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da Silva TP, Bittencourt TL, de Oliveira AL, Prata RBDS, Menezes V, Ferreira H, Nery JADC, de Oliveira EB, Sperandio da Silva GM, Sarno EN, Pinheiro RO. Macrophage Polarization in Leprosy-HIV Co-infected Patients. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1493. [PMID: 32849508 PMCID: PMC7403476 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In HIV-infected individuals, a paradoxical clinical deterioration may occur in preexisting leprosy when highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)-associated reversal reaction (RR) develops. Leprosy–HIV co-infected patients during HAART may present a more severe form of the disease (RR/HIV), but the immune mechanisms related to the pathogenesis of leprosy–HIV co-infection remain unknown. Although the adaptive immune responses have been extensively studied in leprosy–HIV co-infected individuals, recent studies have described that innate immune cells may drive the overall immune responses to mycobacterial antigens. Monocytes are critical to the innate immune system and play an important role in several inflammatory conditions associated with chronic infections. In leprosy, different tissue macrophage phenotypes have been associated with the different clinical forms of the disease, but it is not clear how HIV infection modulates the phenotype of innate immune cells (monocytes or macrophages) during leprosy. In the present study, we investigated the phenotype of monocytes and macrophages in leprosy–HIV co-infected individuals, with or without RR. We did not observe differences between the monocyte profiles in the studied groups; however, analysis of gene expression within the skin lesion cells revealed that the RR/HIV group presents a higher expression of macrophage scavenger receptor 1 (MRS1), CD209 molecule (CD209), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), arginase 2 (ARG2), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG) when compared with the RR group. Our data suggest that different phenotypes of tissue macrophages found in the skin from RR and RR/HIV patients could differentially contribute to the progression of leprosy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Vinicius Menezes
- Leprosy Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Helen Ferreira
- Leprosy Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | | | - Gilberto Marcelo Sperandio da Silva
- Chagas Disease Clinic Research Laboratory, Evandro Chagas National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Euzenir Nunes Sarno
- Leprosy Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Roberta Olmo Pinheiro
- Leprosy Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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2
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Aliyu IA, Ling KH, Md Hashim N, Chee HY. Annexin A2 extracellular translocation and virus interaction: A potential target for antivirus-drug discovery. Rev Med Virol 2019; 29:e2038. [PMID: 30746844 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Annexin A2 is a membrane scaffolding and binding protein, which mediated various cellular events. Its functions are generally affected by cellular localization. In the cytoplasm, they interacted with different phospholipid membranes in Ca2+ -dependent manner and play vital roles including actin binding, remodeling and dynamics, cytoskeletal rearrangement, and lipid-raft microdomain formation. However, upon cell exposure to certain stimuli, annexin A2 translocates to the external leaflets of the plasma membrane where annexin A2 was recently reported to serve as a virus receptor, play an important role in the formation of virus replication complex, or implicated in virus assembly and budding. Here, we review some of annexin A2 roles in virus infections and the potentiality of targeting annexin A2 in the design of novel and promising antivirus agent that may have a broader consequence in virus therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isah Abubakar Aliyu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia.,Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Health Science, College of Health Science, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
| | - King-Hwa Ling
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia
| | - Nurfariesha Md Hashim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia
| | - Hui-Yee Chee
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, University Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia
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3
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Woodham AW, Sanna AM, Taylor JR, Skeate JG, Da Silva DM, Dekker LV, Kast WM. Annexin A2 antibodies but not inhibitors of the annexin A2 heterotetramer impair productive HIV-1 infection of macrophages in vitro. Virol J 2016; 13:187. [PMID: 27863502 PMCID: PMC5116172 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0649-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
During sexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), macrophages are initial targets for HIV infection. Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) has been shown to protect against HIV infection of macrophages through interactions with annexin A2 (A2), which is found on the macrophage cell surface as a heterotetramer (A2t) consisting of A2 and S100A10. Therefore, we investigated potential protein-protein interactions between A2 and HIV-1 gp120 through a series of co-immunoprecipitation assays and a single molecule pulldown (SiMPull) technique. Additionally, inhibitors of A2t (A2ti) that target the interaction between A2 and S100A10 were tested for their ability to impair productive HIV-1 infection of macrophages. Our data suggest that interactions between HIV-1 gp120 and A2 exist, though this interaction may be indirect. Furthermore, an anti-A2 antibody impaired HIV-1 particle production in macrophages in vitro, whereas A2ti did not indicating that annexin A2 may promote HIV-1 infection of macrophages in its monomeric rather than tetrameric form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew W. Woodham
- Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA USA
| | - Adriana M. Sanna
- Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
- Present Address: Division of Oncology and Pathology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Julia R. Taylor
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, University of Southern California, 1450 Biggy St., NRT 7507, Los Angeles, CA 90033 USA
| | - Joseph G. Skeate
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, University of Southern California, 1450 Biggy St., NRT 7507, Los Angeles, CA 90033 USA
| | - Diane M. Da Silva
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Lodewijk V. Dekker
- School of Pharmacy, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK
| | - W. Martin Kast
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, University of Southern California, 1450 Biggy St., NRT 7507, Los Angeles, CA 90033 USA
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4
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Imran M, Manzoor S, Saalim M, Resham S, Ashraf J, Javed A, Waqar AB. HIV-1 and hijacking of the host immune system: the current scenario. APMIS 2016; 124:817-31. [PMID: 27539675 DOI: 10.1111/apm.12579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is a major health burden across the world which leads to the development of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). This review article discusses the prevalence of HIV, its major routes of transmission, natural immunity, and evasion from the host immune system. HIV is mostly prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa and low income countries. It is mostly transmitted by sharing syringe needles, blood transfusion, and sexual routes. The host immune system is categorized into three main types; the innate, the adaptive, and the intrinsic immune system. Regarding the innate immune system against HIV, the key players are mucosal membrane, dendritic cells (DCs), complement system, interferon, and host Micro RNAs. The major components of the adaptive immune system exploited by HIV are T cells mainly CD4+ T cells and B cells. The intrinsic immune system confronted by HIV involves (apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like 3G) APOBEC3G, tripartite motif 5-α (TRIM5a), terherin, and (SAM-domain HD-domain containing protein) SAMHD1. HIV-1 efficiently interacts with the host immune system, exploits the host machinery, successfully replicates and transmits from one cell to another. Further research is required to explore evasion strategies of HIV to develop novel therapeutic approaches against HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Imran
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Bio-Sciences, Department of Healthcare Biotechnology, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan.,Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health and Allied Sciences, Imperial College of Business Studies (ICBS), Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Sobia Manzoor
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Bio-Sciences, Department of Healthcare Biotechnology, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan. ,
| | - Muhammad Saalim
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Bio-Sciences, Department of Healthcare Biotechnology, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Saleha Resham
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Bio-Sciences, Department of Healthcare Biotechnology, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | | | - Aneela Javed
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Bio-Sciences, Department of Healthcare Biotechnology, National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Ahmed Bilal Waqar
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Health and Allied Sciences, Imperial College of Business Studies (ICBS), Lahore, Pakistan.,Imperial Post Graduate Medical Institute, Imperial College of Business Studies (ICBS), Lahore, Pakistan
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5
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Fox JM, Kasprowicz R, Hartley O, Signoret N. CCR5 susceptibility to ligand-mediated down-modulation differs between human T lymphocytes and myeloid cells. J Leukoc Biol 2015; 98:59-71. [PMID: 25957306 PMCID: PMC4560160 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.2a0414-193rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
CCR5 is a chemokine receptor expressed on leukocytes and a coreceptor used by HIV-1 to enter CD4(+) T lymphocytes and macrophages. Stimulation of CCR5 by chemokines triggers internalization of chemokine-bound CCR5 molecules in a process called down-modulation, which contributes to the anti-HIV activity of chemokines. Recent studies have shown that CCR5 conformational heterogeneity influences chemokine-CCR5 interactions and HIV-1 entry in transfected cells or activated CD4(+) T lymphocytes. However, the effect of CCR5 conformations on other cell types and on the process of down-modulation remains unclear. We used mAbs, some already shown to detect distinct CCR5 conformations, to compare the behavior of CCR5 on in vitro generated human T cell blasts, monocytes and MDMs and CHO-CCR5 transfectants. All human cells express distinct antigenic forms of CCR5 not detected on CHO-CCR5 cells. The recognizable populations of CCR5 receptors exhibit different patterns of down-modulation on T lymphocytes compared with myeloid cells. On T cell blasts, CCR5 is recognized by all antibodies and undergoes rapid chemokine-mediated internalization, whereas on monocytes and MDMs, a pool of CCR5 molecules is recognized by a subset of antibodies and is not removed from the cell surface. We demonstrate that this cell surface-retained form of CCR5 responds to prolonged treatment with more-potent chemokine analogs and acts as an HIV-1 coreceptor. Our findings indicate that the regulation of CCR5 is highly specific to cell type and provide a potential explanation for the observation that native chemokines are less-effective HIV-entry inhibitors on macrophages compared with T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Fox
- *Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, Center for Immunology and Infection, University of York, York, United Kingdom; and Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Richard Kasprowicz
- *Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, Center for Immunology and Infection, University of York, York, United Kingdom; and Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Oliver Hartley
- *Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, Center for Immunology and Infection, University of York, York, United Kingdom; and Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Signoret
- *Department of Biology and Hull York Medical School, Center for Immunology and Infection, University of York, York, United Kingdom; and Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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6
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Identification of molecular sub-networks associated with cell survival in a chronically SIVmac-infected human CD4+ T cell line. Virol J 2014; 11:152. [PMID: 25163480 PMCID: PMC4163169 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The deciphering of cellular networks to determine susceptibility to infection by HIV or the related simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) is a major challenge in infection biology. Results Here, we have compared gene expression profiles of a human CD4+ T cell line at 24 h after infection with a cell line of the same origin permanently releasing SIVmac. A new knowledge-based-network approach (Inter-Chain-Finder, ICF) has been used to identify sub-networks associated with cell survival of a chronically SIV-infected T cell line. Notably, the method can identify not only differentially expressed key hub genes but also non-differentially expressed, critical, ‘hidden’ regulators. Six out of the 13 predicted major hidden key regulators were among the landscape of proteins known to interact with HIV. Several sub-networks were dysregulated upon chronic infection with SIV. Most prominently, factors reported to be engaged in early stages of acute viral infection were affected, e.g. entry, integration and provirus transcription and other cellular responses such as apoptosis and proliferation were modulated. For experimental validation of the gene expression analyses and computational predictions, individual pathways/sub-networks and significantly altered key regulators were investigated further. We showed that the expression of caveolin-1 (Cav-1), the top hub in the affected protein-protein interaction network, was significantly upregulated in chronically SIV-infected CD4+ T cells. Cav-1 is the main determinant of caveolae and a central component of several signal transduction pathways. Furthermore, CD4 downregulation and modulation of the expression of alternate and co-receptors as well as pathways associated with viral integration into the genome were also observed in these cells. Putatively, these modifications interfere with re-infection and the early replication cycle and inhibit cell death provoked by syncytia formation and bystander apoptosis. Conclusions Thus, by using the novel approach for network analysis, ICF, we predict that in the T cell line chronically infected with SIV, cellular processes that are known to be crucial for early phases of HIV/SIV replication are altered and cellular responses that result in cell death are modulated. These modifications presumably contribute to cell survival despite chronic infection. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1743-422X-11-152) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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7
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microRNA control of interferons and interferon induced anti-viral activity. Mol Immunol 2013; 56:781-93. [PMID: 23962477 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2013.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2013] [Revised: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines that are spontaneously produced in response to virus infection. They act by binding to IFN-receptors (IFN-R), which trigger JAK/STAT cell signalling and the subsequent induction of hundreds of IFN-inducible genes, including both protein-coding and microRNA genes. IFN-induced genes then act synergistically to prevent virus replication and create an anti-viral state. miRNA are therefore integral to the innate response to virus infection and are important components of IFN-mediated biology. On the other hand viruses also encode miRNAs that in some cases interfere directly with the IFN response to infection. This review summarizes the important roles of miRNAs in virus infection acting both as IFN-stimulated anti-viral molecules and as critical regulators of IFNs and IFN-stimulated genes. It also highlights how recent knowledge in RNA editing influence miRNA control of virus infection.
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8
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Innate immune evasion strategies by human immunodeficiency virus type 1. ISRN AIDS 2013; 2013:954806. [PMID: 24052891 PMCID: PMC3767209 DOI: 10.1155/2013/954806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 07/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Host immune components play both beneficial and pathogenic roles in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. During the initial stage of viral infection, a complex network of innate immune factors are activated. For instance, the immune cells express a number of inflammatory proteins including cytokines, chemokines, and antiviral restriction factors. These factors, specifically, interferons (IFNs) play a crucial role in antiviral defense system by modulating the downstream signaling events, by inducing maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), and by activation of macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells, and B and T cells. However, HIV-1 has evolved to utilize a number of strategies to overcome the antiviral effects of the host innate immune system. This review discusses the pathways and strategies utilized by HIV-1 to establish latent and persistent infection by defeating host's innate defense system.
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Iordanskiy S, Santos S, Bukrinsky M. Nature, nurture and HIV: The effect of producer cell on viral physiology. Virology 2013; 443:208-13. [PMID: 23747196 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages and CD4-positive T lymphocytes are the major targets and producers of HIV-1. While the molecular details underlying HIV replication in macrophages and T cells become better understood, it remains unclear whether viruses produced by these target cells differ in their biological properties. Recent reports suggest that HIV virions incorporate a large number of producer cell proteins and lipids which have an effect on subsequent viral replication in newly infected cells. The identity and abundance of these incorporated factors varies between different types of producer cells, suggesting that they may influence the replication capacity and pathogenic activity of the virions produced by T cells and macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Iordanskiy
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, 2300 I Street NW, Ross Hall, Washington, DC 20037, USA.
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Alfano M, Graziano F, Genovese L, Poli G. Macrophage Polarization at the Crossroad Between HIV-1 Infection and Cancer Development. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2013; 33:1145-52. [DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.112.300171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Mononuclear phagocytes play a fundamental role in the tissue homeostasis and innate defenses against viruses and other microbial pathogens. In addition, they are likely involved in several steps of cancer development. Circulating monocytes and tissue macrophages are target cells of viral infections, including human cytomegalovirus, human herpes virus 8, and the HIV, and alterations of their functional and phenotypic properties are likely involved in many tissue-degenerative diseases, including atherosclerosis and cancer. Different tissue microenvironments as well as their pathological alterations can profoundly affect the polarization state of macrophages toward the extreme phenotypes conventionally termed M1 and M2. Thus, targeting disease-associated macrophages is considered a potential approach particularly in the context of cancer-associated tumor-associated macrophages, supporting malignant cell growth and progression toward a metastatic phenotype. Of note is the fact that tumor-associated macrophages isolated from established tumors display phenotypic and functional features similar to those of in vitro–derived M2-polarized cells. Concerning HIV-1 infection, viral eradication strategies in the context of combination antiretroviral therapy should also consider the possibility to deplete, at least transiently, certain mononuclear phagocytes subsets, although the possibility of distinguishing those that are either infected or pathogenically altered remains a goal of future research. In the present review, we will focus on the recent literature concerning the role of human macrophage polarization in viral infections and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Alfano
- From the AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy (M.A., F.G., L.G., G.P.); and Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, School of Medicine, Milan, Italy (F.G., L.G., G.P.)
| | - Francesca Graziano
- From the AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy (M.A., F.G., L.G., G.P.); and Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, School of Medicine, Milan, Italy (F.G., L.G., G.P.)
| | - Luca Genovese
- From the AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy (M.A., F.G., L.G., G.P.); and Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, School of Medicine, Milan, Italy (F.G., L.G., G.P.)
| | - Guido Poli
- From the AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy (M.A., F.G., L.G., G.P.); and Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, School of Medicine, Milan, Italy (F.G., L.G., G.P.)
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11
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Systemic and mucosal differences in HIV burden, immune, and therapeutic responses. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011; 56:401-11. [PMID: 21239996 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0b013e31820cdfdb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mucosal tissues represent major targets for HIV transmission but differ in susceptibility and reservoir function by unknown mechanisms. METHODS In a cross-sectional study, HIV RNA and infectious virus were compared between oral and genital compartments and blood in HIV-infected women, in association with clinical parameters, copathogens, and putative innate and adaptive HIV inhibitors. RESULTS HIV RNA was detectable in 24.5% of women from all 3 compartments, whereas 45% had RNA in only 1 or 2 sites. By comparison, infectious HIV, present in blood of the majority, was rare in mucosal sites. Innate mediators, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor and thrombospondin, were highest in mucosae. Highly active antiretroviral therapy was associated with an 80% decreased probability of shedding. Multivariate logistic regression models revealed that mucosal HIV RNA was associated with higher plasma RNA, infectious virus, and total mucosal IgA, but not IgG. There was a 37-fold increased probability of detecting RNA in both genital and oral specimens (P = 0.008; P = 0.02, respectively) among women in highest versus lowest IgA tertiles. CONCLUSIONS Mucosal sites exhibit distinct characteristics of infectious HIV, viral shedding, and responses to therapy, dependent upon both systemic and local factors. Of the putative innate and adaptive mucosal defense factors examined, only IgA was associated with HIV RNA shedding. However, rather than being protective, there was a striking increase in probability of detectable HIV RNA shedding in women with highest total IgA.
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12
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Zou Z, Chastain A, Moir S, Ford J, Trandem K, Martinelli E, Cicala C, Crocker P, Arthos J, Sun PD. Siglecs facilitate HIV-1 infection of macrophages through adhesion with viral sialic acids. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24559. [PMID: 21931755 PMCID: PMC3169630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 08/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infects macrophages effectively, despite relatively low levels of cell surface-expressed CD4. Although HIV-1 infections are defined by viral tropisms according to chemokine receptor usage (R5 and X4), variations in infection are common within both R5- and X4-tropic viruses, indicating additional factors may contribute to viral tropism. METHODOLOGY AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Using both solution and cell surface binding experiments, we showed that R5- and X4-tropic HIV-1 gp120 proteins recognized a family of I-type lectin receptors, the Sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectins (Siglec). The recognition was through envelope-associated sialic acids that promoted viral adhesion to macrophages. The sialic acid-mediated viral-host interaction facilitated both R5-tropic pseudovirus and HIV-1(BaL) infection of macrophages. The high affinity Siglec-1 contributed the most to HIV-1 infection and the variation in Siglec-1 expression on primary macrophages from different donors was associated statistically with sialic acid-facilitated viral infection. Furthermore, envelope-associated sialoglycan variations on various strains of R5-tropic viruses also affected infection. CONCLUSIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FINDINGS Our study showed that sialic acids on the viral envelope facilitated HIV-1 infection of macrophages through interacting with Siglec receptors, and the expression of Siglec-1 correlated with viral sialic acid-mediated host attachment. This glycan-mediated viral adhesion underscores the importance of viral sialic acids in HIV infection and pathogenesis, and suggests a novel class of antiviral compounds targeting Siglec receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongcheng Zou
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ashley Chastain
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Susan Moir
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Ford
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kathryn Trandem
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Elena Martinelli
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Claudia Cicala
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Paul Crocker
- Cell Biology and Immunology, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - James Arthos
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Peter D. Sun
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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13
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Wang X, Chao W, Saini M, Potash MJ. A common path to innate immunity to HIV-1 induced by Toll-like receptor ligands in primary human macrophages. PLoS One 2011; 6:e24193. [PMID: 21904615 PMCID: PMC3164183 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Accepted: 08/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLR) represent the best characterized receptor family transducing innate immune responses, the first line of defense against microbial invaders. This study was designed to investigate whether responses through TLR inhibit HIV-1 replication in its primary target cells. Primary human macrophages and lymphocytes from several different donors and HIV-1 infection in tissue culture were used exclusively in this work. We report that ligands of three different TLR: LPS, R848, and double stranded RNA, induce a common antiviral response in macrophages as assayed by measurement of HIV-1 p24 protein, gag DNA, and entry into cells. HIV-1 infection is arrested after efficient entry but prior to reverse transcription. TLR-ligand activated cells secrete antiviral factors that induce a similar restriction. HIV-1 infection of lymphocytes is not affected by exposure to TLR ligands or to antiviral factors secreted by activated macrophages. TBK1, but neither NF-κB nor JAK-STAT activity, is required in macrophages to mount this antiviral response; the combination of p38 MAPK and JNK are partially required for induction of antiviral activity. Based on transcriptional induction and inhibition, the TLR-linked antiviral activity is different from APOBEC3 A or G, interferon-β, NAMPT, or p21Cip1. The cell-type specificity, site of action, and requirement for signaling intermediates suggest that the TLR-linked antiviral activity is novel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingyu Wang
- Molecular Virology Division, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Wei Chao
- Molecular Virology Division, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Manisha Saini
- Molecular Virology Division, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Mary Jane Potash
- Molecular Virology Division, St. Luke's-Roosevelt Hospital Center, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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14
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Capalbo G, Müller-Kuller T, Ottmann OG, Hoelzer D, Scheuring UJ. HIV-1 infection suppresses expression of host cell cycle-associated gene PDS5A. Intervirology 2011; 55:263-75. [PMID: 21865657 DOI: 10.1159/000328323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To unravel the interplay between HIV-1 and its host cell, the effect of HIV-1 infection on cellular gene expression was investigated. METHODS HIV-1(SF33)-infected and uninfected H9 T cells were screened by differential display and RNase protection assay. The finding (PDS5A) was confirmed in HIV-1(Lai)-infected P4-CCR5 HeLa cells, which were also examined after PDS5A siRNA knockdown in regard to HIV-1 replication by quantitative RT-PCR, p24 ELISA and LTR-driven β-galactosidase expression. The PDS5A knockdown effect on cellular gene expressions was studied by microarray analysis. PDS5A tissue expression was determined by Northern blotting. RESULTS Regulator of cohesion maintenance, homolog A (PDS5A) was found to be down-regulated by HIV-1. When PDS5A was suppressed by siRNA, HIV-1 replication was unaffected. PDS5A was found to be highly expressed in skeletal muscle tissue, and to lesser degrees in pancreas, heart, placenta, lung, kidney, liver and brain. Microarray analysis of PDS5A knockdown revealed 91 differential gene products over-representing cell cycle, transport and protein stability regulation, including 4 genes (PP2A, RANTES, PCAF, TCF7L2) previously reported to interact with HIV-1. CONCLUSION The data show a downregulation of proliferation-associated host gene PDS5A and suggest a role of PDS5A in HIV-1-induced cellular pathogenesis but not viral replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianni Capalbo
- Department of Hematology/Oncology and Infectious Diseases, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Hospital, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
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15
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Meléndez LM, Colon K, Rivera L, Rodriguez-Franco E, Toro-Nieves D. Proteomic analysis of HIV-infected macrophages. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2011; 6:89-106. [PMID: 21153888 PMCID: PMC3028070 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-010-9253-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 11/23/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mononuclear phagocytes (monocytes, macrophages, and microglia) play an important role in innate immunity against pathogens including HIV. These cells are also important viral reservoirs in the central nervous system and secrete inflammatory mediators and toxins that affect the tissue environment and function of surrounding cells. In the era of antiretroviral therapy, there are fewer of these inflammatory mediators. Proteomic approaches including surface enhancement laser desorption ionization, one- and two-dimensional difference in gel electrophoresis, and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry have been used to uncover the proteins produced by in vitro HIV-infected monocytes, macrophages, and microglia. These approaches have advanced the understanding of novel mechanisms for HIV replication and neuronal damage. They have also been used in tissue macrophages that restrict HIV replication to understand the mechanisms of restriction for future therapies. In this review, we summarize the proteomic studies on HIV-infected mononuclear phagocytes and discuss other recent proteomic approaches that are starting to be applied to this field. As proteomic instruments and methods evolve to become more sensitive and quantitative, future studies are likely to identify more proteins that can be targeted for diagnosis or therapy and to uncover novel disease mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loyda M Meléndez
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Zoology, School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan 00935, Puerto Rico.
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16
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Smith PD, Smythies LE, Shen R, Greenwell-Wild T, Gliozzi M, Wahl SM. Intestinal macrophages and response to microbial encroachment. Mucosal Immunol 2011; 4:31-42. [PMID: 20962772 PMCID: PMC3821935 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2010.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages in the gastrointestinal mucosa represent the largest pool of tissue macrophages in the body. In order to maintain mucosal homeostasis, resident intestinal macrophages uniquely do not express the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) co-receptor CD14 or the IgA (CD89) and IgG (CD16, 32, and 64) receptors, yet prominently display Toll-like receptors (TLRs) 3-9. Remarkably, intestinal macrophages also do not produce proinflammatory cytokines in response to TLR ligands, likely because of extracellular matrix (stromal) transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) dysregulation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB signal proteins and, via Smad signaling, expression of IκBα, thereby inhibiting NF-κB-mediated activities. Thus, in noninflamed mucosa, resident macrophages are inflammation anergic but retain avid scavenger and host defense function, an ideal profile for macrophages in close proximity to gut microbiota. In the event of impaired epithelial integrity during intestinal infection or inflammation, however, blood monocytes also accumulate in the lamina propria and actively pursue invading microorganisms through uptake and degradation of the organism and release of inflammatory mediators. Consequently, resident intestinal macrophages are inflammation adverse, but when the need arises, they receive assistance from newly recruited circulating monocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- PD Smith
- Department of Medicine (Gastroenterology) University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, Alabama 35294-2182, USA
| | - LE Smythies
- Department of Medicine (Gastroenterology) University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, Alabama 35294-2182, USA
| | - R Shen
- Department of Medicine (Gastroenterology) University of Alabama at Birmingham Birmingham, Alabama 35294-2182, USA
| | - T Greenwell-Wild
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA
| | - M Gliozzi
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA
| | - SM Wahl
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA
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17
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Ballana E, Pauls E, Clotet B, Perron-Sierra F, Tucker GC, Esté JA. β5Integrin Is the Major Contributor to the αvIntegrin-Mediated Blockade of HIV-1 Replication. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 186:464-70. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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18
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Capalbo G, Müller-Kuller T, Dietrich U, Hoelzer D, Ottmann OG, Scheuring UJ. Inhibition of X4-tropic HIV type 1 replication by knockdown of the cellular protein LEREPO4. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2010; 26:1155-61. [PMID: 20925576 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2010.0041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) and host cell factors show important mutual interactions. We found that HIV-1 infection induced expression of a likely ortholog of mouse immediate early response erythropoietin 4 (LEREPO4) in vitro. When LEREPO4 expression was suppressed by siRNA in P4-CCR5 cells, HIV-1 replication showed significantly reduced HIV-1 transcript and p24 protein levels as measured by quantitative PCR and ELISA, respectively. The LEREPO4 knockdown also had an inhibitory effect on HIV-1-LTR-driven reporter plasmid expression of β-galactosidase. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of LEREPO4 silencing on HIV-1 replication was confirmed in Jurkat T cells. The up-regulation of LEREPO4 by HIV-1 and the inhibition of HIV-1 replication mediated by knockdown of LEREPO4 may point to an important functional role of LEREPO4 as a novel HIV-1 dependency factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianni Capalbo
- Department of Hematology/Oncology and Infectious Diseases, J.W. Goethe-University Hospital, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
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19
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Annexin 2 is not required for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 particle production but plays a cell type-dependent role in regulating infectivity. J Virol 2010; 84:9783-92. [PMID: 20631122 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01584-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
During assembly and budding of retroviruses, host cell proteins are incorporated into viral particles. Identification of virion-associated proteins may help pinpoint key cellular components required for virus production and function. The cellular protein annexin 2 (Anx2) is incorporated into HIV-1 particles, and knockdown of Anx2 has been reported to cause defects in Gag processing and infectivity of HIV-1 particles in macrophages. Here, we tested whether Anx2 was required for HIV-1 production in other cell types capable of producing HIV-1 virions. Endogenous Anx2 levels were knocked down by approximately 98% using lentivirus encoding short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) or small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) targeting Anx2. Under these conditions, there was no reduction in HIV-1 virus-like particle (VLP) production in either COS-1, 293T, or Jurkat T cells or primary human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). Murine embryonic fibroblasts derived from Anx2(-/-) mice produced the same levels of VLPs as matched cells from wild-type mice. The calcium-mediated spike in VLP production still occurred in Anx2-depleted COS-1 cells, and there was no apparent alteration in the intracellular Gag localization. Overexpression of Anx2 in trans had no effect on Gag processing or VLP production. Neither Anx2 depletion nor Anx2 overexpression altered the infectivity of HIV-1 particles produced by COS-1 or 293T cells. However, supernatants containing virus from Anx2 siRNA-treated primary human MDMs exhibited decreased infectivity. These data indicate that Anx2 is not required for HIV-1 assembly or Gag processing but rather plays a cell type-dependent role in regulating production of infectious HIV-1 by macrophages.
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20
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Vérollet C, Zhang YM, Le Cabec V, Mazzolini J, Charrière G, Labrousse A, Bouchet J, Medina I, Biessen E, Niedergang F, Bénichou S, Maridonneau-Parini I. HIV-1 Nef Triggers Macrophage Fusion in a p61Hck- and Protease-Dependent Manner. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 184:7030-9. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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21
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Herbein G, Varin A. The macrophage in HIV-1 infection: from activation to deactivation? Retrovirology 2010; 7:33. [PMID: 20380696 PMCID: PMC2859752 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-7-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2009] [Accepted: 04/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophages play a crucial role in innate and adaptative immunity in response to microorganisms and are an important cellular target during HIV-1 infection. Recently, the heterogeneity of the macrophage population has been highlighted. Classically activated or type 1 macrophages (M1) induced in particular by IFN-γ display a pro-inflammatory profile. The alternatively activated or type 2 macrophages (M2) induced by Th-2 cytokines, such as IL-4 and IL-13 express anti-inflammatory and tissue repair properties. Finally IL-10 has been described as the prototypic cytokine involved in the deactivation of macrophages (dM). Since the capacity of macrophages to support productive HIV-1 infection is known to be modulated by cytokines, this review shows how modulation of macrophage activation by cytokines impacts the capacity to support productive HIV-1 infection. Based on the activation status of macrophages we propose a model starting with M1 classically activated macrophages with accelerated formation of viral reservoirs in a context of Th1 and proinflammatory cytokines. Then IL-4/IL-13 alternatively activated M2 macrophages will enter into the game that will stop the expansion of the HIV-1 reservoir. Finally IL-10 deactivation of macrophages will lead to immune failure observed at the very late stages of the HIV-1 disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georges Herbein
- Department of Virology, UPRES EA 4266 Pathogens and Inflammation, IFR 133 INSERM, Franche-Comte University, CHU Besançon, Besançon, France.
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22
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Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by small interfering RNAs directed against glioma pathogenesis related protein (GliPR) expression. Retrovirology 2010; 7:26. [PMID: 20356381 PMCID: PMC2859388 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-7-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2008] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previously, we showed that glioma pathogenesis related protein (GliPR) is induced in CEM T cells upon HIV-1 infection in vitro. To examine whether GliPR plays a role as HIV dependency factor (HDF), we tested the effect of GliPR suppression by siRNA on HIV-1 replication. RESULTS Induction of GliPR expression by HIV-1 was confirmed in P4-CCR5 cells. When GliPR was suppressed by siRNA, HIV-1 replication was significantly reduced as measured by HIV-1 transcript levels, HIV-1 p24 protein levels, and HIV-1 LTR-driven reporter gene expression, suggesting that GliPR is a cellular co-factor of HIV-1. Microarray analysis of uninfected HeLa cells following knockdown of GliPR revealed, among a multitude of gene expression alterations, a down-regulation of syndecan-1, syndecan-2, protein kinase C alpha (PRKCA), the catalytic subunit beta of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PRKACB), nuclear receptor co-activator 3 (NCOA3), and cell surface protein CD59 (protectin), all genes having relevance for HIV-1 pathology. CONCLUSIONS The up-regulation of GliPR by HIV-1 and the early significant inhibition of HIV-1 replication mediated by knockdown of GliPR reveal GliPR as an important HIV-1 dependency factor (HDF), which may be exploited for HIV-1 inhibition.
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23
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Cassol E, Cassetta L, Alfano M, Poli G. Macrophage polarization and HIV-1 infection. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 87:599-608. [PMID: 20042468 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1009673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Edana Cassol
- AIDS Immunopathogenesis Unit, Division of Immunology, Transplantation and Infectious Diseases, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
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24
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Gavegnano C, Schinazi RF. Antiretroviral therapy in macrophages: implication for HIV eradication. Antivir Chem Chemother 2009; 20:63-78. [PMID: 19843977 PMCID: PMC2978531 DOI: 10.3851/imp1374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV type-1 (HIV-1) accounts for more than 25 million deaths and nearly 40 million people are infected worldwide. A significant obstacle in clearing virus from infected individuals is latently infected viral reservoirs. Latent HIV-1 can emerge with recrudescence as a productive infection later in disease progression and could provide a source for the emergence of resistant HIV-1. It is widely recognized that macrophages represent a latently infected viral reservoir and are a significant and critical HIV-1 target cell in vivo. Macrophages can be divided into multiple subsets of macrophage-like cells, all of which are susceptible to HIV-1 infection, including dendritic cells, Langerhans cells, alveolar macrophages, mucosal macrophages and microglial cells. Current antiretroviral therapy (ART) often displays differential antiviral activity in macrophages relative to CD4(+) T-lymphocytes. Significant work has been performed to establish antiviral activity of many clinically approved ART in macrophages; however, a direct link between antiviral activity and specific mechanisms responsible for these antiviral effects are incompletely understood. This review identifies many understudied areas of research, along with topics for further research in the field of HIV therapy and eradication. Discussion focuses upon the known cellular pharmacology and antiviral activity of antiretroviral agents in macrophages and its relationship to latency, chronic HIV-1 infection and therapeutic strategies to eradicate systemic HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Gavegnano
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Raymond F Schinazi
- Center for AIDS Research, Laboratory of Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
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25
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Greenwell-Wild T, Vázquez N, Jin W, Rangel Z, Munson PJ, Wahl SM. Interleukin-27 inhibition of HIV-1 involves an intermediate induction of type I interferon. Blood 2009; 114:1864-74. [PMID: 19556424 PMCID: PMC2738572 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2009-03-211540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2009] [Accepted: 06/01/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection of CD4(+) chemokine coreceptor(+) targets by HIV is aided and abetted by the proficiency of HIV in eliminating or neutralizing host cell-derived defensive molecules. Among these innate protective molecules, a family of intracellular apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like (APOBEC) cytidine deaminases, is constitutively expressed but inactivated by HIV viral infectivity factor. The ability of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) to augment cytidine deaminases offered the possibility that the balance between virus and target cell might be altered in favor of the host. Further characterization of transcriptional profiles induced by IFN-alpha using microarrays, with the intention to identify and dissociate retroviral countermaneuvers from associated toxicities, revealed multiple molecules with suspected antiviral activity, including IL-27. To establish whether IFN-alpha toxicity might be sidestepped through the use of downstream IL-27 against HIV, we examined whether IL-27 directly regulated cytidine deaminases. Although IL-27 induces APOBECs, it does so in a delayed fashion. Dissecting the underlying regulatory events uncovered an initial IL-27-dependent induction of IFN-alpha and/or IFN-beta, which in turn, induces APOBEC3, inhibited by IFN-alpha/beta receptor blockade. In addition to macrophages, the IL-27-IFN-alpha connection is operative in CD4(+) T cells, consistent with an IFN-alpha-dependent pathway underlying host cell defense to HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Greenwell-Wild
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA
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26
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Espert L, Varbanov M, Robert-Hebmann V, Sagnier S, Robbins I, Sanchez F, Lafont V, Biard-Piechaczyk M. Differential role of autophagy in CD4 T cells and macrophages during X4 and R5 HIV-1 infection. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5787. [PMID: 19492063 PMCID: PMC2686268 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2008] [Accepted: 05/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV-1 can infect and replicate in both CD4 T cells and macrophages. In these cell types, HIV-1 entry is mediated by the binding of envelope glycoproteins (gp120 and gp41, Env) to the receptor CD4 and a coreceptor, principally CCR5 or CXCR4, depending on the viral strain (R5 or X4, respectively). Uninfected CD4 T cells undergo X4 Env-mediated autophagy, leading to their apoptosis, a mechanism now recognized as central to immunodeficiency. Methodology/Principal Findings We demonstrate here that autophagy and cell death are also induced in the uninfected CD4 T cells by HIV-1 R5 Env, while autophagy is inhibited in productively X4 or R5-infected CD4 T cells. In contrast, uninfected macrophages, a preserved cell population during HIV-1 infection, do not undergo X4 or R5 Env-mediated autophagy. Autophagosomes, however, are present in macrophages exposed to infectious HIV-1 particles, independently of coreceptor use. Interestingly, we observed two populations of autophagic cells: one highly autophagic and the other weakly autophagic. Surprisingly, viruses could be detected in the weakly autophagic cells but not in the highly autophagic cells. In addition, we show that the triggering of autophagy in macrophages is necessary for viral replication but addition of Bafilomycin A1, which blocks the final stages of autophagy, strongly increases productive infection. Conclusions/Significance Taken together, our data suggest that autophagy plays a complex, but essential, role in HIV pathology by regulating both viral replication and the fate of the target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Espert
- CPBS, UM1, UM2, CNRS, Institut de Biologie, 4, CS 69033, Montpellier, France
| | - Mihayl Varbanov
- CPBS, UM1, UM2, CNRS, Institut de Biologie, 4, CS 69033, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Sophie Sagnier
- CPBS, UM1, UM2, CNRS, Institut de Biologie, 4, CS 69033, Montpellier, France
| | - Ian Robbins
- Institut de génétique Moléculaire, Montpellier, France
| | - Françoise Sanchez
- CPBS, UM1, UM2, CNRS, Institut de Biologie, 4, CS 69033, Montpellier, France
| | - Virginie Lafont
- CPBS, UM1, UM2, CNRS, Institut de Biologie, 4, CS 69033, Montpellier, France
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27
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Anx2 interacts with HIV-1 Gag at phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate-containing lipid rafts and increases viral production in 293T cells. PLoS One 2009; 4:e5020. [PMID: 19325895 PMCID: PMC2657825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 02/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The neuronal damage characteristic of HIV-1-mediated CNS diseases is inflicted by HIV-1 infected brain macrophages. Several steps of viral replication, including assembly and budding, differ between macrophages and T cells; it is likely that cell-specific host factors mediate these differences. We previously defined Annexin 2 (Anx2) as an HIV Gag binding partner in human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) that promotes proper viral assembly. Anx2, a calcium-dependent membrane-binding protein that can aggregate phospholipid-containing lipid rafts, is expressed to high levels in macrophages, but not in T lymphocytes or the 293T cell line. Here, we use bimolecular fluorescence complementation in the 293T cell model to demonstrate that Anx2 and HIV-1 Gag interact at the phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate-containing lipid raft membrane domains at which Gag mediates viral assembly. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Anx2 expression in 293T cells increases Gag processing and HIV-1 production. These data provide new evidence that Anx2, by interacting with Gag at the membranes that support viral assembly, functions in the late stages of HIV-1 replication.
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28
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Gram-positive bacteria enhance HIV-1 susceptibility in Langerhans cells, but not in dendritic cells, via Toll-like receptor activation. Blood 2009; 113:5157-66. [PMID: 19279330 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-10-185728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although numerous studies have shown a higher risk of acquiring HIV infection in the presence of other sexually transmitted diseases, the biologic mechanisms responsible for enhanced HIV acquisition are unclear. Because Langerhans cells (LCs) are suspected to be the initial HIV targets after sexual exposure, we studied whether microbial components augment HIV infection in LCs by activating Toll-like receptor (TLR) and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD) pattern recognition receptors. We found that TLR1/2 and TLR2/6 agonists dramatically enhanced both HIV susceptibility and replication in immature monocyte-derived LCs, whereas TLR3-5, TLR7-9, and NOD1,2 agonists did not significantly affect HIV infection. The same infection-enhancing effects were observed when LCs were incubated with other related bacterial components as well as with whole Gram(+) bacteria. In resident LCs in human skin, TLR2 agonists also significantly increased HIV susceptibility. By contrast, TLR2 agonists and related bacterial components decreased HIV susceptibility in monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs). We found that TLR2 activation of LCs, but not DCs, resulted in a significant down-regulation of APOBEC3G, which is a cellular restriction factor for HIV. Given these data, we hypothesize that ligation of TLR2 by Gram(+) bacterial products may underlie enhanced sexual transmission of HIV that occurs with concomitant bacterial sexually transmitted disease infections.
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Abstract
HIV infection of macrophages is a critically important component of viral pathogenesis and progression to AIDS. Although the virus follows the same life cycle in macrophages and T lymphocytes, several aspects of the virus-host relationship are unique to macrophage infection. Examples of these are the long-term persistence of productive infection, sustained by the absence of cell death, and the ability of progeny virus to bud into and accumulate in endocytic compartments designated multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Recently, the hypothesis that viral exploitation of the macrophage endocytic machinery is responsible for perpetuating the chronic state of infection unique to this cell type has been challenged in several independent studies employing a variety of experimental strategies. This review examines the evidence supporting and refuting the canonical hypothesis and highlights recently identified cellular factors that may contribute to the unique aspects of the HIV-macrophage interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol A Carter
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA.
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30
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Cell adhesion through alphaV-containing integrins is required for efficient HIV-1 infection in macrophages. Blood 2008; 113:1278-86. [PMID: 18840709 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-06-161869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocytes and macrophages are an important reservoir of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and may represent the largest reservoir of this virus in tissues. Differentiation of monocytes into macrophages leads to cell attachment and susceptibility to infection and replication of HIV. Among other cell-surface molecules, integrins are overexpressed during monocyte-macrophage differentiation and may play a role in the replication cycle of envelope viruses including HIV. Here, we show that inhibition of alphaV integrin in monocyte-derived macrophages, by RNA interference or their inhibition by a selective small heterocyclic RGD-mimetic nonpeptide compound, inhibited the replication of HIV in the absence of cytotoxicity. Interference or inhibition of alphaV integrins triggered a signal transduction pathway, leading to down-regulation of nuclear factor-kappaB-dependent HIV-1 transcription. Such inhibition was mediated by a MAP-kinase signaling cascade, probably involving ERK1/2, p38-mitogen-activated protein kinases, and HSP27. In conclusion, our results reveal a significant role of integrin alphaV-mediated adhesion in HIV-1 infection of macrophages.
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Abstract
It has been known for some time that HIV-1 virions contain cellular proteins in addition to proteins encoded by the viral genome. Recent studies have vastly increased the number of host proteins detected in HIV-1. This review summarises the current findings on several cellular proteins present in these virions, including some functional studies on their potential roles in the viral replication cycle and pathogenesis. Because retroviruses require extensive assistance from host proteins and pathways, the data from biochemical characterisations of HIV-1 serve as an important starting point for understanding the role of cellular proteins that act in or influence the biology of HIV-1. Additionally, a better understanding of the interactions between cellular proteins and viral components might provide more targets for anti-HIV therapeutic intervention and provide for a better understanding of how HIV-1 alters the immune system. The extensive study of HIV-1 has already brought new insights to the fields of immunology and vaccine science. In the same way, knowledge of viral--cellular protein interactions might assist our understanding of important cellular pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Ott
- AIDS Vaccine Program, SAIC-Frederick, Inc., National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702-1201, USA.
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32
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Bingle CD, Vyakarnam A. Novel innate immune functions of the whey acidic protein family. Trends Immunol 2008; 29:444-53. [PMID: 18676177 DOI: 10.1016/j.it.2008.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2008] [Revised: 07/01/2008] [Accepted: 07/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Studies on the interaction of HIV with host factors have recently highlighted a potential role in the pathogenesis of AIDS for three distinct members of the whey acidic protein (WAP) family, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, Elafin, and ps20. Identified by an evolutionarily conserved canonical four-disulphide structural domain [whey four disulphide core domain (WFDC)], WAP proteins are increasingly being shown to display functions beyond both protease inhibition and anti-infective activity, to which they were originally ascribed. We propose novel mechanisms on why this might be the case based on an analysis of the structure-function of its human members. Our analysis suggests that the interaction of HIV with WAP proteins might unravel unknown functions of the ancient WFDC and inform novel immunotherapies for the treatment of HIV and broader virus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin D Bingle
- Academic Unit of Respiratory Medicine, University of Sheffield Medical School, Sheffield S10 2JF, UK
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WFDC1/ps20 is a novel innate immunomodulatory signature protein of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-permissive CD4+ CD45RO+ memory T cells that promotes infection by upregulating CD54 integrin expression and is elevated in HIV type 1 infection. J Virol 2007; 82:471-86. [PMID: 17942534 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00939-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding why human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) preferentially infects some CD4(+) CD45RO(+) memory T cells has implications for antiviral immunity and pathogenesis. We report that differential expression of a novel secreted factor, ps20, previously implicated in tissue remodeling, may underlie why some CD4 T cells are preferentially targeted. We show that (i) there is a significant positive correlation between endogenous ps20 mRNA in diverse CD4 T-cell populations and in vitro infection, (ii) a ps20(+) permissive cell can be made less permissive by antibody blockade- or small-interference RNA-mediated knockdown of endogenous ps20, and (iii) conversely, a ps20(low) cell can be more permissive by adding ps20 exogenously or engineering stable ps20 expression by retroviral transduction. ps20 expression is normally detectable in CD4 T cells after in vitro activation and interleukin-2 expansion, and such oligoclonal populations comprise ps20(positive) and ps20(low/negative) isogenic clones at an early differentiation stage (CD45RO(+)/CD25(+)/CD28(+)/CD57(-)). This pattern is altered in chronic HIV infection, where ex vivo CD4(+) CD45RO(+) T cells express elevated ps20. ps20 promoted HIV entry via fusion and augmented CD54 integrin expression; both of these effects were reversed by anti-ps20 antibody. We therefore propose ps20 to be a novel signature of HIV-permissive CD4 T cells that promotes infection in an autocrine and paracrine manner and that HIV has coopted a fundamental role of ps20 in promoting cell adhesion for its benefit. Disrupting the ps20 pathway may therefore provide a novel anti-HIV strategy.
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Peng G, Greenwell-Wild T, Nares S, Jin W, Lei KJ, Rangel ZG, Munson PJ, Wahl SM. Myeloid differentiation and susceptibility to HIV-1 are linked to APOBEC3 expression. Blood 2007; 110:393-400. [PMID: 17371941 PMCID: PMC1896122 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2006-10-051763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2006] [Accepted: 02/16/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 recognition by, interaction with, and/or infection of CD4(+)CCR5(+) tissue macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) play important roles in HIV-1 transmission and pathogenesis. By comparison, circulating CD4(+)CCR5(+) monocytes appear relatively resistant to HIV-1, and a fundamental unresolved question involves deciphering restriction factors unique to this precursor population. Not only do monocytes, relative to macrophages, possess higher levels of the innate resistance factor APOBEC3G, but we uncovered APOBEC3A, not previously associated with anti-HIV activity, as being critical in monocyte resistance. Inversely correlated with susceptibility, silencing of APOBEC3A renders monocytes vulnerable to HIV-1. Differences in promiscuity of monocytes, macrophages, and DCs can be defined, at least partly, by disparities in APOBEC expression, with implications for enhancing cellular defenses against HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Peng
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-4352, USA
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Moutsopoulos NM, Vázquez N, Greenwell-Wild T, Ecevit I, Horn J, Orenstein J, Wahl SM. Regulation of the tonsil cytokine milieu favors HIV susceptibility. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 80:1145-55. [PMID: 16943383 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0306142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucosal associated lymphoid tissues are major targets of HIV during early infection and disease progression but can also provide a viral safe haven during highly active antiretroviral therapy. Among these tissues, the tonsils remain enigmatic regarding their status as primary and/or secondary sites of retroviral infection. To dissect the mechanisms underlying susceptibility to HIV in this compartment, isolated tonsil cells were studied for phenotypic and functional characteristics, which may account for their permissiveness to infection. For this, tonsil cells and PBMC were infected in parallel with HIV, and viral replication was monitored by p24 ELISA. Our results demonstrate that unstimulated tonsil cells were more readily infected than PBMC with HIV. Phenotypic characterization of the tonsil cells revealed heterogeneous lymphoid populations but with increased expression of early activation markers and the viral co-receptor CXCR4, relative to PBMC, all of which may contribute to viral susceptibility. Furthermore, the cytokine microenvironment appeared to be key in facilitating HIV infection and tonsil-secreted products enhanced HIV infection in PBMC. Of the cytokines detected in the tonsil supernatants, TH2 cytokines, particularly IL-4, promoted HIV infection and replication. Interestingly, this TH2 profile appeared to dominate, even in the presence of the TH1 cytokine IFNgamma and the anti-viral factor IFNalpha, likely due to the enhanced expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins, which may disengage IFN signaling. These and other local environmental factors may render tonsil cells increasingly susceptible to HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niki M Moutsopoulos
- Oral Infection and Immunity Branch, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, 30 Convent Dr., MSC 4352, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Montaner LJ, Crowe SM, Aquaro S, Perno CF, Stevenson M, Collman RG. Advances in macrophage and dendritic cell biology in HIV-1 infection stress key understudied areas in infection, pathogenesis, and analysis of viral reservoirs. J Leukoc Biol 2006; 80:961-4. [PMID: 16935944 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0806488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The continued quest to intervene in HIV-1 infection by halting transmission, suppressing replication, or eradicating disease in infected subjects stresses the significance of dendritic cell and macrophage biology as early and persistent players in the relationship between infection and disease. As highlighted by new data and presentations at the Sixth International Workshop on HIV and Cells of Macrophage/Dendritic Lineage and Other Reservoirs, a greater emphasis is currently underway in studying the potential of targeting these cell types by intervention early in infection, better defining viral phenotypes and entry mechanisms with a more precise nomenclature system, identifying new, intrinsic cellular factors that may restrict infection within these cell types, and pursuing novel roles for macrophage activation and trafficking. Other key areas include examination of these cells as sources of viral persistence in patients, their roles in coinfection, and their metabolic function in HIV pathogenesis and drug toxicity. This issue of JLB contains reviews and original research reports from the workshop, which highlight new findings, current research questions, and key areas in need of future investigation as a result of their significance to HIV prevention and pathogenesis.
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