP inhibitors. HRD assessment methods, including genomic scars, RAD51 foci formation, functional assays, and BRCA1/2 mutation analysis, are discussed as tools for identifying patients who may benefit from PARP inhibitor therapy. Furthermore, HRD has been implicated in the response to immunotherapy, and the combination of PARP inhibitors with immunotherapy has shown promising results. The frequency of HRD in melanoma ranges from 18% to 57%, and studies investigating the use of PARP inhibitors as monotherapy in melanoma are limited. Further research is warranted to explore the potential of PARP inhibition in melanoma treatment.

Calcium Homeostasis in the Development of Resistant Breast Tumors

Cancer is one of the main health problems worldwide. Only in 2020, this disease caused more than 19 million new cases and almost 10 million deaths, with breast cancer being the most diagnosed worldwide. Today, despite recent advances in breast cancer treatment, a significant percentage of patients will either not respond to therapy or will eventually experience lethal progressive disease. Recent studies highlighted the involvement of calcium in the proliferation or evasion of apoptosis in breast carcinoma cells. In this review, we provide an overview of intracellular calcium signaling and breast cancer biology. We also discuss the existing knowledge on how altered calcium homeostasis is implicated in breast cancer development, highlighting the potential utility of Ca2+ as a predictive and prognostic biomarker, as well as its potential for the development of new pharmacological treatments to treat the disease.

Updates in combined approaches of radiotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most prevalent non-skin cancer diagnosed in females and developing novel therapeutic strategies to improve patient outcomes is crucial. The immune system plays an integral role in the body’s response to breast cancer and modulating this immune response through immunotherapy is a promising therapeutic option. Although immune checkpoint inhibitors were recently approved for the treatment of breast cancer patients, not all patients respond to immune checkpoint inhibitors as a monotherapy, highlighting the need to better understand the biology underlying patient response. Additionally, as radiotherapy is a critical component of breast cancer treatment, understanding the interplay of radiation and immune checkpoint inhibitors will be vital as recent studies suggest that combined therapies may induce synergistic effects in preclinical models of breast cancer. This review will discuss the mechanisms supporting combined approaches with radiotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of breast cancer. Moreover, this review will analyze the current clinical trials examining combined approaches of radiotherapy, immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapy. Finally, this review will evaluate data regarding treatment tolerance and potential biomarkers for these emerging therapies aimed at improving breast cancer outcomes.

DNA damage response revisited: the p53 family and its regulators provide endless cancer therapy opportunities

Antitumor therapeutic strategies that fundamentally rely on the induction of DNA damage to eradicate and inhibit the growth of cancer cells are integral approaches to cancer therapy. Although DNA-damaging therapies advance the battle with cancer, resistance, and recurrence following treatment are common. Thus, searching for vulnerabilities that facilitate the action of DNA-damaging agents by sensitizing cancer cells is an active research area. Therefore, it is crucial to decipher the detailed molecular events involved in DNA damage responses (DDRs) to DNA-damaging agents in cancer. The tumor suppressor p53 is active at the hub of the DDR. Researchers have identified an increasing number of genes regulated by p53 transcriptional functions that have been shown to be critical direct or indirect mediators of cell fate, cell cycle regulation, and DNA repair. Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) primarily orchestrate and direct the activity of p53 in response to DNA damage. Many molecules mediating PTMs on p53 have been identified. The anticancer potential realized by targeting these molecules has been shown through experiments and clinical trials to sensitize cancer cells to DNA-damaging agents. This review briefly acknowledges the complexity of DDR pathways/networks. We specifically focus on p53 regulators, protein kinases, and E3/E4 ubiquitin ligases and their anticancer potential.

The Multi-Omic Landscape of Primary Breast Tumors and Their Metastases: Expanding the Efficacy of Actionable Therapeutic Targets

Breast cancer (BC) mortality is almost exclusively due to metastasis, which is the least understood aspect of cancer biology and represents a significant clinical challenge. Although we have witnessed tremendous advancements in the treatment for metastatic breast cancer (mBC), treatment resistance inevitably occurs in most patients. Recently, efforts in characterizing mBC revealed distinctive genomic, epigenomic and transcriptomic (multi-omic) landscapes to that of the primary tumor. Understanding of the molecular underpinnings of mBC is key to understanding resistance to therapy and the development of novel treatment options. This review summarizes the differential molecular landscapes of BC and mBC, provides insights into the genomic heterogeneity of mBC and highlights the therapeutically relevant, multi-omic features that may serve as novel therapeutic targets for mBC patients.

Triple negative breast cancer: approved treatment options and their mechanisms of action

PURPOSE

Breast cancer, the most prevalent cancer worldwide, consists of 4 main subtypes, namely, Luminal A, Luminal B, HER2-positive, and Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Triple-negative breast tumors, which do not express estrogen, progesterone, and HER2 receptors, account for approximately 15-20% of breast cancer cases. The lack of traditional receptor targets contributes to the heterogenous, aggressive, and refractory nature of these tumors, resulting in limited therapeutic strategies.

METHODS

Chemotherapeutics such as taxanes and anthracyclines have been the traditional go to treatment regimens for TNBC patients. Paclitaxel, docetaxel, doxorubicin, and epirubicin have been longstanding, Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved therapies against TNBC. Additionally, the FDA approved PARP inhibitors such as olaparib and atezolizumab to be used in combination with chemotherapies, primarily to improve their efficiency and reduce adverse patient outcomes. The immunotherapeutic Keytruda was the latest addition to the FDA-approved list of drugs used to treat TNBC.

RESULTS

The following review aims to elucidate current FDA-approved therapeutics and their mechanisms of action, shedding a light on the various strategies currently used to circumvent the treatment-resistant nature of TNBC cases.

CONCLUSION

The recent approval and use of therapies such as Trodelvy, olaparib and Keytruda has its roots in the development of an understanding of signaling pathways that drive tumour growth. In the future, the emergence of novel drug delivery methods may help increase the efficiency of these therapies whiel also reducing adverse side effects.

Molecular perspective on targeted therapy in breast cancer: a review of current status

Breast cancer is categorized at the molecular level according to the status of certain hormone and growth factor receptors, and this classification forms the basis of current diagnosis and treatment. The development of resistance to treatment and recurrence of the disease have led researchers to develop new therapies. In recent years, most of the research in the field of oncology has focused on the development of targeted therapies, which are treatment methods developed directly against molecular abnormalities. Promising advances have been made in clinical trials investigating the effect of these new treatment modalities and their combinations with existing therapeutic treatments in the treatment of breast cancer. Monoclonal antibodies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, antibody–drug conjugates, PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway inhibitors, cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 inhibitors, anti-angiogenic drugs, PARP inhibitors are among the targeted therapies used in breast cancer treatment. In this review, we aim to present a molecular view of recently approved target agents used in breast cancer.

Surgical Management of Inherited Breast Cancer: Role of Breast-Conserving Surgery

Recent studies have demonstrated that hereditary breast cancer (BC) has a prevalence of 5-10% among all BC diagnoses. Nowadays, significant technological advances in the identification of an increasingly broad spectrum of genetic mutations allow for the discovery of an ever-growing number of inherited pathogenic (P) or likely pathogenic (LP) variants of breast cancer susceptibility genes. As the management of BC patients carrying mutations in the BRCA1/2 genes or other high-penetrance genes is currently a challenge, extensive research is being carried out and a lively scientific debate has been taking place on what the most appropriate local therapy, especially surgical treatment, of patients with inherited BC should be. In many studies, BC outcomes in BRCA carriers and non-carriers have been compared. A number of them showed that, when compared with mastectomy, breast-conserving surgery in BRCA patients is oncologically safe in terms of overall survival, although an increased risk of ipsilateral recurrence was reported. In these patients, devising a specific therapeutic strategy is an inevitably complex process, as it must take into consideration a series of factors, require a multimodal approach, guarantee personalization, strictly adhere to scientific international guidelines, and consider all available evidence. The present narrative review purposes to identify and illustrate evidence from significant selected studies that discussed those issues, as well as to suggest useful tools to clinicians managing this specific clinical condition in daily clinical practice.

Durable Disease-free Survival in a Patient with Metastatic Triple-negative Breast Cancer Treated with Olaparib Monotherapy

BACKGROUND

Metastatic triple-negative breast cancer (mTNBC) has a poor prognosis and few effective targeted therapy options. Olaparib, a poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor, has been granted accelerated approval by FDA for patients with deleterious BRCA-mutated human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-negative advanced/metastatic breast cancer. However, there is little data demonstrating that patients with particular forms of germline and/or somatic BRCA1/2, such as large fragment variation, can benefit from PARP inhibitors.

CASE PRESENTATION

In 2011, a 40-year-old woman was diagnosed with TNBC having pT2N0M0 in the right breast, and a new irregular lesser tubercle in the left breast appeared after approximately 3 years, which was also diagnosed as TNBC. In 2017, computed tomography (CT) showed TNBC metastases to the lung and brain. A next-generation sequencing (NGS) was performed with a lung metastasis sample, and results showed a homologous recombination deficiency (HRD) score of 67, a germline large deletion of exon 2 in BRCA1, a novel somatic BRCA2-STARD13 rearrangement and copy number loss of RAD51. Since September 2017, the patient was treated with olaparib. Till the report date of this case, the patient underwent regular follow-up without disease recurrence.

CONCLUSION

To our knowledge, this is the first case describing a patient with lung- and brainmetastatic TNBC with combined germline and somatic large rearrangement and a high HRD score who achieved a long-term benefit from olaparib monotherapy. The use of NGS is promising in the treatment of TNBC in clinical practice.

Heterogeneity of triple-negative breast cancer: understanding the Daedalian labyrinth and how it could reveal new drug targets

INTRODUCTION

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is considered the most aggressive breast cancer subtype with the least favorable outcomes. However, recent research efforts have generated an enhanced knowledge of the biology of the disease and have provided a new, more comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted ecosystem that underpins TNBC.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, the authors illustrate the principal biological characteristics of TNBC, the molecular driver alterations, targetable genes, and the biomarkers of immune engagement that have been identified across the subgroups of TNBC. Accordingly, the authors summarize the landscape of the innovative and investigative biomarker-driven therapeutic options in TNBC that emerge from the unique biological basis of the disease.

EXPERT OPINION

The therapeutic setting of TNBC is rapidly evolving. An enriched understanding of the tumor spatial and temporal heterogeneity and the surrounding microenvironment of this complex disease can effectively support the development of novel and tailored opportunities of treatment.

Signaling Pathways and Natural Compounds in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cell Line

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer, having a poor prognosis and rapid metastases. TNBC is characterized by the absence of estrogen, progesterone, and human epidermal growth receptor-2 (HER2) expressions and has a five-year survival rate. Compared to other breast cancer subtypes, TNBC patients only respond to conventional chemotherapies, and even then, with limited success. Shortages of chemotherapeutic medication can lead to resistance, pressured index therapy, non-selectivity, and severe adverse effects. Finding targeted treatments for TNBC is difficult owing to the various features of cancer. Hence, identifying the most effective molecular targets in TNBC pathogenesis is essential for predicting response to targeted therapies and preventing TNBC cell metastases. Nowadays, natural compounds have gained attention as TNBC treatments, and have offered new strategies for solving drug resistance. Here, we report a systematic review using the database from Pubmed, Science Direct, MDPI, BioScince, Springer, and Nature for articles screening from 2003 to 2022. This review analyzes relevant signaling pathways and the prospect of utilizing natural compounds as a therapeutic agent to improve TNBC treatments in the future.

Anti-CD37 radioimmunotherapy with 177Lu-NNV003 synergizes with the PARP inhibitor olaparib in treatment of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in vitro

Background and purpose

PARP inhibitors have been shown to increase the efficacy of radiotherapy in preclinical models. Radioimmunotherapy results in selective radiation cytotoxicity of targeted tumour cells. Here we investigate the combined effect of anti-CD37 β-emitting 177Lu-NNV003 radioimmunotherapy and the PARP inhibitor olaparib, and gene expression profiles in CD37 positive non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma cell lines.

Materials and methods

The combined effect of 177Lu-NNV003 and olaparib was studied in seven cell lines using a fixed-ratio ray design, and combination index was calculated for each combination concentration. mRNA was extracted before and after treatment with the drug combination. After RNA-sequencing, hierarchical clustering was performed on basal gene expression profiles and on differentially expressed genes after combination treatment from baseline. Functional gene annotation analysis of significant differentially expressed genes after combination treatment was performed to identify enriched biological processes.

Results

The combination of olaparib and 177Lu-NNV003 was synergistic in four of seven cell lines, antagonistic in one and both synergistic and antagonistic (conditionally synergistic) in two, depending on the concentration ratio between olaparib and 177Lu-NNV003. Cells treated with the combination significantly overexpressed genes in the TP53 signalling pathway. However, cluster analysis did not identify gene clusters that correlate with the sensitivity of cells to single agent or combination treatment.

Conclusion

The cytotoxic effect of the combination of the PARP inhibitor olaparib and the β-emitting radioimmunoconjugate 177Lu-NNV003 was synergistic in the majority of tested lymphoma cell lines.

Multi-omics data integration analysis identifies the spliceosome as a key regulator of DNA double-strand break repair

DNA repair by homologous recombination (HR) is critical for the maintenance of genome stability. Germline and somatic mutations in HR genes have been associated with an increased risk of developing breast (BC) and ovarian cancers (OvC). However, the extent of factors and pathways that are functionally linked to HR with clinical relevance for BC and OvC remains unclear. To gain a broader understanding of this pathway, we used multi-omics datasets coupled with machine learning to identify genes that are associated with HR and to predict their sub-function. Specifically, we integrated our phylogenetic-based co-evolution approach (CladePP) with 23 distinct genetic and proteomic screens that monitored, directly or indirectly, DNA repair by HR. This omics data integration analysis yielded a new database (HRbase) that contains a list of 464 predictions, including 76 gold standard HR genes. Interestingly, the spliceosome machinery emerged as one major pathway with significant cross-platform interactions with the HR pathway. We functionally validated 6 spliceosome factors, including the RNA helicase SNRNP200 and its co-factor SNW1. Importantly, their RNA expression correlated with BC/OvC patient outcome. Altogether, we identified novel clinically relevant DNA repair factors and delineated their specific sub-function by machine learning. Our results, supported by evolutionary and multi-omics analyses, suggest that the spliceosome machinery plays an important role during the repair of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs).

Combining Carbon-Ion Irradiation and PARP Inhibitor, Olaparib Efficiently Kills BRCA1-Mutated Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Background:

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) exhibits poor prognosis due to the lack of targets for hormonal or antibody-based therapies, thereby leading to limited success in the treatment of this cancer subtype. Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is a critical factor for DNA repair, and using PARP inhibitor (PARPi) is one of the promising treatments for BRCA-mutated (BRCA mut) tumors where homologous recombination repair is impaired due to BRCA1 mutation. Carbon ion (C-ion) radiotherapy effectively induces DNA damages in cancer cells. Thus, the combination of C-ion radiation with PARPi would be an attractive treatment for BRCA mut TNBC, wherein DNA repair systems can be severely impaired on account of the BRCA mutation. Till date, the effectiveness of C-ion radiation with PARPi in BRCA mut TNBC cell killing remains unknown.

Purpose:

Triple-negative breast cancer cell lines carrying either wild type BRCA1, BRCA wt, (MDA-MB-231), or the BRCA1 mutation (HCC1937) were used, and the effectiveness of PARPi, olaparib, combined with C-ion beam or the conventional radiation, or X-ray, on TNBC cell killing were investigated.

Methods:

First, effective concentrations of olaparib for BRCA mut (HCC1937) cell killing were identified. Using these concentrations of olaparib, we then investigated their radio-sensitizing effects by examining the surviving fraction of MDA-MB-231 and HCC1937 upon X-ray or C-ion irradiation. In addition, the number of γH2AX (DSB marker) positive cells as well as their expression levels were determined by immunohistochemistry, and results were compared between X-ray irradiated or C-ion irradiated cells. Furthermore, PARP activities in these cells were also observed by performing immunohistochemistry staining for poly (ADP-ribose) polymer (marker for PARP activity), and their expression differences were determined.

Results:

Treatment of cells with 25 nM olaparib enhanced radio-sensitivity of X-ray irradiated HCC1937, whereas lower dose (5 nM) olaparib showed drastic effects on increasing radio-sensitivity of C-ion irradiated HCC1937. Similar effect was not observed in MDA-MB-231, not possessing the BRCA1 mutation. Results of immunohistochemistry showed that X-ray or C-ion irradiation induced similar number of γH2AX-positive HCC1937 cells, but these induction levels were higher in C-ion irradiated HCC1937 with increased PARP activity compared to that of X-ray irradiated HCC1937. Elevated induction of DSB in C-ion irradiated HCC937 may fully activate DSB repair pathways leading to downstream activation of PARP, subsequently enhancing the effectiveness of PARPi, olaparib, with lower doses of olaparib exerting noticeable effects in cell killing of C-ion irradiated HCC1937.

Conclusions:

From this study, we demonstrate that C-ion irradiation can exert significant DSB in BRCA mut TNBC, HCC1937, with high PARP activation. Thus, PARPi, olaparib, would be a promising candidate as a radio-sensitizer for BRCA mut TNBC treatment, especially for C-ion radiotherapy.

Targeting DNA Damage Response and Immune Checkpoint for Anticancer Therapy

Deficiency in DNA damage response (DDR) genes leads to impaired DNA repair functions that will induce genomic instability and facilitate cancer development. However, alterations of DDR genes can serve as biomarkers for the selection of suitable patients to receive specific therapeutics, such as immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy. In addition, certain altered DDR genes can be ideal therapeutic targets through adapting the mechanism of synthetic lethality. Recent studies indicate that targeting DDR can improve cancer immunotherapy by modulating the immune response mediated by cGAS-STING-interferon signaling. Investigations of the interplay of DDR-targeting and ICB therapies provide more effective treatment options for cancer patients. This review introduces the mechanisms of DDR and discusses their crucial roles in cancer therapy based on the concepts of synthetic lethality and ICB. The contemporary clinical trials of DDR-targeting and ICB therapies in breast, colorectal, and pancreatic cancers are included.

MicroRNA-199a-3p promotes drug sensitivity in triple negative breast cancer by down-regulation of BRCA1

MiR-199a-3p was previously predicted to target tumor suppressor gene BRCA1, which has been linked to cancer onset and therapeutic response. In this study, the effects of miR-199a-3p-mediated BRCA1 dysfunction on triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) progression and chemosensitivity were assessed. The association between miR-199a-3p and BRCA1 expression was examined in TNBC tumors and verified with luciferase reporter and protein assays. Tumorigenic functions of miR-199a-3p in TNBC cells were investigated by cell proliferation, clonogenic and migration assays. The sensitivities to chemotherapeutic drugs were tested with cisplatin and PARP inhibitor (veliparib) treatments. Mouse xenograft model was used to examine the effects of miR-199a-3p on tumor growth and drug response in vivo. MiR-199a-3p was shown to directly target BRCA1 in TNBC cells, resulting its downregulation and reduced luciferase reporter activity mediated by BRCA1 3'-UTR. Ectopic miR-199a-3p in TNBC cells exerted inhibitory effects on cell proliferation, migration and xenograft tumor growth. Moreover, miR-199a-3p was shown to reverse cisplatin-resistance and sensitize TNBC cells to veliparib, which might be due to repressed DNA repair ability and induced cell apoptosis. Our results demonstrated the tumor suppressive effects of miR-199a-3p on TNBC and induction on chemotherapeutic sensitivities, which were correlated with BRCA1 gene dysfunction. These findings may provide insights into the potential prognostic and therapeutic values of miR-199a-3p in patients with TNBC.

Molecular Targets of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Where Do We Stand?

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive form of breast cancer. Due to its heterogeneity and lack of hormone receptor expression, this subtype is more likely to metastasize and resist treatment attempts than are other forms of breast cancer. Due to the absence of targetable receptors, chemotherapy and breast conserving surgery have been the predominant treatment options for patients. However, resistance to chemotherapy and local recurrence of the tumors is frequent. Emerging immunotherapies have begun to change treatment plans for patients diagnosed with TNBC. In this review, we discuss the various immune pathways identified in TNBC and the role they play as targets for new potential treatment choices. Various therapeutic options that inhibit key pathways in cellular growth cycles, DNA repair mechanisms, epithelial mesenchymal transition, and immunosuppression have been shown to improve survival in patients with this disease. With promising results thus far, continued studies of immunotherapy and neoadjuvant therapy options for TNBC are likely to alter the treatment course for these diagnoses in the future.

Hyperpolarized Carbon-13 MRI for Early Response Assessment of Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy in Breast Cancer Patients

Hyperpolarized 13C-MRI is an emerging tool for probing tissue metabolism by measuring 13C-label exchange between intravenously injected hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate and endogenous tissue lactate. Here, we demonstrate that hyperpolarized 13C-MRI can be used to detect early response to neoadjuvant therapy in breast cancer. Seven patients underwent multiparametric 1H-MRI and hyperpolarized 13C-MRI before and 7-11 days after commencing treatment. An increase in the lactate-to-pyruvate ratio of approximately 20% identified three patients who, following 5-6 cycles of treatment, showed pathological complete response. This ratio correlated with gene expression of the pyruvate transporter MCT1 and lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), the enzyme catalyzing label exchange between pyruvate and lactate. Analysis of approximately 2,000 breast tumors showed that overexpression of LDHA and the hypoxia marker CAIX was associated with reduced relapse-free and overall survival. Hyperpolarized 13C-MRI represents a promising method for monitoring very early treatment response in breast cancer and has demonstrated prognostic potential. SIGNIFICANCE: Hyperpolarized carbon-13 MRI allows response assessment in patients with breast cancer after 7-11 days of neoadjuvant chemotherapy and outperformed state-of-the-art and research quantitative proton MRI techniques.

PARP Inhibition in Prostate Cancer With Homologous Recombination Repair Alterations

PURPOSE

With the broad use of next-generation sequencing assays, it has become clear that mutations in DNA repair genes are more commonly found than previously reported. In advanced prostate cancer patients with BRCA1/2 or ATM mutations, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibition (PARPi) causes an increased overall survival advantage compared with patients without these mutations. This review explores the advantages and limitations of PARPi treatment and its use beyond BRCA1/2-altered tumors. Furthermore, it discusses the benefits of current biomarkers and what role functional biomarkers and organoids may play in addressing the involvement of homologous recombination repair mutations in tumor development and progression.

METHODS

A systematic review was conducted in MEDLINE, National Library of Medicine, and ClinicalTrials.gov to identify studies published between January 1, 2016, and August 31, 2021. The search strategy incorporated terms for PARPi, BRCA, DNA damage, homologous recombination, organoids, patient-derived organoids, biomarker AND prostate cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer.

RESULTS

A total of 261 records remained after duplicate removal, 69 of which were included in the qualitative synthesis.

CONCLUSION

To improve the outcome of targeted therapy and increase sensitivity of tumor detection, patients should be repeatedly screened for DNA repair gene alterations and biomarkers. Future clinical studies should explore the use of PARPi beyond BRCA1/2 mutations and focus on finding new synthetically lethal interactions.

This review explores PARPi and its use for more than just BRCA1/2 altered tumors

Copper-Mediated Radiosynthesis of [18F]Rucaparib

The poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor rucaparib is used in the clinic to treat BRCA-mutated cancers. Herein, we report two strategies to access the 18F-isotopologue of rucaparib by applying a copper-mediated nucleophilic 18F-fluorodeboronation. The most successful approach features an aldehydic boronic ester precursor that is subjected to reductive amination post-18F-labeling and affords [18F]rucaparib with an activity yield of 11% ± 3% (n = 3) and a molar activity (Am) up to 30 GBq/μmol. Preliminary in vitro studies are presented.

Near infrared photoimmunotherapy of cancer; possible clinical applications

Near-infrared photoimmunotherapy (NIR-PIT) is a new cancer treatment that uses an antibody-photo-absorber conjugate (APC) composed of a targeting monoclonal antibody conjugated with a photoactivatable phthalocyanine-derivative dye, IRDye700DX (IR700). APCs injected into the body can bind to cancer cells where they are activated by local exposure to NIR light typically delivered by a NIR laser. NIR light alters the APC chemical conformation inducing damage to cancer cell membranes, resulting in necrotic cell death within minutes of light exposure. NIR-PIT selectivity kills cancer cells by immunogenic cell death (ICD) with minimal damage to adjacent normal cells thus, leading to rapid recovery by the patient. Moreover, since NIR-PIT induces ICD only on cancer cells, NIR-PIT initiates and activates antitumor host immunity that could be further enhanced when combined with immune checkpoint inhibition. NIR-PIT induces dramatic changes in the tumor vascularity causing the super-enhanced permeability and retention (SUPR) effect that dramatically enhances nanodrug delivery to the tumor bed. Currently, a worldwide Phase 3 study of NIR-PIT for recurrent or inoperable head and neck cancer patients is underway. In September 2020, the first APC and accompanying laser system were conditionally approved for clinical use in Japan. In this review, we introduce NIR-PIT and the SUPR effect and summarize possible applications of NIR-PIT in a variety of cancers.

Discovery of the PARP (poly ADP-ribose polymerase) inhibitor 2-(1-(4,4-difluorocyclohexyl)piperidin-4-yl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazole-4-carboxamide for the treatment of cancer

In this work, two series of cyclic amine-containing benzimidazole carboxamide derivatives were designed and synthesized as potent anticancer agents. PARP1/2 inhibitory activity assays indicated that most of the compounds showed significant activity. The in vitro antiproliferative activity of these compounds was investigated against four human cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-436, MDA-MB-231, MCF-7 and CAPAN-1), and several compounds exhibited strong cytotoxicity to tumor cells. Among them, 2-(1-(4,4-difluorocyclohexyl)piperidin-4-yl)-1H-benzo[d]imidazole-4-carboxamide (17d) was found to be effective PARP1/2 inhibitors (IC50 = 4.30 and 1.58 nM, respectively). In addition, 17d possessed obvious selective antineoplastic activity and noteworthy microsomal metabolic stability. What's more, further studies revealed that 17d was endowed with an excellent ADME profile. These combined results indicated that 17d could be a promising candidate for the treatment of cancer.

BRCA mutations in pancreatic cancer and progress in their targeting

Introduction: Genomic instability resulting from DNA damage repair (DDR) deficiencies is a hallmark of cancer and offers treatment opportunities. Homologous recombination DDR defect is a result of multiple critical gene mutations, including BRCA1/2. Targeting DNA DDR defects in pancreatic cancer (PC) is emerging as a potential treatment strategy with current focus on BRCA mutations.Areas covered: Challenges in treating patients with PC are explained. We review DDR defects as a treatment target in PC, specifically, germline BRCA mutation and sensitivity to platinum compounds and exploiting the strategy of synthetic lethality using poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibition. Literature review was undertaken through PubMed, Google Scholar, and Clinicaltrials.gov website.Expert opinion: DDR defects are promising targets for novel therapies in PC. Early application of such strategy is in patient subgroup with BRCA germline mutation, which is seen in only 5-7% of the PC population. The oral PARP inhibitor olaparib in the maintenance setting represents the first targeted therapy in metastatic PC based on a phase 3 study. There is a very modest benefit for patients with PC using PARP inhibitors. Future work must improve our understanding of mechanisms of sensitivity and resistance to PARP inhibitors in PC and enhance the molecular selection of patients for such therapy.

Oxyresveratrol Modulates Genes Associated with Apoptosis, Cell Cycle Control and DNA Repair in MCF-7 Cells

Oxyresveratrol (OXY) is a small molecule phytochemical which has been reported to have important biological function. The aim of this study was to elucidate the gene expression and biological pathways altered in MCF-7, breast cancer cells following exposure to OXY. The cytotoxicity to different cancer cell lines was screened using MTT assay and then whole gene expression was elucidated using microarray. The pathways selected were also validated by quantitative PCR analysis, fluorometric and western blot assay. A total of 686 genes were found to have altered mRNA expression levels of two-fold or more in the 50 μM OXY-treated group, while 2,338 genes were differentially expressed in the 100 µM-treated group. The relevant visualized global expression patterns of genes and pathways were generated. Apoptosis was activated through mitochondria-lost membrane potential, caspase-3 expression and chromatin condensation without DNA damage. G0/G1 and S phases of the cell cycle control were inhibited dose-dependently by the compound. Rad51 gene (DNA repair pathway) was significantly down-regulated (p < 0.0001). These results indicate that OXY moderates key genes and pathways in MCF-7 cells and that it could be developed as a chemotherapy or chemo-sensitizing agent.

A clinical case of diagnosis of breast cancer in patients with family history of BRCA mutations 1

Background

The incidence of breast cancer is growing rapidly worldwide (1.7 million new cases and 600,000 deaths per year). Moreover, about 10% of breast cancer cases occur in young women under the age of 45. The aim of the study was to report a rare case of BRCA 1-mutated breast cancer in a young patient with multiple affected relatives. Breast cancer is due to a genetic predisposition with BRCA1 and BRCA2 representing a significant proportion of families with a very high risk of developing the disease over a lifetime of up to 50–80%.

Case presentation

In this paper we report a case of a 29-year-old woman with a confirmed diagnosis of left breast carcinoma.

Conclusions

Mutations of the BRCA1 gene were revealed in the patient, in two of her sisters, brother and brother’s daughter.

Perspectives on PARP inhibitors as pharmacotherapeutic strategies for breast cancer

Introduction Approximately 10% of all breast cancer cases occur in individuals who have germline pathogenic variants of the BRCA 1, BRCA 2, and other genes associated with impaired DNA damage repair that is associated with an increased risk of breast, ovarian, and other cancers. Inhibitors of poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) induce synthetic lethality in cancer cells harboring such pathogenic variants.Area covered In this review, the authors review the mechanisms of action, antitumor activity, and adverse events associated with PARP inhibitors for the treatment of advanced breast cancer. The authors then summarize the area and provide their expert perspectives on the area.Expert opinion Two PARP inhibitors are approved in metastatic breast cancer, including olaparib and talozaparib. Both agents were approved based on phase III trials demonstrating that they were associated with improved progression-free survival compared with treatment of physician's choice in patients receiving second-third line therapy for locally advanced, inoperable, or metastatic breast cancer in patients with germline pathogenic BRCA 1 or BRCA2 variants.

Exploration of therapeutic applicability and different signaling mechanism of various phytopharmacological agents for treatment of breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Cancer is one of the most dreaded diseases characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal cells that occurs due to impairment of cell division and apoptosis process. Cancer is categorized into several types on the basis of affected organs and breast cancer (BC) is the most predominant cause of mortality among women. Although, several synthetic and semi-synthetic therapies have been developed for the treatment of BC but they exhibit numerous serious adverse effects therefore; pharmacological agents with fewer/no side effects need to be explored. Plants and phytoconstituents perhaps fulfill the aforementioned requirement and could serve as a potential and alternative therapy for BC treatment. The ongoing biomedical research, clinical trials and number of patents granted have further boosted the acceptance of the plants and plant-derived constituents in the effective treatment of BC.

PURPOSE OF STUDY

Various treatment strategies such as checkpoint inhibitors, targeting micro RNA, apoptotic pathway, BRCA-1 gene, P₅₃ protein, P13K/Akt/mTOR pathway, notch signaling pathway, hedgehog/gli-1 signaling pathway, poly-ADP ribose polymerase inhibitors, mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors etc. are available for BC. In addition to these synthetic and semi-synthetic drug therapies, several natural constituents such as alkaloids, sesquiterpenes, polyphenols, flavonoids and diterpenoids from medicinal plants, vegetables and fruits are reported to possess promising anti-cancer activity. The purpose of the present review is to highlight the various signaling pathways through which plants/herbs show the anti-cancer potential especially against the BC.

STUDY DESIGN

The literature for the present study was collected from various databases such as Pubmed, Scopus, Chemical Abstracts, Medicinal and aromatic plant abstracts, Web of Science etc. The different patent databases were also reviewed for the anti-cancer (BC) potential of the particular herbs/plants and their formulations.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

In this review, we have discussed the number of plants along with their patents of different herbal formulations which are being used for the treatment of BC and other types of cancers. We have also delineated the different signaling mechanisms through which they inhibit the growth of BC cells. In nutshell, we can conclude that large numbers of herbs or their extracts are reported for the treatment of BC. But still, there is further need for research in-depth to translate the use of natural products clinically BC treatment.

Novel combinatorial strategies for boosting the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors in advanced breast cancers

The year 2019 witnessed the first approval of an immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) for the management of triple negative breast cancers (TNBC) that are metastatic and programmed death ligand (PD)-L1 positive. Extensive research has focused on testing ICI-based combinatorial strategies, with the ultimate goal of enhancing the response of breast tumors to immunotherapy to increase the number of breast cancer patients benefiting from this transformative treatment. The promising investigational strategies included immunotherapy combinations with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER)-2 for the HER2 + tumors versus cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)4/6 inhibitors in the estrogen receptor (ER) + disease. Multiple approaches are showing signals of success in advanced TNBC include employing Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, MEK inhibitors, phosphatidylinositol 3‑kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling inhibitors or inhibitors of adenosine receptor, in combination with the classical PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitors. Co-treatment with chemotherapy, high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) or interleukin-2-βɣ agonist have also produced promising outcomes. This review highlights the latest combinatorial strategies under development for overcoming cancer immune evasion and enhancing the percentage of immunotherapy responders in the different subsets of advanced breast cancers.

Management of patients with BRCA mutation from the point of view of a breast surgeon

Germ-line mutation in BRCA (BReast CAncer gene) 1 or BRCA2 are found in 3–4% of all women with breast cancer. These patients have a significant increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer. They are often younger when diagnosed with the mutation, and the possible breast cancer they get is often aggressive with inferior outcome. There are risk reducing strategies, and the most powerful strategy is risk reducing surgery, both risk reducing bilateral mastectomy (RRM) and risk reducing bilateral salpino-oophorectomy (PBSO). This review is meant to address breast surgery in patients with germline BRCA mutation. The guidelines and techniques applied is under continuous change and it is important for the clinicians to be well informed to provide the patient with the information needed for them to make an informed decision on what risk strategy to choose.

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Patients with germ-line mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2 have a significant increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer.

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There are different risk reducing strategies and the most powerful strategy is risk-reducing surgery, both risk reducing bilateral mastectomy and risk reducing bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy.

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Guidelines and techniques for the risk reducing surgery of the breast are under continuous change and improvement.

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Breast conserving therapy is not associated with worse survival and is a good option for a BRCA mutation carrier diagnosed with breast cancer. Risk-reducing mastectomy can be performed in a later setting.

•

The management of BRCA mutation carriers, both affected and unaffected, should be performed in a multidisciplinary team. Physicians need to be systematically educated and updated on the most recent literature.

The role of novel poly (ADP-ribose) inhibitors in the treatment of locally advanced and metastatic Her-2/neu negative breast cancer with inherited germline BRCA1/2 mutations. A review of the literature

The use of the PARP inhibitors (PARPi) in the treatment of breast cancer (BC) with germine mutations has evolved over the years, and further research has been done in order to broaden the horizon of this treatment strategy. Therefore the aim of this paper is to review the efficiency of PARPi in the treatment of BRCA 1/2-mutated locally advanced and metastatic Her-2/net negative BC mentioning their side effects, mechanism of resistance and future directions. Inhibition of PARP transforms single-strand breaks into double-strand breaks (DBS), the accumulation of the latter causing cell death (cell apoptosis). The Olympia AD phase III trial demonstrated a statistically significant progression-free survival rate (PFS) when using the PARPi olaparib in metastatic BC with germline BRCA1/2 mutations without any benefit of the overall survival rate. PARPi therapy is associated with acceptable responsive rates and progression-free survival rates in locally advanced and metastatic BRCA1/2 associated BC through mechanisms that enhance and increase the sensitivity to chemotherapeutic or target agents as they induce a synthetic lethality and cell apoptosis. The side effects are not significant, the most adverse effects being related to the hematological and gastrointestinal systems. Olaparib is currently approved in the first-line treatment of BRCA1/2 mutated Her-2/neu negative metastatic BC at an oral dose of 300 mg twice daily, while Talazoparib represents a category one recommendation in locally advanced and metastatic Her-2/neu negative BC in women with central nervous system metastases.