Aflatoxin contamination in food crops: causes, detection, and management: a review

UvVelC is important for conidiation and pathogenicity in the rice false smut pathogen Ustilaginoidea virens

Rice false smut disease is one of the most significant rice diseases worldwide. Ustilaginoidea virens is the causative agent of this disease. Although several developmental and pathogenic genes have been identified and functionally analyzed, the pathogenic molecular mechanisms of U. virens remain elusive. The velvet family regulatory proteins are involved in fungal development, conidiation, and pathogenicity. In this study, we demonstrated the function of the VelC homolog UvVELC in U. virens. We identified the velvet family protein UvVELC and characterized its functions using a target gene deletion-strategy. Deletion of UvVELC resulted in conidiation failure and pathogenicity. The UvVELC expression levels during infection suggested that this gene might be involved in the early infection process. UvVELC is also important in resistance to abiotic stresses, the utilization efficiency of glucose, stachyose, raffinose, and other sugars, and the expression of transport-related genes. Moreover, UvVELC could physically interact with UvVEA in yeast, and UvVELC/UvVEA double-knockout mutants also failed in conidiation and pathogenicity. These results indicate that UvVELC play a critical role in the conidiation and pathogenicity in U. virens. Functional analysis indicated that UvVELC-mediated conidiation and nutrient acquisition from rice regulates the pathogenicity of U. virens. Understanding the function of the UvVELC homolog could provide a potential molecular target for controlling rice false smut disease.

Outbreak of aflatoxicosis in a dairy herd induced depletion in milk yield and high abortion rate in Pakistan

This case report investigated the outbreak of aflatoxicosis in a dairy herd in Pakistan, which resulted in 30 abortions of 40 confirmed (75%) pregnant cows in a period of 35 days and in 18.8% depression of farm average milk production for the entire herd. The analysis of the concentrate feed of the total mixed ration (TMR), using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedures from two different local laboratories, indicated concentrations of 60 μg/kg dry matter (DM) of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and 100 μg/kg DM of total aflatoxins (AFs: sum of B1, B2, G1 and G2). Subsequently, a confirmatory analysis with a more sensitive and validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) method was performed. This analysis detected a concentration of total AFs in the TMR of 166 μg/kg DM ± 3.5 (AFB1:134, AFB2:17.4 and AFM1:14.9 μg/kg DM). The concentrate feed (55% of the TMR DM) was confirmed as a source of contamination, presenting a concentration >29 times higher than the EU-maximum limit value (5.68 μg/kg DM). Additionally, the multi-mycotoxin analysis evidenced the co-occurrence of 81 other toxic and potentially toxic fungal metabolites in the fed TMR. After replacing the contaminated concentrate feed with feedstuffs of the same formulation but from a new charge of ingredients, the abortion episodes ceased, and milk production increased significantly. In conclusion, the data of this case report suggest that AFs may be associated with pregnancy losses in dairy cattle and milk production depression. From the public health perspective, the data also indicate the need for a more careful examination of dairy animal feed in Pakistan. Since the high concentration of AFB1 detected in feed and considering the literature-reported transfer rates (1-6%) of this toxin to AFM1 (carcinogen for humans) in milk, the milk produced during the outbreak period is expected to be contaminated with AFM1, which raises public health concerns.

Aflatoxins in Peanut (Arachis hypogaea): Prevalence, Global Health Concern, and Management from an Innovative Nanotechnology Approach: A Mechanistic Repertoire and Future Direction

Arachis hypogaea is the most significant oilseed nutritious legume crop in agricultural trade across the world. It is recognized as a valued crop for its contributions to nourishing food, as a cooking oil, and for meeting the protein needs of people who are unable to afford animal protein. Currently, its production, marketability, and consumption are hindered because of Aspergillus species infection that consequently contaminates the kernels with aflatoxins. Regarding health concerns, humans and animals are affected by acute and chronic aflatoxin toxicity and millions of people are at high risk of chronic levels. Most methods used to store peanuts are traditional and serve effectively for short-term storage. Now the question for long-term storage has been raised, and this promptly finds potential approaches to the issue. It is imperative to reduce the aflatoxin levels in peanuts to a permissible level by introducing detoxifying innovations. Most of the detoxification reports mention physical, chemical, and biological techniques. However, many current approaches are impractical because of time consumption, loss of nutritional quality, or weak detoxifying efficiency. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate practical, economical, and green methods to control Aspergillus flavus that address current global food security problems. Herein, a green and economically revolutionary way is a nanotechnology that has demonstrated its potential to connect farmers to markets, elevate international marketability, improve human and animal health conditions, and enhance food quality and safety by the management of fungal diseases. Due to the antimicrobial potential of nanoparticles, they act as nanofungicides and have an incredible role in the control of aflatoxins. Nanoparticles have ultrasmall sizes and therefore penetrate the fungal body and invade the pathogen machinery, leading to fungal cell death by ROS production, mutation in DNA, disruption of organelles, and membrane leakage. This is the first mechanistic overview that unveils a comprehensive insight into aflatoxin contamination in peanuts, its prevalence, health effects, and management in addition to nanotechnological interventions that serve as a triple defense approach to detoxify aflatoxins. The optimum use of nanofungicides ensures food safety and the development of goals, especially "zero hunger".

The prevalence and concentration of aflatoxins in beers: a global systematic review and meta-analysis and probabilistic health risk assessment

Mycotoxins have been identified as considerable contaminants in beer. The current investigation's concentration and prevalence of aflatoxins (AFs) in beer were meta-analyzed. The health risk of consumers was estimated through MOEs in the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) model. The rank order of AFs in beer based on pooled prevalence was AFB1 (26.00%) > AFG1 (14.93%) > AFB2 (7.69%) > AFG2 (7.52%), In addition, the rank order of AFs in beer based on their pooled concentration was AFG1 (0.505 µg/l) > AFB1 (0.469 µg/l) > AFB2 (0.134 µg/l) > AFG2 (0.071 µg/l). The prevalence and concentration of AFs in beer in Malawi were higher than in other countries. The health risk assessment shows consumers in all countries, especially Malawi, Brazil, and Cameroon, are exposed to unacceptably health risks (MOEs <10,000). It is recommended to monitor levels of AFs in beer efficiently and implement control plans in order to decrease health risk of exposed population.

Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) Gut Bacteria Inhibit Growth of Aspergillus flavus and Degrade Aflatoxin B1

In this study, bacteria residing in the gut of the rice weevils (Sitophilus oryzae L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) feeding on aflatoxin-contaminated corn kernels were isolated and evaluated for their ability to suppress Aspergillus flavus and to remove/degrade aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Four morphologically distinct S. oryzae gut-associated bacterial isolates were isolated and identified as Bacillus subtilis (RWGB1), Bacillus oceanisediminis (RWGB2), Bacillus firmus (RWGB3), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (RWGB4) based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. These bacterial isolates inhibited A. flavus growth in the dual culture assay and induced morphological deformities in the fungal hyphae, as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. All four bacterial isolates were capable of removing AFB1 from the nutrient broth medium. In addition, culture supernatants of these bacterial isolates degraded AFB1, and the degradation of toxin molecules was confirmed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The bacterial isolates, B. subtilis RWGB1, B. oceanisediminis RWGB2, and P. aeruginosa RWGB4, were capable of producing antifungal volatile organic compounds that inhibited A. flavus growth. These results suggest that the bacterial isolates from S. oryzae gut have the potential to bind and/or degrade AFB1. Further research on their application in the food and feed industries could enhance the safety of food and feed production.

Aflatoxins and fumonisins in conventional and organic corn: a comprehensive review

This review analyzes the occurrence and co-exposure of aflatoxins and fumonisins in conventional and organic corn, and compares the vulnerability to contamination of both. The risks of fungal contamination in corn are real, mainly by the genera Aspergillus and Fusarium, producers of aflatoxins and fumonisins, respectively. Aflatoxins, especially AFB1, are related to a high incidence of liver cancer, and the International Agency Research of Cancer (IARC) classified them in group 1A 'carcinogenic to humans'. The occurrence in conventional corn is reported in many countries, including at higher levels than those established by legislation. IARC classified fumonisins in group 2B 'possibly carcinogenic to humans' due to their link with incidence of esophageal cancer. However, comparing corn and organic and conventional by-products from different regions, different results are observed. The co-occurrence of both mycotoxins is a worldwide problem; nevertheless, there is little data on the comparison of the co-exposure of these mycotoxins in corn and derivatives between both systems. It was found that the agricultural system is not a decisive factor in the final contamination, indicating the necessity of effective strategies to reduce contamination and co-exposure at levels that do not pose health risks.

Metabolite-mediated adaptation of crops to drought and the acquisition of tolerance

Drought is one of the major and growing threats to agriculture productivity and food security. Metabolites are involved in the regulation of plant responses to various environmental stresses, including drought stress. The complex drought tolerance can be ascribed to several simple metabolic traits. These traits could then be used for detecting the genetic architecture of drought tolerance. Plant metabolomes show dynamic differences when drought occurs during different developmental stages or upon different levels of drought stress. Here, we reviewed the major and most recent findings regarding the metabolite-mediated plant drought response. Recent progress in the development of drought-tolerant agents is also discussed. We provide an updated schematic overview of metabolome-driven solutions for increasing crop drought tolerance and thereby addressing an impending agricultural challenge.

Risk of exposure to aflatoxin M1 through consumption of cow's milk among children in Magadu, Morogoro

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) contamination of milk affects the general population with particular attention to children who frequently consume milk as part of complementary food. This study determined AFM1 contamination of cow's milk and estimated the health risk of dietary AFM1 through consumption of cow's milk among children (6 to 36 months) in the Magadu ward of Morogoro region in Tanzania. A total of 165 mother-baby pairs were recruited and interviewed on child feeding practices with a focus on feeding of cow's milk in the past 24 h. Alongside the interview, 100 raw cows' milk samples were collected from subsampled respondent households and were analyzed for AFM1 using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results showed that about 35% of the surveyed children consumed cow's milk in the form of plain milk, incorporated in porridge and/or tea. The amount consumed varied from 62.5 to 500 mls with a median of 125 (125, 250) mls at a frequency of 1 to 2 times a day. All raw cows' milk (100%) samples (n = 100) were found contaminated with AFM1 at concentrations ranging from 0.052 to 9.310 µg/L and median of 2.076 µg/L (1.27, 2.48). All samples were contaminated by AFM1 at levels above the limits of 0.05 µg/L of raw milk set by the Tanzania Bureau of Standard and the European Union, while 97% exceeded 0.5 µg/L set by the US Food and Drug Administration. Exposure to AFM1 due to consumption of cow's milk ranged from 0.0024 to 0.077 µg/kg bw per day with a median of 0.019 (0.0016, 0.026) µg/kg bw per day, while the margin of exposure (MOE) ranged from 5.19 to 166.76 and median 20.68 (15.33, 25.40) implying high risk of public health concern. This study recommends that advocacy on consumption of cows' milk to combat undernutrition in children should consider a holistic approach that considers the milk's safety aspect.

Phytochemicals analysis and aflatoxin B1 detoxification potential of leaves extract of Moringa oleifera and Calotropis procera

The present study aimed to identify the presence of certain classes of phytochemicals in the leaf extract of medicinal herbs viz. Moringa oleifera and Calotropis procera, using qualitative detection tests and explored the potential of aqueous and ethanolic extract to inhibit aflatoxin production by thin layer chromatography at 25 °C and pH (7) of different incubation times i.e. 0-, 1-, 3-, 6- and 24-h. Qualitative phytochemical analysis reported that the aqueous leave extracts of M. oleifera and C. procera contained tannins, phlobatannins, quinones, steroids, sugar, betacyanins, fatty acids, phenols, and volatile oils. Aflatoxin analysis reported that the ethanolic extract of M. oleifera was found more effective than detoxifying 100% of AFB1 after 24 h of incubation. In the case of C. procera, the aqueous extract reduced 96.5% of AFB1 and ethanolic extract reduced 96% of AFB1 after 24-h of incubation. The results revealed that natural plant products have a high potential to reduce AFB1 and could contribute to mitigation plans for AFB1. There is a need for further characterisation using techniques such as GC-MS, LC-MS, or NMR which would provide valuable information on the chemical composition of the extracts.

Quantitative prediction of AFB1 in various types of edible oil based on absorption, scattering and fluorescence signals at dual wavelengths

This study aims to address the challenge of matrix interference of various types of edible oils on intrinsic fluorescence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by developing a novel solution. Considering the fluorescence internal filtering effect, the absorption (μa) and reduced scattering (μ's) coefficients at dual wavelengths (excitation: 375 nm, emission: 450 nm) were obtained by using integrating sphere technique, and were used to improve the quantitative prediction results for AFB1 contents in six different kinds of edible oils. A research process of "Monte Carlo (MC) simulation - phantom verification - actual sample validation" was conducted. The MC simulation was used to determine interference rule and correction parameters for fluorescence, the results indicated that the escaped fluorescence flux nonlinearly decreased with the μa, μ's at emission wavelength (μa,em, μ's,em) and μa at excitation wavelength (μa,ex), however increased with the μ's at excitation wavelength (μ's,ex). And the required optical parameters to eliminate the interference of matrix on fluorescence intensity are: effective attenuation coefficients at excitation and emission wavelengths (μeff,ex, μeff,em) and μ's,ex. Phantom verification was conducted to explore the feasibility of fluorescence correction based on the identified parameters by MC simulation, and determine the optimal machine learning method. The modelling results showed that least squares support vector regression (LSSVR) model could reach the best performance. Three kinds of edible oil (peanut, rapeseed, corn), each with two brands were used to prepare oil samples with different AFB1 contamination. The LSSVR model for AFB1 based on μeff,ex, μeff,em, μ's,ex and fluorescence intensity at 450 nm was calibrated, both correlation coefficients for calibration (Rc) and the validation (Rv) sets could reach 1.000, root mean square errors for calibration (RMSEC) and the validation (RMSEV) sets were as low as 0.038 and 0.099 respectively. This study proposed a novel method which is based solely on the absorption, scattering, and fluorescence characteristics at excitation and emission wavelengths to achieve accurate prediction of AFB1 content in different types of vegetable oils.

SscA is required for fungal development, aflatoxin production, and pathogenicity in Aspergillus flavus

Fungal spores are specialized dormant cells that act as primary reproductive biological particles and exhibit strong viability under extremely harsh conditions. They contaminate a variety of crops and foods, causing severe health hazards to humans and animals. Previous studies demonstrated that a spore-specific transcription factor SscA plays pivotal roles in the conidiogenesis of the model organism Aspergillus nidulans. In this study, we investigated the biological and genetic functions of SscA in the aflatoxin-producing fungus A. flavus. Deletion of sscA showed reduced conidia formation, lost long-term viability, and exhibited more sensitivity to thermal, oxidative, and radiative stresses. The sscA-deficient strain showed increased aflatoxin B1 production in conidia as well as mycelia. Importantly, the absence of sscA affected fungal pathogenicity on crops. Further transcriptomic and phenotypic studies suggested that SscA coordinates conidial wall structures. Overall, SscA is important for conidial formation, maturation and dormancy, mycotoxin production, and pathogenicity in A. flavus.

In-silico and in-vitro evaluation of antifungal bioactive compounds from Streptomyces sp. strain 130 against Aspergillus flavus

Streptomyces spp. are considered excellent reservoirs of natural bioactive compounds. The study evaluated the bioactive potential of secondary metabolites from Streptomyces sp. strain 130 through PKS-I and NRPS gene-clusters screening. GC-MS analysis was done for metabolic profiling of bioactive compounds from strain 130 in the next set of experiments. Identified antifungal compounds underwent ADMET analyses to screen their toxicity. All compounds' molecular docking was done with the structural gene products of the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway of Aspergillus flavus. MD simulations were utilized to evaluate the stability of protein-ligand complexes under physiological conditions. Based on the in-silico studies, compound 2,4-di-tert butyl-phenol (DTBP) was selected for in-vitro studies against Aspergillus flavus. Simultaneously, bioactive compounds were extracted from strain 130 in two different solvents (ethyl-acetate and methanol) and used for similar assays. The MIC value of DTBP was found to be 314 µg/mL, whereas in ethyl-acetate extract and methanol-extract, it was 250 and 350 µg/mL, respectively. A mycelium growth assay was done to analyze the effect of compounds/extracts on the mycelium formation of Aspergillus flavus. In agar diffusion assay, zone of inhibitions in DTBP, ethyl-acetate extract, and methanol extract were observed with diameters of 11.3, 13.3, and 7.6 mm, respectively. In the growth curve assay, treated samples have delayed the growth of fungi, which signified that the compounds have a fungistatic nature. Spot assay has determined the fungal sensitivity to a sub-minimum inhibitory concentration of antifungal compounds. The study's results suggested that DTBP can be exploited for antifungal-drug development.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Aflatoxin B1 Impairs Bone Mineralization in Broiler Chickens

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a ubiquitous mycotoxin in corn-based animal feed, particularly in tropical regions, impairs liver function, induces oxidative stress and disrupts cellular pathways, potentially worsening bone health in modern broilers. A 19-day experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of feeding increasing levels of AFB1-contaminated feed (<2, 75-80, 150, 230-260 and 520-560 ppb) on bone mineralization markers in broilers (n = 360). While growth performance remained unaffected up to Day 19, significant reductions in tibial bone ash content were observed at levels exceeding 260 ppb. Micro-computed tomography results showed that AFB1 levels at 560 ppb significantly decreased trabecular bone mineral content and density, with a tendency for reduced connectivity density in femur metaphysis. Moreover, AFB1 above 230 ppb reduced the bone volume and tissue volume of the cortical bone of femur. Even at levels above 75 ppb, AFB1 exposure significantly downregulated the jejunal mRNA expressions of the vitamin D receptor and calcium and phosphorus transporters. It can be concluded that AFB1 at levels higher than 230 ppb negatively affects bone health by impairing bone mineralization via disruption of the vitamin D receptor and calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, potentially contributing to bone health issues in broilers.

Aflatoxin B1 administration causes inflammation and apoptosis in the lungs and spleen

Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring mycotoxin that has numerous toxic effects. The main aim of the present study was to evaluate the toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on the lungs and spleen. Mice were repeatedly exposed to AFB1 (0.3 mg/kg body weight) on alternate days for four weeks via oral route. The histopathological data in AFB1-treated mice show alveolar epithelial hyperplasia with inflammation and the presence of numerous alveolar macrophages with minimal hemorrhage. There was an increase in vascular neutrophils and interstitial inflammation. The branching of vessels was plugged with neutrophils. AFB1 administration also causes splenomegaly. The AFB1-treated spleen shows the tingible body macrophages (TBM) scattered within the splenic white pulp. Apoptosis may lead to atrophy in a selected region of the white pulp area. There is a decrease in cellularity within the periarteriolar lymphatic sheath (PALS). The inflammation causes the congestion of red pulp with the increase in nuclear debris, and vacuoles are also visible. The flow cytometry data further suggests enhanced apoptosis in lung and spleen cells.

Depletion of protective microbiota promotes the incidence of fruit disease

Plant-associated microbiomes play important roles in plant health and productivity. However, despite fruits being directly linked to plant productivity, little is known about the microbiomes of fruits and their potential association with fruit health. Here, by integrating 16S rRNA gene, ITS high-throughput sequencing data, and microbiological culturable approaches, we reported that roots and fruits (pods) of peanut, a typical plant that bears fruits underground, recruit different bacterial and fungal communities independently of cropping conditions and that the incidence of pod disease under monocropping conditions is attributed to the depletion of Bacillus genus and enrichment of Aspergillus genus in geocarposphere. On this basis, we constructed a synthetic community (SynCom) consisting of three Bacillus strains from geocarposphere soil under rotation conditions with high culturable abundance. Comparative transcriptome, microbiome profiling, and plant phytohormone signaling analysis reveal that the SynCom exhibited more effective Aspergillus growth inhibition and pod disease control than individual strain, which was underpinned by a combination of molecular mechanisms related to fungal cell proliferation interference, mycotoxins biosynthesis impairment, and jasmonic acid-mediated plant immunity activation. Overall, our results reveal the filter effect of plant organs on the microbiome and that depletion of key protective microbial community promotes the fruit disease incidence.

Recombinant Oxidase from Armillaria tabescens as a Potential Tool for Aflatoxin B1 Degradation in Contaminated Cereal Grain

Forage grain contamination with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a global problem, so its detoxification with the aim of providing feed safety and cost-efficiency is still a relevant issue. AFB1 degradation by microbial enzymes is considered to be a promising detoxification approach. In this study, we modified an previously developed Pichia pastoris GS115 expression system using a chimeric signal peptide to obtain a new recombinant producer of extracellular AFB1 oxidase (AFO) from Armillaria tabescens (the yield of 0.3 g/L), purified AFO, and selected optimal conditions for AFO-induced AFB1 removal from model solutions. After a 72 h exposure of the AFB1 solution to AFO at pH 6.0 and 30 °C, 80% of the AFB1 was degraded. Treatments with AFO also significantly reduced the AFB1 content in wheat and corn grain inoculated with Aspergillus flavus. In grain samples contaminated with several dozen micrograms of AFB1 per kg, a 48 h exposure to AFO resulted in at least double the reduction in grain contamination compared to the control, while the same treatment of more significantly (~mg/kg) AFB1-polluted samples reduced their contamination by ~40%. These findings prove the potential of the tested AFO for cereal grain decontamination and suggest that additional studies to stabilize AFO and improve its AFB1-degrading efficacy are required.

Cocoa-associated filamentous fungi for the biocontrol of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus

Aflatoxin and other mycotoxin contamination are major threats to global food security and present an urgent need to secure the global food crop against spoilage by mycotoxigenic fungi. Cocoa material is noted for naturally low aflatoxin contamination. This study was designed to assess the potential for harnessing cocoa-associated filamentous fungi for the biocontrol of aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus. The candidate fungi were isolated from fermented cocoa beans collected from four cocoa-growing areas in Ghana. Molecular characterization included Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS)-sequencing for identification and polymer chain reaction (PCR) to determine mating type. Effects of the candidate isolates on growth and aflatoxin-production by an aflatoxigenic A. flavus isolate (BANGA1) were assessed. Aflatoxin production was monitored by UV fluorescence and quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Thirty-six filamentous fungi were cultured and identified as Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Lichtheimia, or Trichoderma spp. isolates. The isolates generally interacted negatively with BANGA1 growth and aflatoxin production. The Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus aculeatus biocontrol candidates showed the strongest colony antagonism (54%-94%) and reduction in aflatoxin production (12%-50%) on agar. In broth, the A. niger isolates reduced aflatoxin production by up to 97%. Metabolites from the A. niger isolates showed the strongest inhibition of growth by BANGA1 and inhibited aflatoxin production. Four of the candidate isolates belonged to the MAT1-1 mating type and 12 identified as MAT1-2. This may be indicative of the potential for genetic recombination events between fungi in the field, a finding which is particularly relevant to the risk posed by A. flavus biocontrol measures that rely on atoxigenic A. flavus strains.

Aflatoxins posing threat to food safety and security in Pakistan: Call for a one health approach

Aflatoxins are among the most important mycotoxins due to their widespread occurrence and adverse impacts on humans and animals. These toxins and/or their metabolites cannot be destroyed with cooking or boiling methods. Therefore, consumption of aflatoxin-contaminated food may lead to impaired growth, compromised immunity, stomach and liver cancer, and acute toxicity. These adverse effects along with food wastage might have detrimental consequences on a country's economy. Several studies from Pakistan reported a high prevalence of aflatoxins in food and feed commodities (Range; milk = 0.6-99.4%, cereals, and grains = 0.38-41%, animal feed = 31-100%). Notably, Pakistan reported very high figures of impaired child growth-stunted 40.2%, wasted 17.7% and underweight 28.9%-that could be associated with the higher aflatoxin prevalence in food items. Importantly, high aflatoxins prevalence, i.e. 100%, 69% and 60.5%, in children has been reported in Pakistan. Food and feed are more prone to aflatoxin contamination due to Pakistan's hot and humid climate; however, limited awareness, inadequate policy framework, and weak implementation mechanisms are the major obstacles to effective control. This review will discuss aflatoxins prevalence, associated risk factors, adverse health effects, required regulatory regime, and effective control strategies adopting the One Health approach to ensure food safety and security.

Effects of Aflatoxin B1 on growth performance, carcass traits, organ index, blood biochemistry and oxidative status in Chinese yellow chickens

In this study, the effects of different levels of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on the growth performance, carcass traits, organ index, blood biochemistry, and antioxidant capacity of yellow-feathered broilers were investigated to provide a reference for the application of AFB1-containing feed ingredients. In this test, yellow-feathered broilers were chosen as the research objects and divided into five treatment groups, with seven replicates in each group and 75 broilers in each replicate. The AFB1 concentration in the diets of groups 1 to 5 were 1.5 μg/kg, 15 μg/kg, 30 μg/kg, 45 μg/kg, and 60 μg/kg, respectively. The results showed that when dietary AFB1 levels were greater than 45 μg/kg, the feed conversion ratios of broilers of 1-21, 22-42, and 43-63 days of age increased (P<0.05). When dietary AFB1 levels were 30 μg/kg, liver glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity was decreased (P<0.05), and serum transaminase (AST) activity was increased (P<0.05). Overall, dietary AFB1 levels had negative effects on growth performance, antioxidant capacity, blood biochemistry, and liver metabolism in yellow-feathered broilers. Based on using growth performance as the effect index, AFB1 levels in the diets of yellow-feathered broilers should not exceed 45 μg/kg. Based on using antioxidant capacity, liver function, and blood biochemistry as effect indexes, AFB1 levels in the diets of yellow-feathered broilers should not exceed 30 μg/kg.

Antifungal and Antiaflatoxigenic Activities of Massoia Essential Oil and C10 Massoia Lactone against Aflatoxin-Producing Aspergillus flavus

Fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination are major hazards to the safe storage and distribution of foods and feeds consumed by humans and livestock. This study investigated the antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities of massoia essential oil (MEO) and its major constituent, C10 massoia lactone (C10), against aflatoxin B (AFB)-producing Aspergillus flavus ATCC 22546. Their antifungal activities were evaluated using a disc diffusion assay, agar dilution method, and a mycelial growth inhibition assay with the AFB analysis using liquid chromatography triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. MEO and C10 exhibited similar antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities against A. flavus. C10 was a primary constituent in MEO and represented up to 45.1% of total peak areas analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, indicating that C10 is a major compound contributing to the antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activities of MEO. Interestingly, these two materials increased AFB production in A. flavus by upregulating the expression of most genes related to AFB biosynthesis by 3- to 60-fold. Overall, MEO and C10 could be suitable candidates as natural preservatives to control fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination in foods and feeds as Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) in the Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association of the United States (FEMA), and MEO is a more suitable substance than C10 because of its wider range of uses and higher allowed concentration than C10.

Diverse mycotoxin threats to safe food and feed cereals

Toxigenic fungi, including Aspergillus and Fusarium species, contaminate our major cereal crops with an array of harmful mycotoxins, which threaten the health of humans and farmed animals. Despite our best efforts to prevent crop diseases, or postharvest spoilage, our cereals are consistently contaminated with aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol, and while established monitoring systems effectively prevent acute exposure, Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins still threaten our food security. This is through the understudied impacts of: (i) our chronic exposure to these mycotoxins, (ii) the underestimated dietary intake of masked mycotoxins, and (iii) the synergistic threat of cocontaminations by multiple mycotoxins. Mycotoxins also have profound economic consequences for cereal and farmed-animal producers, plus their associated food and feed industries, which results in higher food prices for consumers. Climate change and altering agronomic practices are predicted to exacerbate the extent and intensity of mycotoxin contaminations of cereals. Collectively, this review of the diverse threats from Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins highlights the need for renewed and concerted efforts to understand, and mitigate, the increased risks they pose to our food and feed cereals.

Causatum of Probiotic Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae SBO1 Supplementation on Growth and Aflatoxin Amelioration in Broilers

Probiotics are beneficial live microorganisms that benefit the host's health when administered in the required number. They play a vital role in preventing infectious diseases caused by pathogens. The current study aimed to discover a competent probiotic microbe that can detoxify aflatoxin and promote poultry health. The yeast isolate SBO1 tolerates the temperature of 42 °C, low pH, and high bile conditions, has good auto aggregation, hydrophobicity, and exhibits improved adherence to chick intestinal epithelial cells. In addition, it has an aflatoxin detoxifying ability of 56% after 24 h. In-vivo studies in broilers resulted in a higher body weight (2138 g) and greater feed conversion efficiency in the T2 group when fed with yeast SBO1-supplemented diet. Gizzard, spleen, and bursa Fabricius were all found to weigh the same, however, a significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed in the carcass, breast yield, and fat. Therefore it was determined that adding 0.2% yeast to the broiler diet increased performance by lessening the toxin's adverse effects.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-023-01078-5.

Aluminosilicates as a Double-Edged Sword: Adsorption of Aflatoxin B1 and Sequestration of Essential Trace Minerals in an In Vitro Gastrointestinal Poultry Model

Aflatoxins can cause intoxication and poisoning in animals and humans. Among these molecules, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most dangerous because of its carcinogenic and mutagenic properties. To mitigate these effects, clay adsorbents are commonly included in the diet of animals to adsorb the carcinogens and prevent their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. In this study, four clays, three smectites (C-1, C-2, and C-3), and one zeolite (C-4), were compared as adsorbents of AFB1 and trace inorganic nutrients using an in vitro gastrointestinal model for poultry. Characterization of the clays using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed characteristic bands of smectites in C-1, C-2, and C-3 (stretching vibrations of Si-O, Al-O-Si, and Si-O-Si). The C-4 presented bands related to the bending vibration of structural units (Si-O-Si and Al-O-Si). X-ray diffraction analysis showed that C-1 is a montmorillonite, C-2 is a beidellite, C-3 is a beidellite-Ca-montmorillonite, and C-4 is a clinoptilolite. The elemental compositions of the clays showed alumina, silica, iron, calcium, and sodium contents. The cation exchange capacity was higher in C-3 clay (60.2 cmol(+)/kg) in contrast with the other clays. The AFB1 adsorption of C-1 was the highest (98%; p ˂ 0.001), followed by C-2 (94%). However, all the clays also sequestered trace inorganic nutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Se). Both smectites, montmorillonite and beidellite, were the most suitable for use as adsorbents of AFB1.

Extraction and characterization of bioactive secondary metabolites from lactic acid bacteria and evaluating their antifungal and antiaflatoxigenic activity

Aflatoxins are toxic carcinogens and mutagens formed by some moulds, specifically Aspergillus spp. Therefore, this study aimed to extract and identify bioactive secondary metabolites from Lactobacillus species, to evaluate their efficacy in reducing fungal growth and aflatoxin production and to investigate their toxicity. The bioactive secondary metabolites of Lactobacillus species showed variable degrees of antifungal activity, whereas L. rhamnosus ethyl acetate extract No. 5 exhibited the highest antifungal activity and, thus, was selected for further identification studies. Data revealed that L. rhamnosus ethyl acetate extract No. 5 produced various organic acids, volatile organic compounds and polyphenols, displayed antifungal activity against A. flavus, and triggered morphological changes in fungal conidiophores and conidiospores. L. rhamnosus ethyl acetate extract No. 5 at a 9 mg/mL concentration reduced AFB₁ production by 99.98%. When the effect of L. rhamnosus ethyl acetate extract No. 5 on brine shrimp mortality was studied, the extract attained a 100% mortality at a concentration of 400 µg/mL, with an IC₅₀ of 230 µg/mL. Meanwhile, a mouse bioassay was performed to assess the toxicity of L. rhamnosus ethyl acetate extract No. 5, whereas there were no harmful effects or symptoms in mice injected with L. rhamnosus ethyl acetate extract at concentrations of 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 mg/kg body weight.

Multiplexed Host-Induced Gene Silencing of Aspergillus flavus Genes Confers Aflatoxin Resistance in Groundnut

Aflatoxins are immunosuppressive and carcinogenic secondary metabolites, produced by the filamentous ascomycete Aspergillus flavus, that are hazardous to animal and human health. In this study, we show that multiplexed host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) of Aspergillus flavus genes essential for fungal sporulation and aflatoxin production (nsdC, veA, aflR, and aflM) confers enhanced resistance to Aspergillus infection and aflatoxin contamination in groundnut (<20 ppb). Comparative proteomic analysis of contrasting groundnut genotypes (WT and near-isogenic HIGS lines) supported a better understanding of the molecular processes underlying the induced resistance and identified several groundnut metabolites that might play a significant role in resistance to Aspergillus infection and aflatoxin contamination. Fungal differentiation and pathogenicity proteins, including calmodulin, transcriptional activator-HacA, kynurenine 3-monooxygenase 2, VeA, VelC, and several aflatoxin pathway biosynthetic enzymes, were downregulated in Aspergillus infecting the HIGS lines. Additionally, in the resistant HIGS lines, a number of host resistance proteins associated with fatty acid metabolism were strongly induced, including phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase, lysophosphatidic acyltransferase-5, palmitoyl-monogalactosyldiacylglycerol Δ-7 desaturase, ceramide kinase-related protein, sphingolipid Δ-8 desaturase, and phospholipase-D. Combined, this knowledge can be used for groundnut pre-breeding and breeding programs to provide a safe and secure food supply.

Biocontrol Capabilities of Bacillus subtilis E11 against Aspergillus flavus In Vitro and for Dried Red Chili (Capsicum annuum L.)

As a condiment with extensive nutritional value, chili is easy to be contaminated by Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) during field, transportation, and storage. This study aimed to solve the contamination of dried red chili caused by A. flavus by inhibiting the growth of A. flavus and detoxifying aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁). In this study, Bacillus subtilis E11 (B. subtilis) screened from 63 candidate antagonistic bacteria exhibited the strongest antifungal ability, which could not only inhibit 64.27% of A. flavus but could also remove 81.34% of AFB₁ at 24 h. Notably, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that B. subtilis E11 cells could resist a higher concentration of AFB₁, and the fermentation supernatant of B. subtilis E11 could deform the mycelia of A. flavus. After 10 days of coculture with B. subtilis E11 on dried red chili inoculated with A. flavus, the mycelia of A. flavus were almost completely inhibited, and the yield of AFB₁ was significantly reduced. Our study first concentrated on the use of B. subtilis as a biocontrol agent for dried red chili, which could not only enrich the resources of microbial strains for controlling A. flavus but also could provide theoretical guidance to prolong the shelf life of dried red chili.

Aflatoxin Contamination: An Overview on Health Issues, Detection and Management Strategies

Aflatoxins (AFs) represent one of the main mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, with the most prevalent and lethal subtypes being AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2. AFs are responsible for causing significant public health issues and economic concerns that affect consumers and farmers globally. Chronic exposure to AFs has been linked to liver cancer, oxidative stress, and fetal growth abnormalities among other health-related risks. Although there are various technologies, such as physical, chemical, and biological controls that have been employed to alleviate the toxic effects of AF, there is still no clearly elucidated universal method available to reduce AF levels in food and feed; the only mitigation is early detection of the toxin in the management of AF contamination. Numerous detection methods, including cultures, molecular techniques, immunochemical, electrochemical immunosensor, chromatographic, and spectroscopic means, are used to determine AF contamination in agricultural products. Recent research has shown that incorporating crops with higher resistance, such as sorghum, into animal feed can reduce the risk of AF contamination in milk and cheese. This review provides a current overview of the health-related risks of chronic dietary AF exposure, recent detection techniques, and management strategies to guide future researchers in developing better detection and management strategies for this toxin.

Dietary aflatoxin exposure of lactating mothers of children 0-6 months in Makueni County, Kenya

The southeastern region of Kenya is prone to aflatoxin outbreaks, yet maternal and infant aflatoxin intake levels remain unclear. We determined dietary aflatoxin exposure of 170 lactating mothers breastfeeding children aged 6 months and below in a descriptive cross-sectional study involving aflatoxin analysis of maize-based cooked food samples (n = 48). Their socioeconomic characteristics, food consumption patterns and postharvest handling of maize were determined. Aflatoxins were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Statistical analysis was conducted using Statistical Package Software for Social Sciences (SPSS version 27) and Palisade's @Risk software. About 46% of the mothers were from low-income households, and 48.2% had not attained the basic level of education. A generally low dietary diversity was reported among 54.1% of lactating mothers. Food consumption pattern was skewed towards starchy staples. Approximately 50% never treated their maize, and at least 20% stored their maize in containers that promote aflatoxin contamination. Aflatoxin was detected in 85.4% of food samples. The mean of total aflatoxin was 97.8 μg/kg (standard deviation [SD], 57.7), while aflatoxin B1 was 9.0 μg/kg (SD, 7.7). The mean dietary intake of total aflatoxin and aflatoxin B1 was 7.6 μg/kg/b.w.t/day (SD, 7.5) and 0.6 (SD, 0.6), respectively. Dietary aflatoxin exposure of lactating mothers was high (margin of exposure < 10,000). Sociodemographic characteristics, food consumption patterns and postharvest handling of maize variably influenced dietary aflatoxin exposure of the mothers. The high prevalence and presence of aflatoxin in foods of lactating mothers are a public health concern and calls for the need to devise easy-to-use household food safety and monitoring measures in the study area.

Co-exposure to aflatoxin B1 and therapeutic coartem worsens hepatic and renal function through enhanced oxido-inflammatory responses and apoptosis in rats

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB₁) is a mycotoxin synthesised as a secondary metabolite by members of the Aspergillus species contaminating agricultural produce. Aspergillus species thrive in tropical climes, endemic to malaria. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) effectively treat and prevent malaria recrudescence; Coartem (COA) is an ACT whose toxicity is evident. Although there are scanty studies on COA toxicity, the scientific literature is replete on AFB₁ toxic effects -including carcinogenicity. The current research investigates AFB₁ and COA toxicity in experimental Wistar rats' hepatorenal systems. Thirty albino rats were randomly grouped into five cohorts (n = 6) and treated as follows: Group I: Untreated control (2 mL/kg of corn oil); group II: AFB₁ alone (70 μg/kg); group III: COA alone (5 mg/kg); group IV: COA and a low dose of AFB1₁ (5 mg/kg & 35 μg/kg); while Group V: COA and a high dose AFB1₂ (5 mg/kg & 70 μg/kg) by gavage. Our results show that exposure to AFB₁ and COA significantly (p < 0.05) reduced superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione-S-transferase activities, besides reduced glutathione and total sulfhydryl groups level. Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, lipid peroxidation, 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine, nitric oxide, xanthine oxidase, and myeloperoxidase levels were increased (p < 0.05) in rats co-treated with COA and AFB1. Cell death was aggravated in COA and AFB1 groups, exemplified by increased Caspase-3 and 9 activities and alterations in the typical histological features of experimental rats' livers and kidneys. Finally, rats co-treated with AFB₁ and COA experienced increased hepatorenal dysregulation, oxidative and inflammatory tissue damage, and apoptotic cell death. All the observed systemic perturbations occurred dose-dependently. It is crucial, therefore, to prevent AFB₁ dietary contaminations during COA therapeutic regimen due to increased pathophysiological damage exerted on experimental rat liver and kidneys, as evidenced in this study.

Brazilian Table Olives: A Source of Lactic Acid Bacteria with Antimycotoxigenic and Antifungal Activity

Food and feed contamination by fungi, especially by toxigenic ones, is a global concern because it can pose serious health problems when the production of mycotoxins is involved. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), well-known for fermenting foods, have been gaining attention for their antifungal and anti-mycotoxin properties. This work tested 14 LAB strains isolated from naturally fermented Brazilian table olives for growth inhibition of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus carbonarius, Penicillium nordicum, and Penicillium expansum. The strains Lacticaseibacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei CCMA 1764, Levilactobacillus brevis CCMA 1762, and Lactiplantibacillus pentosus CCMA 1768 showed the strongest antifungal activity, being more active against P. expansum. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and patulin (PAT) production was reduced essentially by mycelia growth inhibition. The main organic acids detected in the cell free supernatant (CFS) were lactic and acetic acids. Tested LAB exhibited adsorption capacity against AFB1 (48-51%), OTA (28-33%), and PAT (23-24%). AFB1 was converted into aflatoxin B2a (AFB2a) by lactic and acetic acids produced by the strain CCMA 1764. A similar conversion was observed in solutions of these organic acids (0.1 M). These findings demonstrate the potential of isolated LAB strains as natural agents to control toxigenic fungi and their mycotoxins in fermented products, such as table olives.

Biological Control of Aspergillus flavus by the Yeast Aureobasidium pullulans In Vitro and on Tomato Fruit

Aspergillus flavus is an important pathogenic fungus affecting many crops and is one of the main sources of their aflatoxin contamination. The primary method of limiting this pathogen is using chemical fungicides, but researchers focus on searching for other effective agents for its control due to many disadvantages and limitations of these agrochemicals. The results obtained in the present study indicate the high potential of two yeast strains, Aureobasidium pullulans PP4 and A. pullulans ZD1, in the biological control of A. flavus. Under in vitro conditions, mycelial growth was reduced by 53.61% and 63.05%, and spore germination was inhibited by 68.97% and 79.66% by ZD1 and PP4 strains, respectively. Both strains produced the lytic enzymes chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase after 5 days of cultivation with cell wall preparations (CWP) of A. flavus in the medium as a carbon source. In addition, the tested yeasts showed the ability to grow over a wide range of temperatures (4-30 °C), pH (4-11), and salinity (0-12%) and showed tolerance to fungicides at concentrations corresponding to field conditions. Both isolates tested were highly tolerant to cupric oxychloride, showing biomass gains of 85.84% (ZD1) and 87.25% (PP4). Biomass growth in the presence of fungicides azoxystrobin was 78.71% (ZD1) and 82.65% (PP4), while in the presence of difenoconazole, it was 70.09% (ZD1) and 75.25% (PP4). The yeast strains were also tested for antagonistic effects against A. flavus directly on tomato fruit. Both isolates acted effectively by reducing lesion diameter from 29.13 mm (control) to 8.04 mm (PP4) and 8.83 mm (ZD1).

Natural inhibitors: A sustainable way to combat aflatoxins

Among a few hundred mycotoxins, aflatoxins had always posed a major threat to the world. Apart from A. flavus, A. parasiticus, and A. nomius of Aspergillus genus, which are most toxin-producing strains, several fungal bodies including Fusarium, Penicillium, and Alternaria that can biosynthesis aflatoxins. Basically, there are four different types of aflatoxins (Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), Aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), Aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), Aflatoxin G2 (AFG2)) are produced as secondary metabolites. There are certainly other types of aflatoxins found but they are the by-products of these toxins. The fungal agents generally infect the food crops during harvesting, storing, and/or transporting; making a heavy post-harvest as well as economic loss in both developed and developing countries. And while ingesting the crop products, these toxins get into the dietary system causing aflatoxicosis, liver cirrhosis, etc. Therefore, it is imperative to search for certain ways to control the spread of infections and/or production of these toxins which may also not harm the crop harvest. In this review, we are going to discuss some sustainable methods that can effectively control the spread of infection and inhibit the biosynthesis of aflatoxins.

Understanding Current Methods for Sampling of Aflatoxins in Corn and to Generate a Best Practice Framework

Aflatoxin contamination in corn is a significant issue, posing substantial health threats to humans and animals. Aflatoxin testing protects consumer health, ensures the safe global trade of corn, and verifies compliance with legislation; however, effective sampling procedures are essential to ensure reliable results. While many sampling procedures exist, there is no evidence to indicate which is the best approach to ensure accurate detection. Using scientific and gray literature sources, this review analyzed sampling procedures to determine an optimum approach to guide the development of standard practices. Results revealed that sampling is the major source of error in the accurate assessment of aflatoxin levels in food and crucial for obtaining reliable results. To guarantee low variability and sample bias-increased sample size and sampling frequency, the use of automatic dynamic sampling techniques, adequate storage, and homogenization of aggregate samples for analysis are advised to ensure a representative sample. However, there is a lack of evidence to support this or indicate the current utilization of the reviewed procedures. Inadequate data prevented the recommendation of sample sizes or frequency for optimum practice, and thus, further research is required. There is an urgent need to make sampling procedures fit-for-purpose to obtain accurate and reliable aflatoxin measurements.

An Eight-Year Survey on Aflatoxin B1 Indicates High Feed Safety in Animal Feed and Forages in Northern Italy

Aflatoxins (AFs) remain the main concern for the agricultural and dairy industries due to their effects on the performances and quality of livestock production. Aflatoxins are always unavoidable and should be monitored. The objective of this paper is to bring to light a significant volume of data on AF contamination in several animal feed ingredients in Northern Italy. The Regional Breeders Association of Lombardy has been conducting a survey program to monitor mycotoxin contamination in animal feeds, and in this paper, we present data relating to AFB1 contamination. In most cases (95%), the concentrations were low enough to ensure compliance with the European Union's (EU's) maximum admitted levels for animal feed ingredients. However, the data show a high variability in AF contamination between different matrices and, within the same matrix, a high variability year over year. High levels of AFs were detected in maize and cotton, especially in the central part of the second decade of this century, i.e., 2015-2018, which has shown a higher risk of AF contamination in feed materials in Northern Italy. Variability due to climate change and the international commodity market affect future prospects to predict the presence of AFs. Supplier monitoring and control and reduced buying of contaminated raw materials, as well as performing analyses of each batch, help reduce AF spread.

May phytophenolics alleviate aflatoxins-induced health challenges? A holistic insight on current landscape and future prospects

The future GCC-connected environmental risk factors expedited the progression of nCDs. Indeed, the emergence of AFs is becoming a global food security concern. AFs are lethal carcinogenic mycotoxins, causing damage to the liver, kidney, and gastrointestinal organs. Long-term exposure to AFs leads to liver cancer. Almost a variety of food commodities, crops, spices, herbaceous materials, nuts, and processed foods can be contaminated with AFs. In this regard, the primary sections of this review aim to cover influencing factors in the occurrence of AFs, the role of AFs in progression of nCDs, links between GCC/nCDs and exposure to AFs, frequency of AFs-based academic investigations, and world distribution of AFs. Next, the current trends in the application of PPs to alleviate AFs toxicity are discussed. Nearly, more than 20,000 published records indexed in scientific databases have been screened to find recent trends on AFs and application of PPs in AFs therapy. Accordingly, shifts in world climate, improper infrastructures for production/storage of food commodities, inconsistency of global polices on AFs permissible concentration in food/feed, and lack of the public awareness are accounting for a considerable proportion of AFs damages. AFs exhibited their toxic effects by triggering the progression of inflammation and oxidative/nitrosative stress, in turn, leading to the onset of nCDs. PPs could decrease AFs-associated oxidative stress, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic effects by improving cellular antioxidant balance, regulation of signaling pathways, alleviating inflammatory responses, and modification of gene expression profile in a dose/time-reliant fashion. The administration of PPs alone displayed lower biological properties compared to co-treatment of these metabolites with AFs. This issue might highlight the therapeutic application of PPs than their preventative content. Flavonoids such as quercetin and oxidized tea phenolics, curcumin and resveratrol were the most studied anti-AFs PPs. Our literature review clearly disclosed that considering PPs in antioxidant therapies to alleviate complications of AFs requires improvement in their bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, tissue clearance, and off-target mode of action. Due to the emergencies in the elimination of AFs in food/feedstuffs, further large-scale clinical assessment of PPs to decrease the consequences of AFs is highly required.

Haskap Berry Leaves (Lonicera caerulea L.)—The Favorable Potential of Medical Use

The presented research evaluates the medical use potential of Lonicera caerulea leaves, which are waste plants in cultivating berries. The study’s screening activity included the leaves of five varieties of Lonicera caerulea: Atut, Duet, Wojtek, Zojka, and Jugana. The microbiological analysis confirmed the safety of using Lonicera caerulea leaves without significant stabilization. Lonicera caerulea leaves standardization was carried out based on the results of the chromatographic analysis, and it showed differences in the contents of active compounds (loganic, chlorogenic and caffeic acids, and rutin), which are attributed to biological activity. For the Lonicera caerulea leaves varieties tested, the differences in the content of total polyphenol content, chlorophylls, and carotenoids were also confirmed. The screening of biological activity of five Lonicera caerulea leaf varieties was carried out concerning the possibility of inhibiting the activity of α-glucosidase, lipase, and hyaluronidase as well, and the antioxidant potential was determined. The defined profile of the biological activity of Lonicera caerulea leaves makes it possible to indicate this raw material as an essential material supporting the prevention and treatment of type II diabetes. However, this research showed that tested enzymes were strongly inhibited by the variety Jugana. The health-promoting potential of Lonicera caerulea leaves was correlated with the highest chlorogenic acid and rutin content in the variety Jugana.

The Adaptor Protein UvSte50 Governs Fungal Pathogenicity of Ustilaginoidea virens via the MAPK Signaling Pathway

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways regulate diverse cellular processes and have been partially characterized in the rice false smut fungus Ustilaginoidea virens. UvSte50 has been identified as a homolog to Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ste50, which is known to be an adaptor protein for MAPK cascades. ΔUvste50 was found to be defective in conidiation, sensitive to hyperosmotic and oxidative stresses, and non-pathogenic. The mycelial expansion of ΔUvste50 inside spikelets of rice terminated at stamen filaments, eventually resulting in a lack of formation of false smut balls on spikelets. We determined that UvSte50 directly interacts with both UvSte7 (MAPK kinase; MEK) and UvSte11 (MAPK kinase kinase; MEKK), where the Ras-association (RA) domain of UvSte50 is indispensable for its interaction with UvSte7. UvSte50 also interacts with UvHog1, a MAP kinase of the Hog1-MAPK pathway, which is known to have important roles in hyphal growth and stress responses in U. virens. In addition, affinity capture-mass spectrometry analysis and yeast two-hybrid assay were conducted, through which we identified the interactions of UvSte50 with UvRas2, UvAc1 (adenylate cyclase), and UvCap1 (cyclase-associated protein), key components of the Ras/cAMP signaling pathway in U. virens. Together, UvSte50 functions as an adaptor protein interacting with multiple components of the MAPK and Ras/cAMP signaling pathways, thus playing critical role in plant infection by U. virens.

Multiple intertwined crises facing humanity necessitate a European Environmental Research Organization

The planet is experiencing all manner of environmental crises, and crises that have their origins in the environment, including global warming, pollution of the air, soil, marine systems and freshwater, loss of habitats and species extinctions, transmission of deadly animal infections to humans, the spread of antimicrobial resistance, to name just a few. Planetary boundaries are being successively breached. Devising and implementing optimal solution and mitigation strategies urgently requires the best possible scientific brains to be harnessed and focused on environmental crises. It is imperative to establish authoritative leadership and the intellectual and organisational framework for this: a European Environmental Research Organisation, modelled on the European Molecular Biology Organisation (EMBO) and Laboratory (EMBL), whose mission is to carry out pioneering research on environmental crisis‐relevant topics, communicate its findings and recommendations to governments, their agencies, the general public, business and other stakeholders, and create outstanding research leaders to populate the best institutions worldwide – a global network of top scientists working together to understand the causes and nature of crises and to devise effective solutions.