The interaction between nanoparticles and immune system: application in the treatment of inflammatory diseases

The emerging role of microglia in the development and therapy of multiple sclerosis

Microglia are innate immune cells that maintain homeostasis of the central nervous system (CNS) and affect various neurodegenerative diseases, especially multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is an autoimmune disease of the CNS characterized by persistent inflammation, diffuse axonal damage, and microglia activation. Recent studies have shown that microglia are extremely related to the pathological state of MS and play an important role in the development of MS. This article reviews the multiple roles of microglia in the progression of MS, including the regulatory role of microglia in inflammation, remyelination, oxidative stress, the influence of phagocytosis and antigen-presenting capacity of microglia, and the recent progress by using microglia as a target for MS therapy. Microglia modulation may be a potential way for better MS therapy.

Regulation of dynamic spatiotemporal inflammation by nanomaterials in spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a common clinical condition of the central nervous system that can lead to sensory and motor impairment below the injury level or permanent loss of function in severe cases. Dynamic spatiotemporal neuroinflammation is vital to neurological recovery, which is collectively constituted by the dynamic changes in a series of inflammatory cells, including microglia, neutrophils, and astrocytes, among others. Immunomodulatory nanomaterials can readily improve the therapeutic effects and simultaneously overcome various drawbacks associated with treatment, such as the off-target side effects and loss of bioactivity of immune agents during circulation. In this review, we discuss the role of dynamic spatiotemporal inflammation in secondary injuries after SCI, elaborate on the mechanism of action and effect of existing nanomaterials in treating SCI, and summarize the mechanism(s) whereby they regulate inflammation. Finally, the challenges and prospects associated with using nanotechnology to modulate immunotherapy are discussed to provide new insights for future treatment. Deciphering the intricate spatiotemporal mechanisms of neuroinflammation in SCI requires further in-depth studies. Therefore, SCI continues to represent a formidable challenge.

Nanomedicine for pediatric healthcare: A review of the current state and future prospectives

Nanomedicine has emerged as a valuable treatment and diagnosis option, due to its ability not only to address formulation challenges associated with new therapeutic moieties, but also to improve the existing drugs efficacy. Nanomedicine provides appealing advantages such as increased drug payload, enhanced stability, tailored drug release profile, improved bioavailability and targeted drug delivery, etc. Tremendous research and regulatory efforts have been made in the past decades to advance nanomedicine from the benchtop to clinic. Numerous nanotechnology-based formulation approaches have been seen succeeding in commercialization. Despite the progress in nanomedicine use in adults, the advancement in pediatric population has been much slower. Clearly the treatment of disease in children cannot be simplified by dose adjustment based on body weight or surface, due to the significant differences in physiology thus the drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and transport (ADMET), between children and adults. This inherent variable among others poses much more challenges when developing pediatric-specific nanomedicine or translating adult nanodrug to pediatric indication. This review therefore intends to highlight the physiological differences between children and adult, and the common pediatric diseases which are good candidates for nanomedicine. The formulation approaches utilized in the marketed nanomedicine with pediatric indications, including liposomes, nanocrystals, polymeric nanoparticles and lipid nanoemulsions are elaborated. Finally, the challenges and gaps in pediatric nanomedicine development and commercialization, and the future prospectives are discussed.

Local Release of Copper Manganese Oxide Using HA Microneedle for Improving the Efficacy of Drug-Resistant Wound Inflammation

The production of bacterial toxins and excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can induce localized oxidative stress, triggering an exaggerated immune response that impedes wound healing and culminates in chronic wounds. To address this issue, a microneedle (MN) system loaded with copper-manganese oxide (CMO) is developed to modulate the hyperimmune response in wounds. CMO@MN exhibits excellent antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties by effectively killing bacteria, scavenging ROS, and modulating macrophage polarization through their multiple enzymatic activities and photothermal properties. RNA sequencing revealed that CMO@MN improved the therapeutic effect on the infected skin of mice by balancing the ratio of M1/M2 macrophages and promoting cell migration and angiogenesis through the regulation of relevant pathways. Overall, this CMO@MN patch skillfully balances the complex issues between the immune response and wound healing and has potential applications in the treatment of other serious bacterial infections.

Enhancing the anticancer effect of metformin through nanoencapsulation: Apoptotic induction, inflammatory reduction, and suppression of cell migration in colorectal cancer cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) continues to be a significant health challenge, necessitating the development of efficient therapeutic strategies. Drug repurposing, which involves the use of existing medications for new purposes, presents a promising opportunity. Metformin, a widely used antidiabetic drug, has demonstrated potential anticancer effects. To enhance its efficacy, we formulated nano-metformin, metformin encapsulated within pectin nanoparticles. Our study aimed to evaluate the superiority of nano-metformin over free metformin in treating CRC. The cytotoxicity of both metformin and nano-metformin on Caco-2 CRC cells was assessed using the MTT assay, revealing a significant dose-dependent inhibition of cell growth using nano-metformin. The anti-inflammatory potential was evaluated by measuring the levels of nitric oxide and the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-2 and IL-6 following lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induction, and the results revealed that treating LPS-induced cells with nano-metformin significantly reduced the production of these inflammatory mediators. To elucidate the mechanism of cell death, we employed an acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining assay, which revealed the enhancement of apoptotic cell death following treatment with nano-metformin. Additionally, we examined the expression of key apoptotic regulators using real-time qPCR. Nano-metformin, in particular, significantly downregulated the expression of the antiapoptotic markers Bcl-2 and Survivin while upregulating the proapoptotic caspases 3, 7, and 9. The comet assay revealed significant DNA damage induced by treatment with the nano-metformin compared with that in the free form. Moreover, nano-metformin significantly reduced the migration ability of cells. In conclusion, our work revealed the superior efficacy of our formulated nanoform over free metformin, highlighting its potential as a promising therapeutic agent for CRC treatment.

Navigating the nano-bio immune interface: advancements and challenges in CNS nanotherapeutics

In recent years, significant advancements have been made in utilizing nanoparticles (NPs) to modulate immune responses within the central nervous system (CNS), offering new opportunities for nanotherapeutic interventions in neurological disorders. NPs can serve as carriers for immunomodulatory agents or platforms for delivering nucleic acid-based therapeutics to regulate gene expression and modulate immune responses. Several studies have demonstrated the efficacy of NP-mediated immune modulation in preclinical models of neurological diseases, including multiple sclerosis, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. While challenges remain, advancements in NPs engineering and design have led to the development of NPs using diverse strategies to overcome these challenges. The nano-bio interface with the immune system is key in the conceptualization of NPs to efficiently act as nanotherapeutics in the CNS. The biomolecular corona plays a pivotal role in dictating NPs behavior and immune recognition within the CNS, giving researchers the opportunity to optimize NPs design and surface modifications to minimize immunogenicity and enhance biocompatibility. Here, we review how NPs interact with the CNS immune system, focusing on immunosurveillance of NPs, NP-induced immune reprogramming and the impact of the biomolecular corona on NPs behavior in CNS immune responses. The integration of NPs into CNS nanotherapeutics offers promising opportunities for addressing the complex challenges of acute and chronic neurological conditions and pathologies, also in the context of preventive and rehabilitative medicine. By harnessing the nano-bio immune interface and understanding the significance of the biomolecular corona, researchers can develop targeted, safe, and effective nanotherapeutic interventions for a wide range of CNS disorders to improve treatment and rehabilitation. These advancements have the potential to revolutionize the treatment landscape of neurological diseases, offering promising solutions for improved patient care and quality of life in the future.

Evaluating the safety and efficiency of nanomaterials: A focus on mitochondrial health

Nanomaterials (NMs) have extensive application potential in drug delivery, tissue engineering, and various other domains, attributable to their exceptional physical and chemical properties. Nevertheless, an increasing body of literature underscores the diverse safety risks are associated with NMs upon interaction with the human body, including oxidative stress and programmed cell death. Mitochondria, serving as cellular energy factories, play a pivotal role in energy metabolism and the regulation of cell fate. Organs with substantial energy demands, including the heart and brain, are highly sensitive to mitochondrial integrity, with mitochondrial impairment potentially resulting in significant dysfunction and pathologies such as as heart failure and neurodegenerative disease. This review elucidates the pathways by which NMs translocate into mitochondria, their intracellular dynamics, and their impact on mitochondrial morphology, respiratory chain activity, and metabolic processes. We further investigate associated molecular mechanisms, including mitochondrial dynamic imbalance, calcium overload, and oxidative stress, and elucidate the pivotal roles of mitochondria in different forms of programmed cell death such as apoptosis and autophagy. Finally, we offer recommendations regarding the safety and efficacy of NMs for medical applications. By systematically analyzing the interactions and molecular mechanisms between NMs and mitochondria, this paper aims to enhance the toxicological evaluation framework of NMs and provide a foundational reference and theoretical basis for their clinical utilization.

Synthetic bacterial consortia transplantation attenuates vaginal inflammation and modulates the immune response in a mouse model of Gardnerella vaginalis-induced bacterial vaginosis

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of synthetic bacterial consortia transplantation (SBCT) and compare it with VMT (vaginal microbiota transplantation) in a mouse model of Gardnerella vaginalis-induced Bacterial vaginosis (BV). A murine model of G. vaginalis-induced BV was established, and mice were treated with SBCT, VMT, or saline. Histopathological changes, inflammatory cytokine levels, pro-inflammatory biomarker expression, helper T cell transcription factor expression, and vaginal microbiota composition were assessed. SBCT and VMT effectively suppressed G. vaginalis growth, reduced inflammation, and restored vaginal microbiota diversity. Both treatments attenuated epithelial damage, downregulated pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and IL-8), and upregulated the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. SBCT and VMT also inhibited NF-κB activation, suppressed IL-17 expression, and enhanced Foxp3 expression in vaginal tissues. SBCT is a promising therapeutic approach for treating BV, as it effectively modulates the immune response and restores vaginal microbiota diversity in a mouse model of G. vaginalis-induced BV.

High Quantum Yields and Biomedical Fluorescent Imaging Applications of Photosensitized Trivalent Lanthanide Ion-Based Nanoparticles

In recent years, significant advances in enhancing the quantum yield (QY) of trivalent lanthanide (Ln3+) ion-based nanoparticles have been achieved through photosensitization, using host matrices or capping organic ligands as photosensitizers to absorb incoming photons and transfer energy to the Ln3+ ions. The Ln3+ ion-based nanoparticles possess several excellent fluorescent properties, such as nearly constant transition energies, atomic-like sharp transitions, long emission lifetimes, large Stokes shifts, high photostability, and resistance to photobleaching; these properties make them more promising candidates as next-generation fluorescence probes in the visible region, compared with other traditional materials such as organic dyes and quantum dots. However, their QYs are generally low and thus need to be improved to facilitate and extend their applications. Considerable efforts have been made to improve the QYs of Ln3+ ion-based nanoparticles through photosensitization. These efforts include the doping of Ln3+ ions into host matrices or capping the nanoparticles with organic ligands. Among the Ln3+ ion-based nanoparticles investigated in previous studies, this review focuses on those containing Eu3+, Tb3+, and Dy3+ ions with red, green, and yellow emission colors, respectively. The emission intensities of Eu3+ and Tb3+ ions are stronger than those of other Ln3+ ions; therefore, the majority of the reported studies focused on Eu3+ and Tb3+ ion-based nanoparticles. This review discusses the principles of photosensitization, several examples of photosensitized Ln3+ ion-based nanoparticles, and in vitro and in vivo biomedical fluorescent imaging (FI) applications. This information provides valuable insight into the development of Ln3+ ion-based nanoparticles with high QYs through photosensitization, with future potential applications in biomedical FI.

Evolving understanding of autoimmune mechanisms and new therapeutic strategies of autoimmune disorders

Autoimmune disorders are characterized by aberrant T cell and B cell reactivity to the body's own components, resulting in tissue destruction and organ dysfunction. Autoimmune diseases affect a wide range of people in many parts of the world and have become one of the major concerns in public health. In recent years, there have been substantial progress in our understanding of the epidemiology, risk factors, pathogenesis and mechanisms of autoimmune diseases. Current approved therapeutic interventions for autoimmune diseases are mainly non-specific immunomodulators and may cause broad immunosuppression that leads to serious adverse effects. To overcome the limitations of immunosuppressive drugs in treating autoimmune diseases, precise and target-specific strategies are urgently needed. To date, significant advances have been made in our understanding of the mechanisms of immune tolerance, offering a new avenue for developing antigen-specific immunotherapies for autoimmune diseases. These antigen-specific approaches have shown great potential in various preclinical animal models and recently been evaluated in clinical trials. This review describes the common epidemiology, clinical manifestation and mechanisms of autoimmune diseases, with a focus on typical autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and sjögren's syndrome. We discuss the current therapeutics developed in this field, highlight the recent advances in the use of nanomaterials and mRNA vaccine techniques to induce antigen-specific immune tolerance.

Nanotechnology-Mediated Immunomodulation Strategy for Inflammation Resolution

Inflammation serves as a common characteristic across a wide range of diseases and plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis. Inflammation can lead to tissue damage and the onset of inflammatory diseases. Although significant progress is made in anti-inflammation in recent years, the current clinical approaches mainly rely on the systemic administration of corticosteroids and antibiotics, which only provide short-term relief. Recently, immunomodulatory approaches have emerged as promising strategies for facilitating the resolution of inflammation. Especially, the advanced nanosystems with unique biocompatibility and multifunctionality have provided an ideal platform for immunomodulation. In this review, the pathophysiology of inflammation and current therapeutic strategies are summarized. It is mainly focused on the nanomedicines that modulate the inflammatory signaling pathways, inflammatory cells, oxidative stress, and inflammation targeting. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of nanomaterials in addressing inflammation are also discussed. The nanotechnology-mediated immunomodulation will open a new treatment strategy for inflammation therapy.

Inflammatory response of nanoparticles: Mechanisms, consequences, and strategies for mitigation

Numerous nano-dimensioned materials have been generated as a result of several advancements in nanoscale science such as metallic nanoparticles (mNPs) which have aided in the advancement of related research. As a result, several significant nanoscale materials are being produced commercially. It is expected that in the future, products that are nanoscale, like mNPs, will be useful in daily life. Despite certain benefits, widespread use of metallic nanoparticles and nanotechnology has negative effects and puts human health at risk because of their continual accumulation in closed biological systems, along with their complex and diverse migratory and transformation pathways. Once within the human body, nanoparticles (NPs) disrupt the body's natural biological processes and trigger inflammatory responses. These NPs can also affect the immune system by activating separate pathways that either function independently or interact with one another. Cytotoxic effects, inflammatory response, genetic material damage, and mitochondrial dysfunction are among the consequences of mNPs. Oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation caused by mNPs depend upon a multitude of factors that allow NPs to get inside cells and interact with biological macromolecules and cell organelles. This review focuses on how mNPs cause inflammation and oxidative stress, as well as disrupt cellular signaling pathways that support these effects. In addition, possibilities and problems to be reduced are addressed to improve future research on the creation of safer and more environmentally friendly metal-based nanoparticles for commercial acceptance and sustainable use in medicine and drug delivery.

Eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles from peel and juice C. limon and their antiviral efficacy against HSV-1 and SARS-CoV-2

The growing threat of viral infections requires innovative therapeutic approaches to safeguard human health. Nanomaterials emerge as a promising solution to overcome the limitations associated with conventional therapies. The eco-friendly synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) currently represents a method that guarantees antimicrobial efficacy, safety, and cost-effectiveness. This study explores the use of AgNPs derived from the peel (Lp-AgNPs) and juice (Lj-AgNPs) Citrus limon "Ovale di Sorrento", cultivars of the Campania region. The antiviral potential was tested against viruses belonging to the Coronaviridae and Herpesviridae. AgNPs were synthesized by reduction method using silver nitrate solution mixed with aqueous extract of C. limon peel and juice. The formation of Lp-AgNPs and Lj-AgNPs was assessed using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. The size, ζ-potential, concentration, and morphology of AgNPs were evaluated by dynamic light scattering (DLS), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), and field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Cytotoxicity was evaluated in a concentration range between 500 and 7.8 µg/mL on VERO-76 and HaCaT cells, with the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium test bromide (MTT). Antiviral activity consisted of virus pre-treatment, co-treatment, cellular pre-treatment, and post-infection tests versus HSV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 at a multiplicity of infections (MOI) of 0.01. Plaque reduction assays and real-time PCR provided data on the antiviral potential of tested compounds. Lp-AgNPs and Lj-AgNPs exhibited spherical morphology with respective diameters of 60 and 92 nm with concentrations of 4.22 and 4.84 × 1010 particles/mL, respectively. The MTT data demonstrated minimal cytotoxicity, with 50 % cytotoxic concentrations (CC50) of Lp-AgNPs and Lj-AgNPs against VERO cells of 754.6 and 486.7 µg/mL. Similarly, CC50 values against HaCaT were 457.3 µg/mL for Lp-AgNPs and 339.6 µg/mL for Lj-AgNPs, respectively. In the virus pre-treatment assay, 90 % inhibitory concentrations of HSV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 were 8.54-135.04 µg/mL for Lp-AgNPs and 6.13-186.77 µg/mL for Lj-AgNPs, respectively. The molecular investigation confirmed the antiviral data, recording a reduction in the UL54 and UL27 genes for HSV-1 and in the Spike (S) gene for SARS-CoV-2, following AgNP exposure. The results of this study suggest that Lp-AgNPs and Lj-AgNPs derived from C. Limon could offer a valid ecological, natural, local and safe strategy against viral infections.

Virus-Shaped Mesoporous Silica Nanostars to Improve the Transport of Drugs across the Blood-Brain Barrier

Conditions affecting the brain are the second leading cause of death globally. One of the main challenges for drugs targeting brain diseases is passing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Here, the effectiveness of mesoporous silica nanostars (MSiNSs) with two different spike lengths to cross an in vitro BBB multicellular model was evaluated and compared to spherical nanoparticles (MSiNP). A modified sol-gel single-micelle epitaxial growth was used to produce MSiNS, which showed no cytotoxicity or immunogenicity at concentrations of up to 1 μg mL-1 in peripheral blood mononuclear and neuronal cells. The nanostar MSiNS effectively penetrated the BBB model after 24 h, and MSiNS-1 with a shorter spike length (9 ± 2 nm) crossed the in vitro BBB model more rapidly than the MSiNS-2 with longer spikes (18 ± 4 nm) or spherical MSiNP at 96 h, which accumulated in the apical and basolateral sides, respectively. Molecular dynamic simulations illustrated an increase in configurational flexibility of the lipid bilayer during contact with the MSiNS, resulting in wrapping, whereas the MSiNP suppressed membrane fluctuations. This work advances an effective brain drug delivery system based on virus-like shaped MSiNS for the treatment of different brain diseases and a mechanism for their interaction with lipid bilayers.

Endogenous Melanin and Hydrogen-Based Specific Activated Theranostics Nanoagents: A Novel Multi-Treatment Paradigm for Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disorder characterized by excessive proliferation of rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts (RASFs) and accumulation of inflammatory cytokines. Exploring the suppression of RASFs and modulation of the RA microenvironment is considered a comprehensive strategy for RA. In this work, specifically activated nanoagents (MAHI NGs) based on the hypoxic and weakly acidic RA microenvironment are developed to achieve a second near-infrared fluorescence (NIR-II FL)/photoacoustic (PA) dual-model imaging-guided multi-treatment. Due to optimal size, the MAHI NGs passively accumulate in the diseased joint region and undergo rapid responsive degradation, precisely releasing functionalized components: endogenous melanin-nanoparticles (MNPs), hydrogen gas (H2), and indocyanine green (ICG). The released MNPs play a crucial role in ablating RASFs within the RA microenvironment through photothermal therapy (PTT) guided by accurate PA imaging. However, the regional hyperthermia generated by PTT may exacerbate reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and inflammatory response following cell lysis. Remarkably, under the acidic microenvironment, the controlled release of H2 exhibits precise synergistic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects with MNPs. Moreover, the ICG, the second near-infrared dye currently approved for clinical use, possesses excellent NIR-II FL imaging properties that facilitate the diagnosis of deep tissue diseases and provide the right time-point for PTT.

Next-Generation Vaccine Development with Nanomaterials: Recent Advances, Possibilities, and Challenges

Nanomaterials are becoming important tools for vaccine development owing to their tunable and adaptable nature. Unique properties of nanomaterials afford opportunities to modulate trafficking through various tissues, complement or augment adjuvant activities, and specify antigen valency and display. This versatility has enabled recent work designing nanomaterial vaccines for a broad range of diseases, including cancer, inflammatory diseases, and various infectious diseases. Recent successes of nanoparticle vaccines during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have fueled enthusiasm further. In this review, the most recent developments in nanovaccines for infectious disease, cancer, inflammatory diseases, allergic diseases, and nanoadjuvants are summarized. Additionally, challenges and opportunities for clinical translation of this unique class of materials are discussed.

Nanoformulations in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications: Green Perspectives

This study provides a brief discussion of the major nanopharmaceuticals formulations as well as the impact of nanotechnology on the future of pharmaceuticals. Effective and eco-friendly strategies of biofabrication are also highlighted. Modern approaches to designing pharmaceutical nanoformulations (e.g., 3D printing, Phyto-Nanotechnology, Biomimetics/Bioinspiration, etc.) are outlined. This paper discusses the need to use natural resources for the "green" design of new nanoformulations with therapeutic efficiency. Nanopharmaceuticals research is still in its early stages, and the preparation of nanomaterials must be carefully considered. Therefore, safety and long-term effects of pharmaceutical nanoformulations must not be overlooked. The testing of nanopharmaceuticals represents an essential point in their further applications. Vegetal scaffolds obtained by decellularizing plant leaves represent a valuable, bioinspired model for nanopharmaceutical testing that avoids using animals. Nanoformulations are critical in various fields, especially in pharmacy, medicine, agriculture, and material science, due to their unique properties and advantages over conventional formulations that allows improved solubility, bioavailability, targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and reduced toxicity. Nanopharmaceuticals have transitioned from experimental stages to being a vital component of clinical practice, significantly improving outcomes in medical fields for cancer treatment, infectious diseases, neurological disorders, personalized medicine, and advanced diagnostics. Here are the key points highlighting their importance. The significant challenges, opportunities, and future directions are mentioned in the final section.

Assessing the toxicity of one-step-synthesized PEG-coated gold nanoparticles: in vitro and in vivo studies

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the in vitro and in vivo toxicities of polyethylene glycol-coated gold nanoparticles synthesized using a one-step process.

METHODS

Gold nanoparticles were prepared via a co-precipitation method using polyethylene glycol, and the synthesis product was characterized. For the in vitro evaluation, a flow cytometry analysis with Annexin V and iodide propidium staining was used to assess cytotoxicity in MG-63 cells labeled with 10, 50, and 100µg/mL of nanoparticle concentration. For the in vivo evaluation, nanoparticles were administered intraperitoneally at a dose of 10mg/kg dose in 10-week-old mice. Toxicity was assessed 24 hours and 7 days after administration via histopathological analysis of various tissues, as well as through renal, hepatic, and hematopoietic evaluations.

RESULTS

Synthesized nanoparticles exhibited different hydrodynamic sizes depending on the medium: 51.27±1.62nm in water and 268.12±28.45nm (0 hour) in culture medium. They demonstrated a maximum absorbance at 520nm and a zeta potential of -8.419mV. Cellular viability exceeded 90%, with less than 3% early apoptosis, 6% late apoptosis, and 1% necrosis across all labeling conditions, indicating minimal cytotoxicity differences. Histopathological analysis highlighted the accumulation of nanoparticles in the mesentery; however, no lesions or visible agglomeration was observed in the remaining tissues. Renal, hepatic, and hematopoietic analyses showed no significant differences at any time point.

CONCLUSION

Polyethylene glycol-coated gold nanoparticles exhibit extremely low toxicity and high biocompatibility, showing promise for future studies.

The Therapeutic Potential of Harpagophytum procumbens and Turnera subulata and Advances in Nutraceutical Delivery Systems in Neurodegenerative Diseases

This review article covers the therapeutic potential of the plants Harpagophytum procumbens and Turnera subulata in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Despite the recognition of their beneficial properties, there is notable shortage of specific clinical and in vitro studies on these species regarding neurodegenerative diseases. Compounds such as harpagosides and vite-xin-2-O-rhamnoside, found in Harpagophytum procumbens and Turnera subulata, respectively, as well as other antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents, are associated with mechanisms of action that involve reducing oxidative stress and modulating the inflammatory response, indicating their therapeutic potential in these pathologies. Additionally, the use of nutraceuticals derived from medicinal plants has emerged as a promising approach, offering natural therapeutic alternatives. However, the pressing need for studies focusing on the pharmacokinetics, safety, and pharmacological interactions of these extracts for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases is emphasized. This review also evaluated advances in nutraceutical delivery systems, highlighting technological innovations that can optimize the precise delivery of these compounds to patients. Such findings highlight the gaps in the study of these plants for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and, at the same time, the potential for opening new perspectives in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, providing expectations for innovative solutions in this critical domain of medicine.

Vaccines as Immunotherapies for Substance Use Disorders

Substance use disorders (SUD) present a worldwide challenge with few effective therapies except for the relative efficacy of opioid pharmacotherapies, despite limited treatment access. However, the proliferation of illicit fentanyl use initiated a dramatic and cascading epidemic of lethal overdoses. This rise in fentanyl overdoses regenerated an interest in vaccine immunotherapy, which, despite an optimistic start in animal models over the past 50 years, yielded disappointing results in human clinical trials of vaccines against nicotine, stimulants (cocaine and methamphetamine), and opioids. After a brief review of clinical and selected preclinical vaccine studies, the "lessons learned" from the previous vaccine clinical trials are summarized, and then the newest challenge of a vaccine against fentanyl and its analogs is explored. Animal studies have made significant advances in vaccine technology for SUD treatment over the past 50 years, and the resulting anti-fentanyl vaccines show remarkable promise for ending this epidemic of fentanyl deaths.

Nanomedicine at the Pulmonary Frontier: Immune-Centric Approaches for Respiratory Disease Treatment

Respiratory diseases (RD) are a group of common ailments with a rapidly increasing global prevalence, posing a significant threat to humanity, especially the elderly population, and imposing a substantial burden on society and the economy. RD represents an unmet medical need that requires the development of viable pharmacotherapies. While various promising strategies have been devised to advance potential treatments for RD, their implementation has been hindered by difficulties in drug delivery, particularly in critically ill patients. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions for delivering medications to the inflamed organ sites, such as the lungs. Although this approach is enticing, delivering nanomedicine to the lungs presents complex challenges that require sophisticated techniques. In this context, we review the potential of novel nanomedicine-based immunomodulatory strategies that could offer therapeutic benefits in managing this pressing health condition.

Developments and Trends of Nanotechnology Application in Sepsis: A Comprehensive Review Based on Knowledge Visualization Analysis

Sepsis, a common life-threatening clinical condition, continues to have high morbidity and mortality rates, despite advancements in management. In response, significant research efforts have been directed toward developing effective strategies. Within this scope, nanotechnology has emerged as a particularly promising field, attracting significant interest for its potential to enhance disease diagnosis and treatment. While several reviews have highlighted the use of nanoparticles in sepsis, comprehensive studies that summarize and analyze the hotspots and research trends are lacking. To identify and further promote the development of nanotechnology in sepsis, a bibliometric analysis was conducted on the relevant literature, assessing research trends and hotspots in the application of nanomaterials for sepsis. Next, a comprehensive review of the subjectively recognized research hotspots in sepsis, including nanotechnology-enhanced biosensors and nanoscale imaging for sepsis diagnostics, and nanoplatforms designed for antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and detoxification strategies in sepsis therapy, is elucidated, while the potential side effects and toxicity risks of these nanomaterials were discussed. Particular attention is given to biomimetic nanoparticles, which mimic the biological functions of source cells like erythrocytes, immune cells, and platelets to evade immune responses and effectively deliver therapeutic agents, demonstrating substantial translational potential. Finally, current challenges and future perspectives of nanotechnology applications in sepsis with a view to maximizing their great potential in the research of translational medicine are also discussed.

Engineered Nanomaterials for Immunomodulation: A Review

The immune system usually provides a defense against invading pathogenic microorganisms and any other particulate contaminants. Nonetheless, it has been recently reported that nanomaterials can evade the immune system and modulate immunological responses due to their unique physicochemical characteristics. Consequently, nanomaterial-based activation of immune components, i.e., neutrophils, macrophages, and other effector cells, may induce inflammation and alter the immune response. Here, it is essential to distinguish the acute and chronic modulations triggered by nanomaterials to determine the possible risks to human health. Nanomaterials size, shape, composition, surface charge, and deformability are factors controlling their uptake by immune cells and the resulting immune responses. The exterior corona of molecules adsorbed over nanomaterials surfaces also influences their immunological effects. Here, we review current nanoengineering trends for targeted immunomodulation with an emphasis on the design, safety, and potential toxicity of nanomaterials. First, we describe the characteristics of engineered nanomaterials that trigger immune responses. Then, the biocompatibility and immunotoxicity of nanoengineered particles are debated, because these factors influence applications. Finally, future nanomaterial developments in terms of surface modifications, synergistic approaches, and biomimetics are discussed.

Comprehensive and critical view on the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory role of natural phenolic antioxidants

The immune response encompasses innate and adaptive immunity, each with distinct and specific activities. The innate immune system is constituted by phagocytic cells, macrophages, monocytes and neutrophils, the cascade system, and different classes of receptors such as toll-like receptors that are exploited by the innate immune cells. The adaptive immune system is antigen-specific, encompassing memory lymphocytes and the corresponding specific receptors. Inflammation is understood as an activation of different signaling pathways such as toll-like receptors or nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, with an increase in nitric oxide, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Increased oxidative stress has been identified as main source of chronic inflammation. Phenolic antioxidants modulate the activities of lymphocytes and macrophages by impacting cytokines and nitric oxide release, exerting anti-inflammatory effect. The nuclear-factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells signaling pathway and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway are targeted, alongside an increase in nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor mediated antioxidant response, triggering the activity of antioxidant enzymes. The inhibitive potential on phospholipase A2, cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase in the arachidonic acid pathway, and the subsequent reduction in prostaglandin and leukotriene generation, reveals the potential of phenolics as inflammation antagonists. The immunomodulative potential encompasses the capacity to interfere with proinflammatory cytokine synthesis and with the expression of the corresponding genes. A diet rich in antioxidants can result in prevention of inflammation-related pathologies. More investigations are necessary to establish the role of these antioxidants in therapy. The appropriate delivery system and the prooxidant effects exhibited at large doses, or in the presence of heavy metal cations should be regarded.

Nanomaterial-encapsulated STING agonists for immune modulation in cancer therapy

The cGAS-STING signaling pathway has emerged as a critical mediator of innate immune responses, playing a crucial role in improving antitumor immunity through immune effector responses. Targeting the cGAS-STING pathway holds promise for overcoming immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments (TME) and promoting effective tumor elimination. However, systemic administration of current STING agonists faces challenges related to low bioavailability and potential adverse effects, thus limiting their clinical applicability. Recently, nanotechnology-based strategies have been developed to modulate TMEs for robust immunotherapeutic responses. The encapsulation and delivery of STING agonists within nanoparticles (STING-NPs) present an attractive avenue for antitumor immunotherapy. This review explores a range of nanoparticles designed to encapsulate STING agonists, highlighting their benefits, including favorable biocompatibility, improved tumor penetration, and efficient intracellular delivery of STING agonists. The review also summarizes the immunomodulatory impacts of STING-NPs on the TME, including enhanced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, dendritic cell activation, cytotoxic T cell priming, macrophage re-education, and vasculature normalization. Furthermore, the review offers insights into co-delivered nanoplatforms involving STING agonists alongside antitumor agents such as chemotherapeutic compounds, immune checkpoint inhibitors, antigen peptides, and other immune adjuvants. These platforms demonstrate remarkable versatility in inducing immunogenic responses within the TME, ultimately amplifying the potential for antitumor immunotherapy.

A Narrative Overview of Coronavirus Infection: Clinical Signs and Symptoms, Viral Entry and Replication, Treatment Modalities, and Management

The global pandemic known as coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is causing morbidity and mortality on a daily basis. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV- -2) virus has been around since December 2019 and has infected a high number of patients due to its idiopathic pathophysiology and rapid transmission. COVID-19 is now deemed a newly identified "syndrome" condition since it causes a variety of unpleasant symptoms and systemic side effects following the pandemic. Simultaneously, it always becomes potentially hazardous when new variants develop during evolution. Its random viral etiology prevents accurate and suitable therapy. Despite the fact that multiple preclinical and research studies have been conducted to combat this lethal virus, and various therapeutic targets have been identified, the precise course of therapy remains uncertain. However, just a few drugs have shown efficacy in treating this viral infection in its early stages. Currently, several medicines and vaccinations have been licensed following clinical trial research, and many countries are competing to find the most potent and effective immunizations against this highly transmissible illness. For this narrative review, we used PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus to obtain epidemiological data, pre-clinical and clinical trial outcomes, and recent therapeutic alternatives for treating COVID-19 viral infection. In this study, we discussed the disease's origin, etiology, transmission, current advances in clinical diagnostic technologies, different new therapeutic targets, pathophysiology, and future therapy options for this devastating virus. Finally, this review delves further into the hype surrounding the SARS-CoV-2 illness, as well as present and potential COVID-19 therapies.

Computational 3D Modeling-Based Identification of Inhibitors Targeting Cysteine Covalent Bond Catalysts for JAK3 and CYP3A4 Enzymes in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

This work aimed to find new inhibitors of the CYP3A4 and JAK3 enzymes, which are significant players in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis. Advanced computer-aided drug design techniques, such as pharmacophore and 3D-QSAR modeling, were used. Two strong 3D-QSAR models were created, and their predictive power was validated by the strong correlation (R2 values > 80%) between the predicted and experimental activity. With an ROC value of 0.9, a pharmacophore model grounded in the DHRRR hypothesis likewise demonstrated strong predictive ability. Eight possible inhibitors were found, and six new inhibitors were designed in silico using these computational models. The pharmacokinetic and safety characteristics of these candidates were thoroughly assessed. The possible interactions between the inhibitors and the target enzymes were made clear via molecular docking. Furthermore, MM/GBSA computations and molecular dynamics simulations offered insightful information about the stability of the binding between inhibitors and CYP3A4 or JAK3. Through the integration of various computational approaches, this study successfully identified potential inhibitor candidates for additional investigation and efficiently screened compounds. The findings contribute to our knowledge of enzyme-inhibitor interactions and may help us create more effective treatments for autoimmune conditions like rheumatoid arthritis.

Nanoparticles and Their Antibacterial Application in Endodontics

Root canal treatment represents a significant challenge as current cleaning and disinfection methodologies fail to remove persistent bacterial biofilms within the intricate anatomical structures. Recently, the field of nanotechnology has emerged as a promising frontier with numerous biomedical applications. Among the most notable contributions of nanotechnology are nanoparticles, which possess antimicrobial, antifungal, and antiviral properties. Nanoparticles cause the destructuring of bacterial walls, increasing the permeability of the cell membrane, stimulating the generation of reactive oxygen species, and interrupting the replication of deoxyribonucleic acid through the controlled release of ions. Thus, they could revolutionize endodontics, obtaining superior results and guaranteeing a promising short- and long-term prognosis. Therefore, chitosan, silver, graphene, poly(lactic) co-glycolic acid, bioactive glass, mesoporous calcium silicate, hydroxyapatite, zirconia, glucose oxidase magnetic, copper, and zinc oxide nanoparticles in endodontic therapy have been investigated in the present review. The diversified antimicrobial mechanisms of action, the numerous applications, and the high degree of clinical safety could encourage the scientific community to adopt nanoparticles as potential drugs for the treatment of endodontic diseases, overcoming the limitations related to antibiotic resistance and eradication of the biofilm.

Silver nanoparticles induce a non-immunogenic tumor cell death

Immunogenic cell death (ICD) is a form of cell death characterized by the release of danger signals required to trigger an adaptive immune response against tumor-associated antigens. Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) display anti-proliferative and cytotoxic effects in tumor cells, but it has not been previously studied whether AgNP act as an ICD inductor. The present study evaluated the in vitro release of calreticulin as a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) associated with the cytotoxicity of AgNP and their in vivo anti-cancer effects. In vitro, mouse CT26 colon carcinoma and MCA205 fibrosarcoma cells were exposed to AgNP and then cell proliferation, adhesion, and release of calreticulin were determined. The results indicated there were time- and concentration-related anti-proliferative effects of AgNP in both the CT26 and MCA205 lines. Concurrently, changes in cell adhesion were detected mainly in the CT26 cells. Regarding DAMP detection, a significant increase in calreticulin was observed only in CT26 cells treated with doxorubicin and AgNP; however, no differences were found in the MCA205 cells. In vivo, the survival and growth of subcutaneous tumors were monitored after vaccination of mice with cell debris from tumor cells treated with AgNP or after intra-tumoral administration of AgNP to established tumors. Consequently, anti-tumoral prophylactic immunization with AgNP-dead cells failed to protect mice from tumor re-challenge; intra-tumor injection of AgNP did not induce a significant effect. In conclusion, there was a noticeable anti-tumoral effect of AgNP in vitro in both CT26 and MCA205 cell lines, accompanied by the release of calreticulin in CT26 cells. In vivo, immunization with cell debris derived from AgNP-treated tumor cells failed to induce a protective immune response in the cancer model mice. Clearly, further research is needed to determine if one could combine AgNP with other ICD inducers to improve the anti-tumor effect of these nanoparticles in vivo.

An Overview of the Potential of Food-Based Carbon Dots for Biomedical Applications

Food-based carbon dots (CDs) hold significant importance across various fields, ranging from biomedical applications to environmental and food industries. These CDs offer unique advantages over traditional carbon nanomaterials, including affordability, biodegradability, ease of operation, and multiple bioactivities. This work aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent developments in food-based CDs, focusing on their characteristics, properties, therapeutic applications in biomedicine, and safety assessment methods. The review highlights the potential of food-based CDs in biomedical applications, including antibacterial, antifungal, antivirus, anticancer, and anti-immune hyperactivity. Furthermore, current strategies employed for evaluating the safety of food-based CDs have also been reported. In conclusion, this review offers valuable insights into their potential across diverse sectors and underscores the significance of safety assessment measures to facilitate their continued advancement and application.

Biodistributions and Imaging of Poly(ethylene glycol)-Conjugated Silicon Quantum Dot Nanoparticles in Osteosarcoma Models via Intravenous and Intratumoral Injections

Osteosarcoma is a malignant tumor with relatively high mortality rates in children and adolescents. While nanoparticles have been widely used in assisting the diagnosis and treatment of cancers, the biodistributions of nanoparticles in osteosarcoma models have not been well studied. Herein, we synthesize biocompatible and highly photoluminescent silicon quantum dot nanoparticles (SiQDNPs) and investigate their biodistributions in osteosarcoma mouse models after intravenous and intratumoral injections by fluorescence imaging. The bovine serum albumin (BSA)-coated and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-conjugated SiQDNPs, when dispersed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), can emit red photoluminescence with the photoluminescence quantum yield more than 30% and have very low in vitro and in vivo toxicity. The biodistributions after intravenous injections reveal that the SiQDNPs are mainly metabolized through the livers in mice, while only slight accumulation in the osteosarcoma tumor is observed. Furthermore, the PEG conjugation can effectively extend the circulation time. Finally, a mixture of SiQDNPs and indocyanine green (ICG), which complement each other in the spectral range and diffusion length, is directly injected into the tumor for imaging. After the injection, the SiQDNPs with relatively large particle sizes stay around the injection site, while the ICG molecules diffuse over a broad range, especially in the muscular tissue. By taking advantage of this property, the difference between the osteosarcoma tumor and normal muscular tissue is demonstrated.

Nanoparticles cellular uptake, trafficking, activation, toxicity and in vitro evaluation

Nanoparticles (NPs) physicochemical properties, such as size, shape, surface chemistry, charge, etc., play a critical role in biological systems interactions, which include NPs' cellular uptake, trafficking, activation, and toxicity. Although nano-bio interactions are multifaceted and complex, their assessment is essential for future therapeutic and diagnostic use since being carriers that deliver specific molecules (i.e., active pharmaceutical ingredients and imaging agents) in intracellular sites. The journey of NPs begins by reaching the plasma membrane and entering the cell mainly through endocytosis. After vesicles pinch off the cell membrane, the intracellular trafficking is mediated by a network of cellular endosomes which direct NPs to the different cellular components. Otherwise, NPs or their contents are released into the cytoplasm. In both cases, NPs can pass undetected or be recognized by the cell leading to a pro or anti-inflammatory response. Indeed, the cell response mostly depends on cell type and NPs physicochemical properties. The principal mechanism by which NPs activate the cell response is RONS production. Other mechanism includes signaling pathways modulation related to metabolic and enzymatic reactions, cell transduction, and immune modulation. Hence, the underlying mechanisms of cellular and subcellular interactions in vitro should be performed to provide insights into NPs' effect. This information helps us to improve their synthesis and design to maximize the clinical benefits while minimizing side effects. Most in vitro tests to evaluate NPs' effect in cells were developed focusing on cell dysfunctions, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, immunogenicity, and cell death.

Smart nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Smart nanoparticles, which can respond to biological cues or be guided by them, are emerging as a promising drug delivery platform for precise cancer treatment. The field of oncology, nanotechnology, and biomedicine has witnessed rapid progress, leading to innovative developments in smart nanoparticles for safer and more effective cancer therapy. In this review, we will highlight recent advancements in smart nanoparticles, including polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, protein nanoparticles, cell membrane nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, iron oxide nanoparticles, quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, black phosphorus, MOF nanoparticles, and others. We will focus on their classification, structures, synthesis, and intelligent features. These smart nanoparticles possess the ability to respond to various external and internal stimuli, such as enzymes, pH, temperature, optics, and magnetism, making them intelligent systems. Additionally, this review will explore the latest studies on tumor targeting by functionalizing the surfaces of smart nanoparticles with tumor-specific ligands like antibodies, peptides, transferrin, and folic acid. We will also summarize different types of drug delivery options, including small molecules, peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and even living cells, for their potential use in cancer therapy. While the potential of smart nanoparticles is promising, we will also acknowledge the challenges and clinical prospects associated with their use. Finally, we will propose a blueprint that involves the use of artificial intelligence-powered nanoparticles in cancer treatment applications. By harnessing the potential of smart nanoparticles, this review aims to usher in a new era of precise and personalized cancer therapy, providing patients with individualized treatment options.

Interaction between iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) and primary human immune cells: An up-to-date review of the literature

Nanotechnology has been gaining more and more momentum lately and the potential use of nanomaterials such as nanoparticles (NPs) continues to grow in a variety of activity sectors. Among the NPs, iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) have retained an increasing interest from the scientific community and industrials due to their superparamagnetic properties allowing their use in many fields, including medicine. However, some undesired effects of IONs and potential risk for human health are becoming increasingly reported in several studies. Although many in vivo studies reported that IONs induce immunotoxicity in different animal models, it is not clear how IONs can alter the biology of primary human immune cells. In this article, we will review the works that have been done regarding the interaction between IONs and primary immune cells. This review also outlines the importance of using primary immune cells in risk assessment of NPs as a reliable strategy for encouraging non-animal studies approaches, to determine risks that might affect the human immune system following different exposure scenarios. Taken all together, the reported observations help to get a more global picture on how IONs alter the human immune system especially the fact that inflammation, known to involve several immune cell types, is frequently reported as an undesired effect of IONs.

Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Food Packaging and Their Influence on Human Health

It is a matter of common knowledge in the literature that engineered metal oxide nanoparticles have properties that are efficient for the design of innovative food/beverage packages. Although nanopackages have many benefits, there are circumstances when these materials are able to release nanoparticles into the food/beverage matrix. Once dispersed into food, engineered metal oxide nanoparticles travel through the gastrointestinal tract and subsequently enter human cells, where they display various behaviors influencing human health or wellbeing. This review article provides an insight into the antimicrobial mechanisms of metal oxide nanoparticles as essential for their benefits in food/beverage packaging and provides a discussion on the oral route of these nanoparticles from nanopackages to the human body. This contribution also highlights the potential toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles for human health. The fact that only a small number of studies address the issue of food packaging based on engineered metal oxide nanoparticles should be particularly noted.

Lysosomal nanotoxicity: Impact of nanomedicines on lysosomal function

Although several nanomedicines got clinical approval over the past two decades, the clinical translation rate is relatively small so far. There are many post-surveillance withdrawals of nanomedicines caused by various safety issues. For successful clinical advancement of nanotechnology, it is of unmet need to realize cellular and molecular foundation of nanotoxicity. Current data suggest that lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanoparticles is emerging as the most common intracellular trigger of nanotoxicity. This review analyzes prospect mechanisms of lysosomal dysfunction-mediated toxicity induced by nanoparticles. We summarized and critically assessed adverse drug reactions of current clinically approved nanomedicines. Importantly, we show that physicochemical properties have great impact on nanoparticles interaction with cells, excretion route and kinetics, and subsequently on toxicity. We analyzed literature on adverse reactions of current nanomedicines and hypothesized that adverse reactions might be linked with lysosomal dysfunction caused by nanomedicines. Finally, from our analysis it becomes clear that it is unjustifiable to generalize safety and toxicity of nanoparticles, since different particles possess distinct toxicological properties. We propose that the biological mechanism of the disease progression and treatment should be central in the optimization of nanoparticle design.

Nanomaterials and Their Impact on the Immune System

Nanomaterials have been the focus of intensive development and research in the medical and industrial sectors over the past several decades. Some studies have found that these compounds can have a detrimental impact on living organisms, including their cellular components. Despite the obvious advantages of using nanomaterials in a wide range of applications, there is sometimes skepticism caused by the lack of substantial proof that evaluates potential toxicities. The interactions of nanoparticles (NPs) with cells of the immune system and their biomolecule pathways are an area of interest for researchers. It is possible to modify NPs so that they are not recognized by the immune system or so that they suppress or stimulate the immune system in a targeted manner. In this review, we look at the literature on nanomaterials for immunostimulation and immunosuppression and their impact on how changing the physicochemical features of the particles could alter their interactions with immune cells for the better or for the worse (immunotoxicity). We also look into whether the NPs have a unique or unexpected (but desired) effect on the immune system, and whether the surface grafting of polymers or surface coatings makes stealth nanomaterials that the immune system cannot find and get rid of.

Mechanistic Observation of Interactions between Macrophages and Inorganic Particles with Different Densities

Many different types of inorganic materials are processed into nano/microparticles for medical utilization. The impact of selected key characteristics of these particles, including size, shape, and surface chemistries, on biological systems, is frequently studied in clinical contexts. However, one of the most important basic characteristics of these particles, their density, is yet to be investigated. When the particles are designed for drug delivery, highly mobile macrophages are the major participants in cellular levels that process them in vivo. As such, it is essential to understand the impact of particles' densities on the mobility of macrophages. Here, inorganic particles with different densities are applied, and their interactions with macrophages studied. A set of these particles are incubated with the macrophages and the outcomes are explored by optical microscopy. This microscopic view provides the understanding of the mechanistic interactions between particles of different densities and macrophages to conclude that the particles' density can affect the migratory behaviors of macrophages: the higher the density of particles engulfed inside the macrophages, the less mobile the macrophages become. This work is a strong reminder that the density of particles cannot be neglected when they are designed to be utilized in biological applications.

Recent Advances in ROS-Scavenging Metallic Nanozymes for Anti-Inflammatory Diseases: A Review

Oxidative stress and dysregulated inflammatory responses are the hallmarks of inflammatory disorders, which are key contributors to high mortality rates and impose a substantial economic burden on society. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are vital signaling molecules that promote the development of inflammatory disorders. The existing mainstream therapeutic approaches, including steroid and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and proinflammatory cytokine inhibitors with anti-leucocyte inhibitors, are not efficient at curing the adverse effects of severe inflammation. Moreover, they have serious side effects. Metallic nanozymes (MNZs) mimic the endogenous enzymatic process and are promising candidates for the treatment of ROS-associated inflammatory disorders. Owing to the existing level of development of these metallic nanozymes, they are efficient at scavenging excess ROS and can resolve the drawbacks of traditional therapies. This review summarizes the context of ROS during inflammation and provides an overview of recent advances in metallic nanozymes as therapeutic agents. Furthermore, the challenges associated with MNZs and an outline for future to promote the clinical translation of MNZs are discussed. Our review of this expanding multidisciplinary field will benefit the current research and clinical application of metallic-nanozyme-based ROS scavenging in inflammatory disease treatment.

Ultrasmall silica nanoparticles in translational biomedical research: Overview and outlook

The exemplary progress of silica nanotechnology has attracted extensive attention across a range of biomedical applications such as diagnostics and imaging, drug delivery, and therapy of cancer and other diseases. Ultrasmall silica nanoparticles (USNs) have emerged as a particularly promising class demonstrating unique properties that are especially suitable for and have shown great promise in translational and clinical biomedical research. In this review, we discuss synthetic strategies that allow precise engineering of USNs with excellent control over size and surface chemistry, functionalization, and pharmacokinetic and toxicological profiles. We summarize the current state-of-the-art in the biomedical applications of USNs with a particular focus on select clinical studies. Finally, we illustrate long-standing challenges in the translation of inorganic nanotechnology, particularly in the context of ultrasmall nanomedicines, and provide our perspectives on potential solutions and future opportunities in accelerating the translation and widespread adoption of USN technology in biomedical research.