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Paniri A, Hosseini MM, Fattahi S, Amiribozorgi G, Asouri M, Maadi M, Motamed N, Zamani F, Akhavan‐Niaki H. Genetic variations in IKZF3, LET7-a2, and CDKN2B-AS1: Exploring associations with metabolic syndrome susceptibility and clinical manifestations. J Clin Lab Anal 2024; 38:e24999. [PMID: 38193570 PMCID: PMC10829692 DOI: 10.1002/jcla.24999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Metabolic syndrome (MetS) increases the risk of atherosclerosis and diabetes, but there are no approved predictive markers. This study assessed the role of specific genetic variations in MetS susceptibility and their impact on clinical manifestations. METHOD In this study, a genotype-phenotype assessment was performed for IKZF3 (rs907091), microRNA-let-7a-2 (rs1143770), and lncRNA-CDKN2B-AS1 (rs1333045). RESULTS Analyses indicate that while rs907091 and rs1143770 may have potential associations with MetS susceptibility and an increased risk of atherosclerosis and diabetes, there is an observed trend suggesting that the rs1333045 CC genotype may be associated with a decreased risk of MetS. The genotypes and allele frequencies of rs1333045 were significantly different between studied groups (OR = 0.56, 95% CI 0.38-0.81, p = 0.002, and OR = 0.71, 95% CI 0.55-0.92, p = 0.008), with the CC genotype displaying increased levels of HDL. Furthermore, the rs907091 TT genotype was associated with increased triglyceride, cholesterol, and HOMA index in MetS patients. Subjects with the CC genotype for rs1143770 had higher HbA1c and BMI. In silico analyses illustrated that rs907091 C remarkably influences the secondary structure and the target site of a broad spectrum of microRNAs, especially hsa-miR-4497. Moreover, rs1333045 creates a binding site for seven different microRNAs. CONCLUSION Further studies on other populations may help confirm these SNPs as useful predictive markers in assessing the MetS risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Paniri
- Genetics Department, Faculty of MedicineBabol University of Medical SciencesBabolIran
- Zoonoses Research CenterPasteur Institute of IranAmolIran
| | | | - Sadegh Fattahi
- Zoonoses Research CenterPasteur Institute of IranAmolIran
| | | | - Mohsen Asouri
- Zoonoses Research CenterPasteur Institute of IranAmolIran
| | - Mansooreh Maadi
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases Research Center, Iran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
| | - Nima Motamed
- Department of Social MedicineZanjan University of Medical SciencesZanjanIran
| | - Farhad Zamani
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases Research Center, Iran University of Medical SciencesTehranIran
| | - Haleh Akhavan‐Niaki
- Genetics Department, Faculty of MedicineBabol University of Medical SciencesBabolIran
- Zoonoses Research CenterPasteur Institute of IranAmolIran
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2
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Hoekstra M, Zhang Z, Lindenburg PW, Van Eck M. Scavenger Receptor BI Deficiency in Mice Is Associated With Plasma Ceramide and Sphingomyelin Accumulation and a Reduced Cholesteryl Ester Fatty Acid Length and Unsaturation Degree. J Lipid Atheroscler 2024; 13:69-79. [PMID: 38299166 PMCID: PMC10825577 DOI: 10.12997/jla.2024.13.1.69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) is primarily known for its role in the selective uptake of cholesteryl esters (CEs) from high-density lipoproteins (HDLs). Here we investigated whether SR-BI deficiency is associated with other potentially relevant changes in the plasma lipidome than the established effect of HDL-cholesterol elevation. Methods Targeted ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was utilized to measure lipid species in plasma from female wild-type and SR-BI knockout mice. Results SR-BI deficiency was associated with a reduction in the average CE fatty acid length (-2%; p<0.001) and degree of CE fatty acid unsaturation (-18%; p<0.001) due to a relative shift from longer, polyunsaturated CE species CE (20:4), CE (20:5), and CE (22:6) towards the mono-unsaturated CE (18:1) species. Sphingomyelin (SM) levels were 64% higher (p<0.001) in SR-BI knockout mice without a parallel change in (lyso)phosphatidylcholine (LPC) concentrations, resulting in an increase in the SM/LPC ratio from 0.102±0.005 to 0.163±0.003 (p<0.001). In addition, lower LPC lengths (-5%; p<0.05) and fatty acid unsaturation degrees (-20%; p<0.01) were detected in SR-BI knockout mice. Furthermore, SR-BI deficiency was associated with a 4.7-fold increase (p<0.001) in total plasma ceramide (Cer) levels, with a marked >9-fold rise (p<0.001) in Cer (d18:1/24:1) concentrations. Conclusion We have shown that SR-BI deficiency in mice not only impacts the CE concentrations, length, and saturation index within the plasma compartment, but is also associated with plasma accumulation of several Cer and SM species that may contribute to the development of specific hematological and metabolic (disease) phenotypes previously detected in SR-BI knockout mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of Systems Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Pharmacy Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Zhengzheng Zhang
- Metabolomics and Analytics Center, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Peter W. Lindenburg
- Research Group Metabolomics, Faculty Science & Technology, University of Applied Sciences Leiden, Hogeschool Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of Systems Pharmacology and Pharmacy, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Pharmacy Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Palmieri M, Joseph TE, O'Brien CA, Gomez-Acevedo H, Kim HN, Manolagas SC, Ambrogini E. RETRACTED: Deletion of the scavenger receptor Scarb1 in myeloid cells does not affect bone mass. Bone 2023; 170:116702. [PMID: 36773885 PMCID: PMC10040251 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2023.116702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
The scavenger receptor class B member 1 (SR-B1 or Scarb1) is a glycosylated cell surface receptor for high density lipoproteins (HDL), oxidized low density lipoproteins (OxLDL), and phosphocholine-containing oxidized phospholipids (PC-OxPLs). Scarb1 is expressed in macrophages and has been shown to have both pro- and anti-atherogenic properties. It has been reported that global deletion of Scarb1 in mice leads to either high or low bone mass and that PC-OxPLs decrease osteoblastogenesis and increase osteoclastogenesis. PC-OxPLs decrease bone mass in 6-month-old mice and are critical pathogenetic factors in the bone loss caused by high fat diet or aging. We have investigated here whether Scarb1 expression in myeloid cells affects bone mass and whether PC-OxPLs exert their anti-osteogenic effects via activation of Scarb1 in macrophages. To this end, we generated mice with deletion of Scarb1 in LysM-Cre expressing cells and found that lack of Scarb1 did not affect bone mass in vivo. These results indicate that Scarb1 expression in cells of the myeloid/osteoclast lineage does not contribute to bone homeostasis. Based on this evidence, and earlier studies of ours showing that Scarb1 expression in osteoblasts does not affect bone mass, we conclude that Scarb1 is not an important mediator of the adverse effects on PC-OxPLs in osteoclasts or osteoblasts in 6-month-old mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Palmieri
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases, the Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Teenamol E. Joseph
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases, the Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Charles A. O'Brien
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases, the Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Horacio Gomez-Acevedo
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Ha-Neui Kim
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases, the Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Stavros C. Manolagas
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases, the Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Elena Ambrogini
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases, the Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, USA
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Cao Y, Chen S, Lu J, Zhang M, Shi L, Qin J, Lv J, Li D, Ma L, Zhang Y. BPA induces placental trophoblast proliferation inhibition and fetal growth restriction by inhibiting the expression of SRB1. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:60805-60819. [PMID: 37037937 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26850-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a common environmental toxicant that is known to be associated with fetal growth restriction (FGR). However, the mechanisms of how BPA induce FGR is poorly characterized. We conducted proteomics to identify the abnormal expression of SRB1 in female placental tissues with high BPA-induced FGR and further verified its decreased expression in human placenta and BeWo cells. Next, the effect of BPA on fetal development was further confirmed in pregnant C57BL/6 mice. The expression of SRB1 was consistently downregulated in human FGR placentas, BPA-exposed trophoblasts and mouse placentas. In addition, we found that SRB1 interacted with PCNA, and BPA exposure indirectly reduced the expression of PCNA and further inhibited placental proliferation. In vitro studies showed that BPA exposure reduced the expression of CDK1, CDK2, cyclin B and phosphorylated Rb in placental trophoblast cells, indicating cell cycle arrest after exposure to BPA. In addition, the expression of γ-H2AX and phosphorylated ATM was upregulated in BPA-exposed trophoblasts, indicating increased DNA damage. Our results indicate that BPA-induced FGR is achieved by reducing the expression of SRB1, inhibiting placental proliferation and increasing DNA damage. Our findings not only explain the mechanism of BPA-associated developmental toxicity but also shed light upon developing novel therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuming Cao
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, No 169 of Donghu Road, Wuhan, 430071, Hubei, China
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai, People's Republic of China
| | - Sihan Chen
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Lu
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, No 169 of Donghu Road, Wuhan, 430071, Hubei, China
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, No 169 of Donghu Road, Wuhan, 430071, Hubei, China
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Lei Shi
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Juling Qin
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Lv
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Danyang Li
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ling Ma
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuanzhen Zhang
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, No 169 of Donghu Road, Wuhan, 430071, Hubei, China.
- Reproductive Medicine Center, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai, People's Republic of China.
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Fuller MT, Dadoo O, Xiong T, Chivukula P, MacDonald ME, Lee SK, Austin RC, Igdoura SA, Trigatti BL. Extensive diet-induced atherosclerosis in scavenger receptor class B type 1-deficient mice is associated with substantial leukocytosis and elevated vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in coronary artery endothelium. Front Physiol 2023; 13:1023397. [PMID: 36714321 PMCID: PMC9877335 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1023397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
High levels of low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and low levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol are risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Mice that lack genes involved in the clearance of LDL from the bloodstream, such as the LDL receptor and apolipoprotein E, are widely used models of experimental atherosclerosis. Conversely, mice that lack the HDL receptor, scavenger receptor class B type I, and therefore have disrupted HDL functionality, also develop diet-inducible atherosclerosis but are a seldom-used disease model. In this study, we compared atherosclerosis and associated phenotypes in scavenger receptor class B type I knockout mice with those of wild type, LDL receptor knockout, and apolipoprotein E knockout mice after 20 weeks of being fed an atherogenic diet containing sodium cholate. We found that while scavenger receptor class B type I knockout mice had substantially lower plasma cholesterol than LDL receptor and apolipoprotein E knockout mice, they developed atherosclerotic plaques with similar sizes and compositions in their aortic sinuses, and more extensive atherosclerosis in their descending aortas and coronary arteries. This was associated with elevated tumor necrosis factor alpha levels in scavenger receptor class B type I knockout mice compared to wild type and LDL receptor knockout mice, and lymphocytosis, monocytosis, and elevated vascular cell adhesion molecule expression in coronary artery endothelial cells compared to the other mice examined. We conclude that extensive atherosclerosis in arteries that are not generally susceptible to atherosclerosis in scavenger receptor class B type I knockout mice is driven by factors in addition to hypercholesterolemia, including inflammation, dysregulation of the immune system and increased sensitivity of endothelial cells in arteries that are normally resistant to atherosclerosis. Scavenger receptor class B type I knockout mice fed a cholate containing atherogenic diet may prove to be a useful model to study mechanisms of atherosclerosis and evaluate treatments that rely on intact LDL clearance pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark T. Fuller
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Omid Dadoo
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Ting Xiong
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Pardh Chivukula
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Melissa E. MacDonald
- Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Samuel K. Lee
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Richard C. Austin
- Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, The Research Institute of St. Joe’s Hamilton and the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Suleiman A. Igdoura
- Department of Biology and Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Bernardo L. Trigatti
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,Thrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada,*Correspondence: Bernardo L. Trigatti,
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Palmieri M, Joseph TE, O’Brien CA, Gomez-Acevedo H, Manolagas SC, Ambrogini E. Deletion of the scavenger receptor Scarb1 in osteoblast progenitors does not affect bone mass. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265893. [PMID: 35349600 PMCID: PMC8963559 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The scavenger receptor class B member 1 (SR-B1 or Scarb1) is a cell surface receptor for high density lipoproteins. It also binds oxidized low density lipoproteins and phosphocholine-containing oxidized phospholipids (PC-OxPL), which adversely affect bone homeostasis. Overexpression of a single chain form of the antigen-binding domain of E06 IgM-a natural antibody that recognizes PC-OxPL-increases trabecular and cortical bone mass in female and male mice by stimulating bone formation. We have previously reported that Scarb1 is the most abundant scavenger receptor for PC-OxPL in calvaria-derived osteoblastic cells. Additionally, bone marrow- and calvaria-derived osteoblasts from Scarb1 knockout mice (Scarb1 KO) are protected from the pro-apoptotic and anti-differentiating effects of OxPL. Previous skeletal analysis of Scarb1 KO mice has produced contradictory results, with some studies reporting elevated bone mass but another study reporting low bone mass. To clarify the role of Scarb1 in osteoblasts, we deleted Scarb1 specifically in cells of the osteoblast lineage using Osx1-Cre transgenic mice. We observed no difference in bone mineral density measured by DXA in either female or male Osx1-Cre;Scarb1fl/fl mice compared to wild type (WT), Osx1-Cre, or Scarb1fl/fl littermate controls. Additionally, microCT analysis of 6-month-old females and 7-month-old males did not detect any difference in trabecular or cortical bone mass between genotypes. These results indicate that expression of Scarb1 in cells of the osteoblast lineage does not play an important role in bone homeostasis and, therefore, it is not essential for the effects of PC-OxPL on these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Palmieri
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases and Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, United States of America
| | - Teenamol E. Joseph
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases and Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, United States of America
| | - Charles A. O’Brien
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases and Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, United States of America
| | - Horacio Gomez-Acevedo
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, United States of America
| | - Stavros C. Manolagas
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases and Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, United States of America
| | - Elena Ambrogini
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Center for Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Diseases and Center for Musculoskeletal Disease Research, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System, Little Rock, AR, United States of America
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Hoekstra M, Liu Q, Zhang Y, van der Wel EJ, Le Dévédec SE, Van Eck M. Hypocholesterolemic phospholipid transfer protein knockout mice exhibit a normal glucocorticoid response to food deprivation. Am J Transl Res 2022; 14:1884-1891. [PMID: 35422905 PMCID: PMC8991128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Glucocorticoids, adrenal-derived steroid hormones, facilitate the physiological response to stress. High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are considered the primary source of cholesterol used for glucocorticoid synthesis in mice. Phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) is a key player in HDL formation. In the current study we tested the hypothesis that HDL deficiency associated with genetic lack of PLTP negatively impacts the adrenal steroid function. METHODS We determined the glucocorticoid response to overnight food deprivation stress and the adrenal lipid and genetic phenotype of wild-type and PLTP knockout mice. RESULTS Basal plasma corticosterone levels, adrenal weights, and adrenocortical neutral lipid stores were not different between wild-type and PLTP knockout mice. Strikingly, plasma corticosterone levels were also equally high in the two groups of mice under fasting conditions (two-way ANOVA genotype effect: P>0.05). However, compensatory mechanisms were active to overcome adrenal lipid depletion, since gene expression levels of cholesterol synthesis, acquisition and mobilization proteins were ~2-fold higher in PLTP knockout adrenals versus wild-type adrenals. In support of an overall similar glucocorticoid stress response, hepatic relative mRNA expression levels of the glucocorticoid receptor target/glucocorticoid-sensitive genes PEPCK, ANGPTL4, FGF21, TDO2 and HMGCS2 were also not different. CONCLUSIONS We have shown that hypocholesterolemic PLTP knockout mice exhibit a normal glucocorticoid response to food deprivation. These novel data (1) highlight that the effect of HDL deficiency on adrenal glucocorticoid output in mice is model dependent and (2) imply that other (lipoprotein) cholesterol sources than HDL can also generate the pool utilized by adrenocortical cells to synthesize glucocorticoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden UniversityLeiden, Netherlands
| | - Qiuyu Liu
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden UniversityLeiden, Netherlands
| | - Yiheng Zhang
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden UniversityLeiden, Netherlands
| | - Ezra J van der Wel
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden UniversityLeiden, Netherlands
| | - Sylvia E Le Dévédec
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden UniversityLeiden, Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden UniversityLeiden, Netherlands
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Reece SW, Varikuti S, Kilburg-Basnyat B, Dunigan-Russell K, Hodge MX, Luo B, Madenspacher JH, Thomas SY, Tokarz DA, Tighe RM, Cook DN, Fessler MB, Gowdy KM. Scavenger Receptor BI Attenuates IL-17A-Dependent Neutrophilic Inflammation in Asthma. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2021; 64:698-708. [PMID: 33647226 PMCID: PMC8456883 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2020-0007oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a common respiratory disease currently affecting more than 300 million worldwide and is characterized by airway inflammation, hyperreactivity, and remodeling. It is a heterogeneous disease consisting of corticosteroid-sensitive T-helper cell type 2-driven eosinophilic and corticosteroid-resistant, T-helper cell type 17-driven neutrophilic phenotypes. One pathway recently described to regulate asthma pathogenesis is cholesterol trafficking. Scavenger receptors, in particular SR-BI (scavenger receptor class B type I), are known to direct cellular cholesterol uptake and efflux. We recently defined SR-BI functions in pulmonary host defense; however, the function of SR-BI in asthma pathogenesis is unknown. To elucidate the role of SR-BI in allergic asthma, SR-BI-sufficient (SR-BI+/+) and SR-BI-deficient (SR-BI-/-) mice were sensitized (Days 0 and 7) and then challenged (Days 14, 15, and 16) with a house dust mite (HDM) preparation administered through oropharyngeal aspiration. Airway inflammation and cytokine production were quantified on Day 17. When compared with SR-BI+/+ mice, the HDM-challenged SR-BI-/- mice had increased neutrophils and pulmonary IL-17A production in BAL fluid. This augmented IL-17A production in SR-BI-/- mice originated from a non-T-cell source that included neutrophils and alveolar macrophages. Given that SR-BI regulates adrenal steroid hormone production, we tested whether the changes in SR-BI-/- mice were glucocorticoid dependent. Indeed, SR-BI-/- mice were adrenally insufficient during the HDM challenge, and corticosterone replacement decreased pulmonary neutrophilia and IL-17A production in SR-BI-/- mice. Taken together, these data indicate that SR-BI dampens pulmonary neutrophilic inflammation and IL-17A production in allergic asthma at least in part by maintaining adrenal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sky W. Reece
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
| | - Sanjay Varikuti
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Brita Kilburg-Basnyat
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
| | - Katelyn Dunigan-Russell
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | - Myles X. Hodge
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
| | - Bin Luo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
| | - Jennifer H. Madenspacher
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Seddon Y. Thomas
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Debra A. Tokarz
- Center for Human Health and the Environment, Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina; and
| | - Robert M. Tighe
- Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Donald N. Cook
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Michael B. Fessler
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Kymberly M. Gowdy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
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9
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SR-BI deficiency disassociates obesity from hepatic steatosis and glucose intolerance development in high fat diet-fed mice. J Nutr Biochem 2021; 89:108564. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2020.108564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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10
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Arima M, Fujii Y, Sonoda KH. Translational Research in Retinopathy of Prematurity: From Bedside to Bench and Back Again. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10020331. [PMID: 33477419 PMCID: PMC7830975 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10020331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), a vascular proliferative disease affecting preterm infants, is a leading cause of childhood blindness. Various studies have investigated the pathogenesis of ROP. Clinical experience indicates that oxygen levels are strongly correlated with ROP development, which led to the development of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) as an animal model of ROP. OIR has been used extensively to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying ROP and to evaluate the efficacy of new drug candidates. Large clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) agents to treat ROP, and anti-VEGF therapy is presently becoming the first-line treatment worldwide. Anti-VEGF therapy has advantages over conventional treatments, including being minimally invasive with a low risk of refractive error. However, long-term safety concerns and the risk of late recurrence limit this treatment. There is an unmet medical need for novel ROP therapies, which need to be addressed by safe and minimally invasive therapies. The recent progress in biotechnology has contributed greatly to translational research. In this review, we outline how basic ROP research has evolved with clinical experience and the subsequent emergence of new drugs. We discuss previous and ongoing trials and present the candidate molecules expected to become novel targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuru Arima
- Department of Ophthalmology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 8128582, Japan; (Y.F.); (K.-H.S.)
- Center for Clinical and Translational Research, Kyushu University Hospital, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 8128582, Japan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-92-642-5648
| | - Yuya Fujii
- Department of Ophthalmology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 8128582, Japan; (Y.F.); (K.-H.S.)
| | - Koh-Hei Sonoda
- Department of Ophthalmology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 8128582, Japan; (Y.F.); (K.-H.S.)
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Hoekstra M. Identification of scavenger receptor BI as a potential screening candidate for congenital primary adrenal insufficiency in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020; 319:E102-E104. [PMID: 32369415 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00069.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids belong to the superfamily of steroid hormones that are synthesized from the common precursor cholesterol. Adrenal gland-derived glucocorticoids, e.g., cortisol in humans and corticosterone in rodents, contribute to various processes essential for normal daily life. Glucocorticoid deficiency, also referred to as primary adrenal insufficiency, therefore, often becomes evident early in life and can be present with hypoglycemia, a failure to thrive, recurrent development of infections, and neurological problems, such as seizures and coma. The majority of congenital primary adrenal insufficiency cases are caused by deleterious mutations in genes involved in the intracellular mobilization of cholesterol and the subsequent conversion of cholesterol into glucocorticoids. A significant number of glucocorticoid deficiency cases, however, cannot be explained by known genetic variations. This perspective highlights existing literature regarding the importance of lipoprotein-derived cholesterol acquisition through scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI/SCARB1) for the maintenance of an optimal adrenal glucocorticoid function in mice and humans. On the basis of the reviewed findings, it is suggested that the SCARB1 gene should be included in the standard glucocorticoid deficiency genetic screening panel to 1) facilitate knowledge development on the relative contribution of SR-BI-mediated cholesterol acquisition to steroid hormone synthesis in humans and 2) open up the possibility to reclassify glucocorticoid deficiency patients without a currently known genetic cause for concomitant treatment optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden, The Netherlands
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van der Sluis RJ, Hoekstra M. Glucocorticoids are active players and therapeutic targets in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2020; 504:110728. [PMID: 31968221 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.110728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Adrenal-derived glucocorticoids mediate the physiological response to stress. Chronic disturbances in glucocorticoid homeostasis, i.e. in Addison's and Cushing's disease patients, predispose to the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Here we review preclinical and clinical findings regarding the relation between changes in plasma glucocorticoid levels and the atherosclerosis extent. It appears that, although the altered glucocorticoid function can in most cases be restored in the different patient groups, current therapies do not necessarily reverse the associated risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. In our opinion much attention should therefore be given to the development of a Cushing's disease mouse model that can (1) effectively replicate the effect of hypercortisolemia on atherosclerosis outcome observed in humans and (2) be used to investigate, in a preclinical setting, the relative impact on atherosclerosis susceptibility of already available (e.g. metyrapone) and potentially novel (i.e. SR-BI activity modulators) therapeutic agents that target the adrenal glucocorticoid output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald J van der Sluis
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Menno Hoekstra
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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13
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Hoekstra M, van der Sluis RJ, Hildebrand RB, Lammers B, Zhao Y, Praticò D, van Berkel TJC, Rensen PCN, Kooijman S, Jauhiainen M, van Eck M. Disruption of Phospholipid Transfer Protein-Mediated High-Density Lipoprotein Maturation Reduces Scavenger Receptor BI Deficiency-Driven Atherosclerosis Susceptibility Despite Unexpected Metabolic Complications. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2020; 40:611-623. [PMID: 31941380 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.119.313862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We tested the hypothesis that enlarged, dysfunctional HDL (high-density lipoprotein) particles contribute to the augmented atherosclerosis susceptibility associated with SR-BI (scavenger receptor BI) deficiency in mice. Approach and Results: We eliminated the ability of HDL particles to fully mature by targeting PLTP (phospholipid transfer protein) functionality. Particle size of the HDL population was almost fully normalized in male and female SR-BI×PLTP double knockout mice. In contrast, the plasma unesterified cholesterol to cholesteryl ester ratio remained elevated. The PLTP deficiency-induced reduction in HDL size in SR-BI knockout mice resulted in a normalized aortic tissue oxidative stress status on Western-type diet. Atherosclerosis susceptibility was-however-only partially reversed in double knockout mice, which can likely be attributed to the fact that they developed a metabolic syndrome-like phenotype characterized by obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, and a reduced glucose tolerance. Mechanistic studies in chow diet-fed mice revealed that the diminished glucose tolerance was probably secondary to the exaggerated postprandial triglyceride response. The absence of PLTP did not affect LPL (lipoprotein lipase)-mediated triglyceride lipolysis but rather modified the ability of VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein)/chylomicron remnants to be cleared from the circulation by the liver through receptors other than SR-BI. As a result, livers of double knockout mice only cleared 26% of the fractional dose of [14C]cholesteryl oleate after intravenous VLDL-like particle injection. CONCLUSIONS We have shown that disruption of PLTP-mediated HDL maturation reduces SR-BI deficiency-driven atherosclerosis susceptibility in mice despite the induction of proatherogenic metabolic complications in the double knockout mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- From the Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, The Netherlands (M.H., R.J.v.d.S., R.B.H., B.L., Y.Z., T.J.C.v.B., M.v.E.)
| | - Ronald J van der Sluis
- From the Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, The Netherlands (M.H., R.J.v.d.S., R.B.H., B.L., Y.Z., T.J.C.v.B., M.v.E.)
| | - Reeni B Hildebrand
- From the Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, The Netherlands (M.H., R.J.v.d.S., R.B.H., B.L., Y.Z., T.J.C.v.B., M.v.E.)
| | - Bart Lammers
- From the Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, The Netherlands (M.H., R.J.v.d.S., R.B.H., B.L., Y.Z., T.J.C.v.B., M.v.E.)
| | - Ying Zhao
- From the Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, The Netherlands (M.H., R.J.v.d.S., R.B.H., B.L., Y.Z., T.J.C.v.B., M.v.E.)
| | - Domenico Praticò
- Alzheimer's Center at Temple, Department of Pharmacology, Philadelphia, PA (D.P.)
| | - Theo J C van Berkel
- From the Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, The Netherlands (M.H., R.J.v.d.S., R.B.H., B.L., Y.Z., T.J.C.v.B., M.v.E.)
| | | | - Sander Kooijman
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine (P.C.N.R., S.K.)
| | - Matti Jauhiainen
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular and Regenerative Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands (P.C.N.R., S.K)
| | - Miranda van Eck
- From the Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, The Netherlands (M.H., R.J.v.d.S., R.B.H., B.L., Y.Z., T.J.C.v.B., M.v.E.)
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van der Geest R, van der Sluis RJ, Groen AK, Van Eck M, Hoekstra M. Cholestasis-associated glucocorticoid overexposure does not increase atherogenesis. J Endocrinol 2019; 242:1-12. [PMID: 31035252 DOI: 10.1530/joe-19-0079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chronic glucocorticoid overexposure predisposes to the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in humans. Cholestatic liver disease is associated with increased plasma glucocorticoid levels. Here, we determined - in a preclinical setting - whether the chronic presence of cholestatic liver disease also induces a concomitant negative impact on atherosclerosis susceptibility. Hereto, regular chow diet-fed atherosclerosis-susceptible hypercholesterolemic apolipoprotein E (APOE)-knockout mice were treated with the bile duct toxicant alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT) for 8 weeks. ANIT exposure induced the development of fibrotic cholestatic liver disease as evident from collagen deposits and compensatory bile duct hyperproliferation within the liver and the rise in plasma levels of bilirubin (+60%; P < 0.01) and bile acids (10-fold higher; P < 0.01). Adrenal weights (+22%; P < 0.01) and plasma corticosterone levels (+72%; P < 0.01) were increased in ANIT-treated mice. In contrast, atherosclerosis susceptibility was not increased in response to ANIT feeding, despite the concomitant increase in plasma free cholesterol (+30%; P < 0.01) and cholesteryl ester (+42%; P < 0.001) levels. The ANIT-induced hypercorticosteronemia coincided with marked immunosuppression as judged from the 50% reduction (P < 0.001) in circulating lymphocyte numbers. However, hepatic glucocorticoid signaling was not enhanced after ANIT treatment. It thus appears that the immunosuppressive effect of glucocorticoids is uncoupled from their metabolic effect under cholestatic disease conditions. In conclusion, we have shown that cholestatic liver disease-associated endogenous glucocorticoid overexposure does not increase atherosclerosis susceptibility in APOE-knockout mice. Our studies provide novel preclinical evidence for the observations that the hypercholesterolemia seen in cholestatic human subjects does not translate into a higher risk for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rick van der Geest
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald J van der Sluis
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Albert K Groen
- Departments of Pediatrics and Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Menno Hoekstra
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden, The Netherlands
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15
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Hoekstra M, Ouweneel AB, Nahon JE, van der Geest R, Kröner MJ, van der Sluis RJ, Van Eck M. ATP-binding cassette transporter G1 deficiency is associated with mild glucocorticoid insufficiency in mice. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2019; 1864:443-451. [PMID: 30633988 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Since cholesterol is the sole precursor for glucocorticoid synthesis, it is hypothesized that genetic defects in proteins that impact the cellular cholesterol pool may underlie glucocorticoid insufficiency in humans. In the current study, we specifically focused on the cholesterol efflux mediator ATP-binding cassette transporter G1 (ABCG1) as gene candidate. METHODS The adrenal transcriptional response to fasting stress was measured in wild-type mice to identify putative novel gene candidates. Subsequently, the adrenal glucocorticoid function was compared between ABCG1 knockout mice and wild-type controls. RESULTS Overnight food deprivation induced a change in relative mRNA expression levels of cholesterol metabolism-related proteins previously linked to steroidogenesis, i.e. scavenger receptor class B type I (+149%; P < 0.001), LDL receptor (-70%; P < 0.001) and apolipoprotein E (-41%; P < 0.01). Strikingly, ABCG1 transcript levels were also markedly decreased (-61%; P < 0.05). In contrast to our hypothesis that decreasing cholesterol efflux would increase the adrenal cholesterol pool and enhance glucocorticoid output, ABCG1 knockout mice as compared to wild-type mice exhibited a reduced ability to secrete corticosterone in response to an ACTH challenge (two-way ANOVA: P < 0.001 for genotype) or fasting stress. As a result, glucocorticoid target gene expression levels in liver and hypothalamus were reduced and blood lymphocyte concentrations and spleen weights increased in ABCG1 knockout mice under fasting stress conditions. This was paralleled by a 48% reduction in adrenal cholesteryl ester stores and stimulation of adrenal NPC intracellular cholesterol transporter 2 (+37%; P < 0.05) and apolipoprotein E (+59%; P < 0.01) mRNA expression. CONCLUSION ABCG1 deficiency is associated with mild glucocorticoid insufficiency in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Amber B Ouweneel
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Joya E Nahon
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Rick van der Geest
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Mara J Kröner
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Ronald J van der Sluis
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC Leiden, the Netherlands
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16
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van der Sluis RJ, Verwilligen RAF, Lendvai Z, Wever R, Hoekstra M, Van Eck M. HDL is essential for atherosclerotic lesion regression in Apoe knockout mice by bone marrow Apoe reconstitution. Atherosclerosis 2018; 278:240-249. [PMID: 30340108 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Although studies in mice have suggested that lesion regression is feasible, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Here we determined the impact of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) on atherosclerosis regression outcome. METHODS Atherosclerotic lesion dynamics were studied upon bone marrow transplantation-mediated re-introduction of apolipoprotein E (Apoe) in Apoe knockout mice. Probucol was used to pharmacologically deplete HDL. RESULTS Restoration of Apoe function was associated with an initial growth of atherosclerotic lesions and parallel decrease in lesional macrophage foam cell content (47 ± 4% at 4 weeks versus 72 ± 2% at baseline: p < 0.001), despite the fact that cholesterol levels were markedly reduced. Notably, significant lesion regression was detected from 4 weeks onwards, when plasma cholesterol levels had returned to the normolipidemic range. As a result, lesions were 41% smaller (p < 0.05) at 8 weeks than at 4 weeks after bone marrow transplantation. Regressed lesions contained an even lower level of macrophage foam cells (33 ± 5%: p < 0.001) and were rich in collagen. Probucol co-treatment was associated with a 3.2-fold lower (p < 0.05) plasma HDL-cholesterol level and a more pro-inflammatory (CCR2+) monocyte phenotype. Importantly, probucol-treated mice exhibited atherosclerotic lesions that were larger than those of regular chow diet-fed bone marrow transplanted mice at 8 weeks (186 ± 15*103 μm2 for probucol-treated versus 120 ± 19*103 μm2 for controls: p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS We have shown that probucol-induced HDL deficiency impairs the ability of established lesions to regress in response to reversal of the genetic hypercholesterolemia in Apoe knockout mice. Our studies thus highlight a crucial role for HDL in the process of atherosclerosis regression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald J van der Sluis
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - Robin A F Verwilligen
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Zsuzsanna Lendvai
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Robbert Wever
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Menno Hoekstra
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, the Netherlands
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Zanoni P, Velagapudi S, Yalcinkaya M, Rohrer L, von Eckardstein A. Endocytosis of lipoproteins. Atherosclerosis 2018; 275:273-295. [PMID: 29980055 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.06.881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
During their metabolism, all lipoproteins undergo endocytosis, either to be degraded intracellularly, for example in hepatocytes or macrophages, or to be re-secreted, for example in the course of transcytosis by endothelial cells. Moreover, there are several examples of internalized lipoproteins sequestered intracellularly, possibly to exert intracellular functions, for example the cytolysis of trypanosoma. Endocytosis and the subsequent intracellular itinerary of lipoproteins hence are key areas for understanding the regulation of plasma lipid levels as well as the biological functions of lipoproteins. Indeed, the identification of the low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-receptor and the unraveling of its transcriptional regulation led to the elucidation of familial hypercholesterolemia as well as to the development of statins, the most successful therapeutics for lowering of cholesterol levels and risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Novel limiting factors of intracellular trafficking of LDL and the LDL receptor continue to be discovered and to provide drug targets such as PCSK9. Surprisingly, the receptors mediating endocytosis of high-density lipoproteins or lipoprotein(a) are still a matter of controversy or even new discovery. Finally, the receptors and mechanisms, which mediate the uptake of lipoproteins into non-degrading intracellular itineraries for re-secretion (transcytosis, retroendocytosis), storage, or execution of intracellular functions, are largely unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Zanoni
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University and University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Centre for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Srividya Velagapudi
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University and University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Centre for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mustafa Yalcinkaya
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University and University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Centre for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lucia Rohrer
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University and University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Centre for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Arnold von Eckardstein
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University and University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Centre for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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18
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Ouweneel AB, van der Sluis RJ, Nahon JE, Van Eck M, Hoekstra M. Simvastatin treatment aggravates the glucocorticoid insufficiency associated with hypocholesterolemia in mice. Atherosclerosis 2017; 261:99-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2017.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To outline the roles of SR-B1 and PDZK1 in hepatic selective HDL cholesterol uptake and reverse cholesterol transport and the consequences for atherosclerosis development. RECENT FINDINGS Much of our understanding of the physiological roles of SR-B1 and PDZK1 in HDL metabolism and atherosclerosis comes from studies of genetically manipulated mice. These show SR-B1 and PDZK1 play key roles in HDL metabolism and protection against atherosclerosis. The recent identification of rare loss of function mutations in the human SCARB1 gene verifies that it plays similar roles in HDL metabolism in humans. Other rare mutations in both the human SCARB1 and PDZK1 genes remain to be characterized but may have potentially devastating consequences to SR-B1 function. SUMMARY Identification of carriers of rare mutations in human SCARB1 and PDZK1 that impair the function of their gene products and characterization of the effects of these mutations on HDL cholesterol levels and atherosclerosis will add to our understanding of the importance of HDL function and cholesterol flux, as opposed to HDL-cholesterol levels, per se, for protection against cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo L Trigatti
- aDepartment of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University bThrombosis and Atherosclerosis Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
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20
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Hoekstra M. SR-BI as target in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease - A comprehensive appraisal of the cellular functions of SR-BI in physiology and disease. Atherosclerosis 2017; 258:153-161. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2017.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Mooberry LK, Sabnis NA, Panchoo M, Nagarajan B, Lacko AG. Targeting the SR-B1 Receptor as a Gateway for Cancer Therapy and Imaging. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:466. [PMID: 28018216 PMCID: PMC5156841 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Malignant tumors display remarkable heterogeneity to the extent that even at the same tissue site different types of cells with varying genetic background may be found. In contrast, a relatively consistent marker the scavenger receptor type B1 (SR-B1) has been found to be consistently overexpressed by most tumor cells. Scavenger Receptor Class B Type I (SR-BI) is a high density lipoprotein (HDL) receptor that facilitates the uptake of cholesterol esters from circulating lipoproteins. Additional findings suggest a critical role for SR-BI in cholesterol metabolism, signaling, motility, and proliferation of cancer cells and thus a potential major impact in carcinogenesis and metastasis. Recent findings indicate that the level of SR-BI expression correlate with aggressiveness and poor survival in breast and prostate cancer. Moreover, genomic data show that depending on the type of cancer, high or low SR-BI expression may promote poor survival. This review discusses the importance of SR-BI as a diagnostic as well as prognostic indicator of cancer to help elucidate the contributions of this protein to cancer development, progression, and survival. In addition, the SR-B1 receptor has been shown to serve as a potential gateway for the delivery of therapeutic agents when reconstituted high density lipoprotein nanoparticles are used for their transport to cancer cells and tumors. Opportunities for the development of new technologies, particularly in the areas of cancer therapy and tumor imaging are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda K. Mooberry
- Institute for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort WorthTX, USA
| | - Nirupama A. Sabnis
- Institute for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort WorthTX, USA
| | - Marlyn Panchoo
- Institute for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort WorthTX, USA
| | - Bhavani Nagarajan
- Institute for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort WorthTX, USA
| | - Andras G. Lacko
- Institute for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort WorthTX, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort WorthTX, USA
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Hoekstra M, Van Berkel TJ. Functionality of High-Density Lipoprotein as Antiatherosclerotic Therapeutic Target. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2016; 36:e87-e94. [DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.116.308262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- From the Division of Biopharmaceutics, Cluster BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, The Netherlands
| | - Theo J.C. Van Berkel
- From the Division of Biopharmaceutics, Cluster BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, The Netherlands
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Pal R, Ke Q, Pihan GA, Yesilaltay A, Penman ML, Wang L, Chitraju C, Kang PM, Krieger M, Kocher O. Carboxy-terminal deletion of the HDL receptor reduces receptor levels in liver and steroidogenic tissues, induces hypercholesterolemia, and causes fatal heart disease. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2016; 311:H1392-H1408. [PMID: 27694217 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00463.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The HDL receptor SR-BI mediates the transfer of cholesteryl esters from HDL to cells and controls HDL abundance and structure. Depending on the genetic background, loss of SR-BI causes hypercholesterolemia, anemia, reticulocytosis, splenomegaly, thrombocytopenia, female infertility, and fatal coronary heart disease (CHD). The carboxy terminus of SR-BI (505QEAKL509) must bind to the cytoplasmic adaptor PDZK1 for normal hepatic-but not steroidogenic cell-expression of SR-BI protein. To determine whether SR-BI's carboxy terminus is also required for normal protein levels in steroidogenic cells, we introduced into SR-BI's gene a 507Ala/STOP mutation that produces a truncated receptor (SR-BIΔCT). As expected, the dramatic reduction of hepatic receptor protein in SR-BIΔCT mice was similar to that in PDZK1 knockout (KO) mice. Unlike SR-BI KO females, SR-BIΔCT females were fertile. The severity of SR-BIΔCT mice's hypercholesterolemia was intermediate between those of SR-BI KO and PDZK1 KO mice. Substantially reduced levels of the receptor in adrenal cortical cells, ovarian cells, and testicular Leydig cells in SR-BIΔCT mice suggested that steroidogenic cells have an adaptor(s) functionally analogous to hepatic PDZK1. When SR-BIΔCT mice were crossed with apolipoprotein E KO mice (SR-BIΔCT/apoE KO), pathologies including hypercholesterolemia, macrocytic anemia, hepatic and splenic extramedullary hematopoiesis, massive splenomegaly, reticulocytosis, thrombocytopenia, and rapid-onset and fatal occlusive coronary arterial atherosclerosis and CHD (median age of death: 9 wk) were observed. These results provide new insights into the control of SR-BI in steroidogenic cells and establish SR-BIΔCT/apoE KO mice as a new animal model for the study of CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rinku Pal
- Department of Pathology and Center for Vascular Biology Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Qingen Ke
- Division of Cardiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - German A Pihan
- Department of Pathology and Center for Vascular Biology Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ayce Yesilaltay
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; and
| | - Marsha L Penman
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; and
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; and
| | - Chandramohan Chitraju
- Department of Genetics and Complex Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Peter M Kang
- Division of Cardiology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Monty Krieger
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts; and
| | - Olivier Kocher
- Department of Pathology and Center for Vascular Biology Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts;
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Taylor MJ, Sanjanwala AR, Morin EE, Rowland-Fisher E, Anderson K, Schwendeman A, Rainey WE. Synthetic High-Density Lipoprotein (sHDL) Inhibits Steroid Production in HAC15 Adrenal Cells. Endocrinology 2016; 157:3122-9. [PMID: 27253994 PMCID: PMC4967112 DOI: 10.1210/en.2014-1663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
High density lipoprotein (HDL) transported cholesterol represents one of the sources of substrate for adrenal steroid production. Synthetic HDL (sHDL) particles represent a new therapeutic option to reduce atherosclerotic plaque burden by increasing cholesterol efflux from macrophage cells. The effects of the sHDL particles on steroidogenic cells have not been explored. sHDL, specifically ETC-642, was studied in HAC15 adrenocortical cells. Cells were treated with sHDL, forskolin, 22R-hydroxycholesterol, or pregnenolone. Experiments included time and concentration response curves, followed by steroid assay. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR was used to study mRNA of 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase, lanosterol 14-α-methylase, cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme, and steroid acute regulatory protein. Cholesterol assay was performed using cell culture media and cell lipid extracts from a dose response experiment. sHDL significantly inhibited production of cortisol. Inhibition occurred in a concentration- and time-dependent manner and in a concentration range of 3μM-50μM. Forskolin (10μM) stimulated cortisol production was also inhibited. Incubation with 22R-hydroxycholesterol (10μM) and pregnenolone (10μM) increased cortisol production, which was unaffected by sHDL treatment. sHDL increased transcript levels for the rate-limiting cholesterol biosynthetic enzyme, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase. Extracellular cholesterol assayed in culture media showed a positive correlation with increasing concentration of sHDL, whereas intracellular cholesterol decreased after treatment with sHDL. The current study suggests that sHDL inhibits HAC15 adrenal cell steroid production by efflux of cholesterol, leading to an overall decrease in steroid production and an adaptive rise in adrenal cholesterol biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Taylor
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Internal Medicine (M.J.T., A.R.S., K.A.,W.E.R.)., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Medical College of Georgia (A.R.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; Department of Pharmaceutical Science (E.E.M., A.S.), Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (E.R.-F.), College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Aalok R Sanjanwala
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Internal Medicine (M.J.T., A.R.S., K.A.,W.E.R.)., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Medical College of Georgia (A.R.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; Department of Pharmaceutical Science (E.E.M., A.S.), Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (E.R.-F.), College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Emily E Morin
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Internal Medicine (M.J.T., A.R.S., K.A.,W.E.R.)., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Medical College of Georgia (A.R.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; Department of Pharmaceutical Science (E.E.M., A.S.), Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (E.R.-F.), College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Elizabeth Rowland-Fisher
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Internal Medicine (M.J.T., A.R.S., K.A.,W.E.R.)., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Medical College of Georgia (A.R.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; Department of Pharmaceutical Science (E.E.M., A.S.), Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (E.R.-F.), College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Kyle Anderson
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Internal Medicine (M.J.T., A.R.S., K.A.,W.E.R.)., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Medical College of Georgia (A.R.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; Department of Pharmaceutical Science (E.E.M., A.S.), Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (E.R.-F.), College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - Anna Schwendeman
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Internal Medicine (M.J.T., A.R.S., K.A.,W.E.R.)., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Medical College of Georgia (A.R.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; Department of Pharmaceutical Science (E.E.M., A.S.), Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (E.R.-F.), College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
| | - William E Rainey
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology and Internal Medicine (M.J.T., A.R.S., K.A.,W.E.R.)., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; Medical College of Georgia (A.R.S.), Georgia Regents University, Augusta, Georgia 30912; Department of Pharmaceutical Science (E.E.M., A.S.), Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry (E.R.-F.), College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109
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25
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Jiang YF, Hsu MC, Cheng CH, Tsui KH, Chiu CH. Ultrastructural changes of goat corpus luteum during the estrous cycle. Anim Reprod Sci 2016; 170:38-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2016.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Baranova IN, Souza ACP, Bocharov AV, Vishnyakova TG, Hu X, Vaisman BL, Amar MJ, Chen Z, Kost Y, Remaley AT, Patterson AP, Yuen PST, Star RA, Eggerman TL. Human SR-BI and SR-BII Potentiate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation and Acute Liver and Kidney Injury in Mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2016; 196:3135-47. [PMID: 26936883 PMCID: PMC4856165 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1501709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The class B scavenger receptors BI (SR-BI) and BII (SR-BII) are high-density lipoprotein receptors that recognize various pathogens, including bacteria and their products. It has been reported that SR-BI/II null mice are more sensitive than normal mice to endotoxin-induced inflammation and sepsis. Because the SR-BI/II knockout model demonstrates multiple immune and metabolic disorders, we investigated the role of each receptor in the LPS-induced inflammatory response and tissue damage using transgenic mice with pLiv-11-directed expression of human SR-BI (hSR-BI) or human SR-BII (hSR-BII). At 6 h after i.p. LPS injection, transgenic hSR-BI and hSR-BII mice demonstrated markedly higher serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines and 2- to 3-fold increased expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the liver and kidney, compared with wild-type (WT) mice. LPS-stimulated inducible NO synthase expression was 3- to 6-fold higher in the liver and kidney of both transgenic strains, although serum NO levels were similar in all mice. Despite the lower high-density lipoprotein plasma levels, both transgenic strains responded to LPS by a 5-fold increase of plasma corticosterone levels, which were only moderately lower than in WT animals. LPS treatment resulted in MAPK activation in tissues of all mice; however, the strongest response was detected for hepatic extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1 and 2 and kidney JNK of both transgenic mice. Histological examination of hepatic and renal tissue from LPS-challenged mice revealed more injury in hSR-BII, but not hSR-BI, transgenic mice versus WT controls. Our findings demonstrate that hSR-BII, and to a lesser extent hSR-BI, significantly increase LPS-induced inflammation and contribute to LPS-induced tissue injury in the liver and kidney, two major organs susceptible to LPS toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina N Baranova
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Ana C P Souza
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Alexander V Bocharov
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;
| | - Tatyana G Vishnyakova
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Xuzhen Hu
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Boris L Vaisman
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
| | - Marcelo J Amar
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
| | - Zhigang Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Yana Kost
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Alan T Remaley
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
| | - Amy P Patterson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; and
| | - Peter S T Yuen
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Robert A Star
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Thomas L Eggerman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892; Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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27
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Zanoni P, Khetarpal SA, Larach DB, Hancock-Cerutti WF, Millar JS, Cuchel M, DerOhannessian S, Kontush A, Surendran P, Saleheen D, Trompet S, Jukema JW, De Craen A, Deloukas P, Sattar N, Ford I, Packard C, Majumder AAS, Alam DS, Di Angelantonio E, Abecasis G, Chowdhury R, Erdmann J, Nordestgaard BG, Nielsen SF, Tybjærg-Hansen A, Schmidt RF, Kuulasmaa K, Liu DJ, Perola M, Blankenberg S, Salomaa V, Männistö S, Amouyel P, Arveiler D, Ferrieres J, Müller-Nurasyid M, Ferrario M, Kee F, Willer CJ, Samani N, Schunkert H, Butterworth AS, Howson JMM, Peloso GM, Stitziel NO, Danesh J, Kathiresan S, Rader DJ. Rare variant in scavenger receptor BI raises HDL cholesterol and increases risk of coronary heart disease. Science 2016; 351:1166-71. [PMID: 26965621 DOI: 10.1126/science.aad3517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 394] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI) is the major receptor for high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (HDL-C). In humans, high amounts of HDL-C in plasma are associated with a lower risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). Mice that have depleted Scarb1 (SR-BI knockout mice) have markedly elevated HDL-C levels but, paradoxically, increased atherosclerosis. The impact of SR-BI on HDL metabolism and CHD risk in humans remains unclear. Through targeted sequencing of coding regions of lipid-modifying genes in 328 individuals with extremely high plasma HDL-C levels, we identified a homozygote for a loss-of-function variant, in which leucine replaces proline 376 (P376L), in SCARB1, the gene encoding SR-BI. The P376L variant impairs posttranslational processing of SR-BI and abrogates selective HDL cholesterol uptake in transfected cells, in hepatocyte-like cells derived from induced pluripotent stem cells from the homozygous subject, and in mice. Large population-based studies revealed that subjects who are heterozygous carriers of the P376L variant have significantly increased levels of plasma HDL-C. P376L carriers have a profound HDL-related phenotype and an increased risk of CHD (odds ratio = 1.79, which is statistically significant).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Zanoni
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sumeet A Khetarpal
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Daniel B Larach
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - William F Hancock-Cerutti
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. INSERM UMR 1166 ICAN, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris 6, Hôpital de la Pitié, Paris, France
| | - John S Millar
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Marina Cuchel
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Stephanie DerOhannessian
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Anatol Kontush
- INSERM UMR 1166 ICAN, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris 6, Hôpital de la Pitié, Paris, France
| | - Praveen Surendran
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Danish Saleheen
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. Centre for Non-Communicable Diseases, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Stella Trompet
- Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands. Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - J Wouter Jukema
- Department of Cardiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands. The Interuniversity Cardiology Institute of the Netherlands, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Anton De Craen
- Department of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Panos Deloukas
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Naveed Sattar
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, British Heart Foundation, Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Ian Ford
- Robertson Center for Biostatistics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Chris Packard
- Glasgow Clinical Research Facility, Western Infirmary, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Dewan S Alam
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Mohakhali, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Emanuele Di Angelantonio
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Goncalo Abecasis
- Center for Statistical Genetics, Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Rajiv Chowdhury
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jeanette Erdmann
- Institute for Integrative and Experimental Genomics, University of Lübeck, Lübeck 23562, Germany
| | - Børge G Nordestgaard
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Herlev Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Sune F Nielsen
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Herlev Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | - Anne Tybjærg-Hansen
- Copenhagen University Hospital, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ruth Frikke Schmidt
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospitals, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kari Kuulasmaa
- Department of Health, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Dajiang J Liu
- Department of Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine, Pennsylvania State University, Hershey, PA 17033, USA
| | - Markus Perola
- Department of Health, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland. Institute of Molecular Medicine FIMM, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Stefan Blankenberg
- Department of General and Interventional Cardiology, University Heart Center Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany. University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Veikko Salomaa
- Department of Health, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Satu Männistö
- Department of Health, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Philippe Amouyel
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Lille, France
| | - Dominique Arveiler
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean Ferrieres
- Department of Epidemiology, Toulouse University-CHU Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Martina Müller-Nurasyid
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany. Department of Medicine I, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Marco Ferrario
- Research Centre in Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Frank Kee
- UKCRC Centre of Excellence for Public Health, Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Cristen J Willer
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, Department of Human Genetics, and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Nilesh Samani
- Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK. National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Leicester Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Glenfield Hotel, Leicester, UK
| | - Heribert Schunkert
- Deutsches Herzzentrum München, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Adam S Butterworth
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Joanna M M Howson
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Gina M Peloso
- Broad Institute and Center for Human Genetic Research, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Nathan O Stitziel
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Department of Genetics, and the McDonnell Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - John Danesh
- Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Genome Campus, Hinxton, UK
| | - Sekar Kathiresan
- Broad Institute and Center for Human Genetic Research, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Daniel J Rader
- Departments of Genetics and Medicine, Division of Translational Medicine and Human Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Hoekstra M, Van Eck M. HDL is redundant for adrenal steroidogenesis in LDLR knockout mice with a human-like lipoprotein profile. J Lipid Res 2016; 57:631-7. [PMID: 26891738 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m066019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of HDL to adrenal steroidogenesis appears to be different between mice and humans. In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that a difference in lipoprotein profile may be the underlying cause. Hereto, we determined the impact of HDL deficiency on the adrenal glucocorticoid output in genetically modified mice with a human-like lipoprotein profile. Genetic deletion of APOA1 in LDL receptor (LDLR) knockout mice was associated with HDL deficiency and a parallel increase in the level of cholesterol associated with nonHDL fractions. Despite a compensatory increase in the adrenal relative mRNA expression levels of the cholesterol synthesis gene, HMG-CoA reductase, adrenals from APOA1/LDLR double knockout mice were severely depleted of neutral lipids, as compared with those of control LDLR knockout mice. However, basal corticosterone levels and the adrenal glucocorticoid response to stress were not different between the two types of mice. In conclusion, we have shown that HDL is not critical for proper adrenal glucocorticoid function when mice are provided with a human-like lipoprotein profile. Our findings provide the first experimental evidence that APOB-containing lipoproteins may facilitate adrenal steroidogenesis, in an LDLR-independent manner, in vivo in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Cluster BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, 2333CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Cluster BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, 2333CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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Zou ZY, Hu YR, Ma H, Feng M, Li XG, Ye XL. Epiberberine reduces serum cholesterol in diet-induced dyslipidemia Syrian golden hamsters via network pathways involving cholesterol metabolism. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 774:1-9. [PMID: 26593426 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the cholesterol-lowering effect of epiberberine in dyslipidemia Syrian golden hamsters induced by high fat and high cholesterol (HFHC) diet and its regulation mechanism on some key genes involved in cholesterol metabolism. Hamsters were divided into six groups: normal control group (NC), HFHC group, simvastatin (Sim) and three doses of epiberberine group. The body weight, organs weight and serum lipid levels, as well as total cholesterol (TC) and total bile acids (TBA) levels in liver and feces were determined. Furthermore, the antidyslipidemia effect of epiberberine on key genes involved in cholesterol biosynthesis, uptake, conversion and elimination such as 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR), low density lipoprotein receptor (LDL receptor), 7-alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) and apical sodium dependent bile acid transporter (ASBT) were investigated. The results showed that epiberberine at high dosage significantly reduced serum TC, low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) and TBA levels by 20.2%, 22.3% and 43.8%, respectively, and increased TBA and TC levels in feces. Epiberberine inhibited HMGCR mRNA and protein expressions and slightly reduced the protein level of ASBT, as well as dramatically up-regulated mRNA and protein expressions of CYP7A1 and LDL receptor. These findings suggested that the antidyslipidemia effects of epiberberine can be achieved via inhibiting the synthesis of cholesterol, promoting the uptake and conversion of TC in liver and increasing the excretion of TC and TBA in feces. Thus, epiberberine should be considered as one of the promising natural drugs for the treatment of dyslipidemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zong-Yao Zou
- Chongqing Productivity Promotion Center for the Modernization of Chinese Traditional Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China; Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Pharmaceutical Process and Quality Control, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Yin-Ran Hu
- Chongqing Productivity Promotion Center for the Modernization of Chinese Traditional Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China; Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Pharmaceutical Process and Quality Control, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Hang Ma
- Chongqing Productivity Promotion Center for the Modernization of Chinese Traditional Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China; Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Pharmaceutical Process and Quality Control, Chongqing 400716, China
| | - Min Feng
- Chongqing Productivity Promotion Center for the Modernization of Chinese Traditional Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China; Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Pharmaceutical Process and Quality Control, Chongqing 400716, China; College of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Chongqing Technology and Business University, Chongqing 400067, China
| | - Xue-Gang Li
- Chongqing Productivity Promotion Center for the Modernization of Chinese Traditional Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China; Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Pharmaceutical Process and Quality Control, Chongqing 400716, China.
| | - Xiao-Li Ye
- Chongqing Engineering Research Centre for Sweet Potato, School of Life Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China; Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Pharmaceutical Process and Quality Control, Chongqing 400716, China.
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30
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van der Sluis RJ, Van Eck M, Hoekstra M. Adrenocortical LDL receptor function negatively influences glucocorticoid output. J Endocrinol 2015; 226:145-54. [PMID: 26136384 DOI: 10.1530/joe-15-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Over 50% of the cholesterol needed by adrenocortical cells for the production of glucocorticoids is derived from lipoproteins. However, the overall contribution of the different lipoproteins and associated uptake pathways to steroidogenesis remains to be determined. Here we aimed to show the importance of LDL receptor (LDLR)-mediated cholesterol acquisition for adrenal steroidogenesis in vivo. Female total body LDLR knockout mice with a human-like lipoprotein profile were bilaterally adrenalectomized and subsequently provided with one adrenal either expressing or genetically lacking the LDLR under their renal capsule to solely modulate adrenocortical LDLR function. Plasma total cholesterol levels and basal plasma corticosterone levels were identical in the two types of adrenal transplanted mice. Strikingly, restoration of adrenal LDLR function significantly reduced the ACTH-mediated stimulation of adrenal steroidogenesis (P<0.001), with plasma corticosterone levels that were respectively 44-59% lower (P<0.01) as compared to adrenal LDLR negative controls. In addition, LDLR positive adrenal transplanted mice exhibited a significant decrease (-39%; P<0.001) in their plasma corticosterone level under fasting stress conditions. Biochemical analysis did not show changes in the expression of genes involved in cholesterol mobilization. However, LDLR expressing adrenal transplants displayed a marked 62% reduction (P<0.05) in the transcript level of the key steroidogenic enzyme HSD3B2. In conclusion, our studies in a mouse model with a human-like lipoprotein profile provide the first in vivo evidence for a novel inhibitory role of the LDLR in the control of adrenal glucocorticoid production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald J van der Sluis
- Division of BiopharmaceuticsCluster BioTherapeutics, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of BiopharmaceuticsCluster BioTherapeutics, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Menno Hoekstra
- Division of BiopharmaceuticsCluster BioTherapeutics, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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31
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Nature and nurture in atherosclerosis: The roles of acylcarnitine and cell membrane-fatty acid intermediates. Vascul Pharmacol 2015; 78:17-23. [PMID: 26133667 DOI: 10.1016/j.vph.2015.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages recycle components of dead cells, including cell membranes. When quantities of lipids from cell membranes of dead cells exceed processing capacity, phospholipid and cholesterol debris accumulate as atheromas. Plasma lipid profiles, particularly HDL and LDL cholesterol, are important tools to monitor atherosclerosis risk. Membrane lipids are exported, as triglycerides or phospholipids, or as cholesterol or cholesterol esters, via lipoproteins for disposal, for re-use in cell membranes, or for fat storage. Alternative assays evaluate other aspects of lipid pathology. A key process underlying atherosclerosis is backup of macrophage fatty acid catabolism. This can be quantified by accumulation of acylcarnitine intermediates in extracellular fluid, a direct assay of adequacy of β-oxidation to deal with membrane fatty acid recycling. Further, membranes of somatic cells, such as red blood cells (RBC), incorporate fatty acids that reflect dietary intake. Changes in RBC lipid composition occur within days of ingesting modified fats. Since diets with high saturated fat content or artificial trans-fatty acids promote atherosclerosis, RBC lipid content shifts occur with atherosclerosis, and can show cellular adaptation to pathologically stiff membranes by increased long-chain doubly unsaturated fatty acid production. Additional metabolic changes with atherosclerosis of potential utility include inflammatory cytokine production, modified macrophage signaling pathways, and altered lipid-handling enzymes. Even after atherosclerotic lesions appear, approaches to minimize macrophage overload by reducing rate of fat metabolism are promising. These include preventive measures, and drugs including statins and the newer PCSK9 inhibitors. New cell-based biochemical and cytokine assays provide data to prevent or monitor atherosclerosis progression.
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Wu DM, He Z, Ma LP, Wang LL, Ping J, Wang H. Increased DNA methylation of scavenger receptor class B type I contributes to inhibitory effects of prenatal caffeine ingestion on cholesterol uptake and steroidogenesis in fetal adrenals. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 285:89-97. [PMID: 25868845 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Steroid hormones synthesized from cholesterol in the fetal adrenal are crucial for fetal development. We have observed the inhibited fetal adrenal corticosterone synthesis and increased intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) rate in rats under prenatal caffeine ingestion. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of prenatal caffeine ingestion on cholesterol supply in fetal adrenal steroidogenesis in rats and explore the underlying epigenetic mechanisms. Pregnant Wistar rats were treated with 60 mg/kg · d caffeine from gestational day (GD) 7 to GD17. Histological changes of fetal adrenals and increased IUGR rates were observed in the caffeine group. There were significantly decreased steroid hormone contents and cholesterol supply in caffeine-treated fetal adrenals. Data from the gene expression array suggested that prenatal caffeine ingestion caused increased expression of genes related to DNA methylation and decreased expression of genes related to cholesterol uptake. The following conjoint analysis of DNA methylation array with these differentially expressed genes suggested that scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) may play an important role in caffeine-induced cholesterol supply deficiency. Moreover, real-time RT-PCR and immunohistochemical detection certified the inhibitory effects of caffeine on both mRNA expression and protein expression of SR-BI in the fetal adrenal. And the increased DNA methylation frequency in the proximal promoter of SR-BI was confirmed by bisulfite-sequencing PCR. In conclusion, prenatal caffeine ingestion can induce DNA hypermethylation of the SR-BI promoter in the rat fetal adrenal. These effects may lead to decreased SR-BI expression and cholesterol uptake, which inhibits steroidogenesis in the fetal adrenal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Mei Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Zheng He
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Liang-Peng Ma
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Lin-Long Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Jie Ping
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China; Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Diseases, Wuhan 430071, China; Research Center of Food and Drug Evaluation, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, China.
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Wuhan University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China; Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Developmentally Originated Diseases, Wuhan 430071, China; Research Center of Food and Drug Evaluation, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, China
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33
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Zhao Y, Hoekstra M, Korporaal SJA, Van Berkel TJC, Van Eck M. HDL Receptor Scavenger Receptor BI. Atherosclerosis 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/9781118828533.ch25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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34
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Abstract
High-density lipoprotein (HDL) is considered to be an anti-atherogenic lipoprotein moiety. Generation of genetically modified (total body and tissue-specific knockout) mouse models has significantly contributed to our understanding of HDL function. Here we will review data from knockout mouse studies on the importance of HDL's major alipoprotein apoA-I, the ABC transporters A1 and G1, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase, phospholipid transfer protein, and scavenger receptor BI for HDL's metabolism and its protection against atherosclerosis in mice. The initial generation and maturation of HDL particles as well as the selective delivery of its cholesterol to the liver are essential parameters in the life cycle of HDL. Detrimental atherosclerosis effects observed in response to HDL deficiency in mice cannot be solely attributed to the low HDL levels per se, as the low HDL levels are in most models paralleled by changes in non-HDL-cholesterol levels. However, the cholesterol efflux function of HDL is of critical importance to overcome foam cell formation and the development of atherosclerotic lesions in mice. Although HDL is predominantly studied for its atheroprotective action, the mouse data also suggest an essential role for HDL as cholesterol donor for steroidogenic tissues, including the adrenals and ovaries. Furthermore, it appears that a relevant interaction exists between HDL-mediated cellular cholesterol efflux and the susceptibility to inflammation, which (1) provides strong support for the novel concept that inflammation and metabolism are intertwining biological processes and (2) identifies the efflux function of HDL as putative therapeutic target also in other inflammatory diseases than atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333CC, Leiden, The Netherlands,
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Martineau C, Kevorkova O, Brissette L, Moreau R. Scavenger receptor class B, type I (Scarb1) deficiency promotes osteoblastogenesis but stunts terminal osteocyte differentiation. Physiol Rep 2014; 2:2/10/e12117. [PMID: 25281615 PMCID: PMC4254088 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.12117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI), the Scarb1 gene product, is a high-density lipoprotein (HDL) receptor which was shown to influence bone metabolism. Its absence in mice is associated with alterations of the glucocorticoid/adrenocorticotropic hormone axis, and translated in high bone mass and enhanced bone formation. Since the cellular alterations underlying the enhanced bone formation remain unknown, we investigated Scarb1-deficient marrow stromal cells (MSC) behavior in vitro. No difference in HDL3, cholesteryl ester (CE) or estradiol (E) association/binding was measured between Scarb1-null and wild-type (WT) cells. Scarb1 genic expression was down-regulated twofold following osteogenic treatment. Neither WT nor null cell proliferation was influenced by HDL3 exposure whereas this condition decreased genic expression of osteoblastic marker osterix (Sp7), and osteocyte markers sclerostin (Sost) and dentin matrix protein 1 (Dmp1) independently of genotype. Sost and Dmp1 basal expression in null cells was 40% and 50% that of WT cells; accordingly, osteocyte density was 20% lower in vertebrae from Scarb1-null mice. Genic expression of co-receptors for Wnt signaling, namely LDL-related protein (Lrp) 5 and Lrp8, was increased, respectively, by two- and threefold, and of transcription target-genes axis inhibition protein 2 (Axin2) and lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1 (Lef1) over threefold. Gene expression of Wnt signaling agonist Wnt5a and of the antagonist dickkopfs-related protein 1 (Dkk1) were found to be increased 10- to 20-fold in null MSC. These data suggest alterations of Wnt pathways in Scarb1-deficient MSC potentially explaining their enhanced function, hence contributing to the high bone mass observed in these mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corine Martineau
- Laboratoire du Métabolisme Osseux, BioMed, Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, H3C 3P8, Quebec, Canada
| | - Olha Kevorkova
- Laboratoire du Métabolisme Osseux, BioMed, Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, H3C 3P8, Quebec, Canada
| | - Louise Brissette
- Laboratoire du Métabolisme des Lipoprotéines, Département des Sciences Biologiques, BioMed, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, H3C 3P8, Quebec, Canada
| | - Robert Moreau
- Laboratoire du Métabolisme Osseux, BioMed, Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, H3C 3P8, Quebec, Canada
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36
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Bochem AE, Holleboom AG, Romijn JA, Hoekstra M, Dallinga GM, Motazacker MM, Hovingh GK, Kuivenhoven JA, Stroes ESG. Adrenal Function in females with low plasma HDL-C due to mutations in ABCA1 and LCAT. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90967. [PMID: 24842300 PMCID: PMC4026241 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Adrenal steroidogenesis is essential for human survival and depends on the availability of the precursor cholesterol. Male subjects with low plasma levels of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol are characterized by decreased adrenal function. Whether this is also the case in female subjects with low plasma HDL-C levels is unresolved to date. FINDINGS 15 female ATP binding cassette transporter AI (ABCAI) and 14 female lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) were included in the study. HDL-C levels were 38% and 41% lower in ABCA1 and LCAT mutation carriers compared to controls, respectively. Urinary steroid excretion of 17-ketogenic steroids or 17-hydroxy corticosteroids did not differ between 15 female ABCA1 mutation carriers (p = 0.27 vs 0.30 respectively) and 30 matched normolipidemic controls or between 14 female LCAT mutation carriers and 28 matched normolipidemic controls (p = 0.10 and 0.14, respectively). Cosyntropin testing in an unselected subgroup of 8 ABCA1 mutation carriers and 3 LCAT mutation carriers did not reveal differences between carriers and controls. CONCLUSION Adrenal function in females with molecularly defined low HDL-C levels is not different from controls. The discrepancy with the finding of impaired steroidogenesis in males with molecularly defined low HDL-C levels underscores the importance of gender specific analyses in cholesterol-related research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Bochem
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Adriaan G. Holleboom
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes A. Romijn
- Department of Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Menno Hoekstra
- Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Geesje M. Dallinga
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Experimental Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mahdi M. Motazacker
- Department of Experimental Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - G. Kees Hovingh
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A. Kuivenhoven
- Department of Pathology & Medical Biology, Medical Biology Section, Molecular Genetics, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erik S. G. Stroes
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Martineau C, Martin-Falstrault L, Brissette L, Moreau R. The atherogenic Scarb1 null mouse model shows a high bone mass phenotype. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2014; 306:E48-57. [PMID: 24253048 PMCID: PMC3920004 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00421.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI), the Scarb1 gene product, is a receptor associated with cholesteryl ester uptake from high-density lipoproteins (HDL), which drives cholesterol movement from peripheral tissues toward the liver for excretion, and, consequently, Scarb1 null mice are prone to atherosclerosis. Because studies have linked atherosclerosis incidence with osteoporosis, we characterized the bone metabolism in these mice. Bone morphometry was assessed through microcomputed tomography and histology. Marrow stromal cells (MSCs) were used to characterize influence of endogenous SR-BI in cell functions. Total and HDL-associated cholesterol in null mice were increased by 32-60%, correlating with its role in lipoprotein metabolism. Distal metaphyses from 2- and 4-mo-old null mice showed correspondingly 46 and 37% higher bone volume fraction associated with a higher number of trabeculae. Histomorphometric analyses in 2-mo-old null male mice revealed 1.42-fold greater osteoblast surface, 1.37-fold higher percent mineralizing surface, and 1.69-fold enhanced bone formation rate. In vitro assays for MSCs from null mice revealed 37% higher proliferation rate, 48% more alkaline phosphatase activity, 70% greater mineralization potential and a 2-fold osterix (Sp7) expression, yet a 0.5-fold decrease in caveolin-1 (Cav1) expression. Selective uptake levels of HDL-associated cholesteryl oleate and estradiol were similar between MSC from wild-type and Scarb1 null mice, suggesting that its contribution to this process is not its main role in these cells. However, Scarb1 knockout stunted the HDL-dependent regulation of Cav1 genic expression. Scarb1 null mice are not prone to osteoporosis but show higher bone mass associated with enhanced bone formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corine Martineau
- Laboratoire du Métabolisme Osseux, BioMed, Université du Québec à Montréal, Département des Sciences Biologiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada; and
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38
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Bochem AE, Holleboom AG, Romijn JA, Hoekstra M, Dallinga-Thie GM, Motazacker MM, Hovingh GK, Kuivenhoven JA, Stroes ESG. High density lipoprotein as a source of cholesterol for adrenal steroidogenesis: a study in individuals with low plasma HDL-C. J Lipid Res 2013; 54:1698-1704. [PMID: 23511897 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.p033449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Few studies have addressed the delivery of lipoprotein-derived cholesterol to the adrenals for steroid production in humans. While there is evidence against a role for low-density lipoprotein (LDL), it is unresolved whether high density lipoprotein (HDL) contributes to adrenal steroidogenesis. To study this, steroid hormone profiles in urine were assessed in male subjects suffering from functional mutations in ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) (n = 24), lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) (n = 40), as well as in 11 subjects with low HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) without ABCA1/LCAT mutations. HDL-C levels were 39% lower in the ABCA1, LCAT, and low HDL-C groups compared with controls (all P < 0.001). In all groups with low HDL-C levels, urinary excretion of 17-ketogenic steroids was reduced by 33%, 27%, and 32% compared with controls (all P < 0.04). In seven carriers of either type of mutation, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation did not reveal differences from normolipidemic controls. In conclusion, this study shows that basal but not stimulated corticosteroid metabolism is attenuated in subjects with low HDL-C, irrespective of its molecular origin. These findings lend support to a role for HDL as a cholesterol donor for basal adrenal steroidogenesis in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E Bochem
- Departments of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Adriaan G Holleboom
- Departments of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes A Romijn
- Departments of Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Menno Hoekstra
- Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Geesje M Dallinga-Thie
- Departments of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Experimental Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Mahdi M Motazacker
- Departments of Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - G Kees Hovingh
- Departments of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A Kuivenhoven
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Erik S G Stroes
- Departments of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Hoekstra M, van der Sluis RJ, Van Eck M, Van Berkel TJ. Adrenal-Specific Scavenger Receptor BI Deficiency Induces Glucocorticoid Insufficiency and Lowers Plasma Very-Low-Density and Low-Density Lipoprotein Levels in Mice. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2013. [DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.112.300784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objective—
We determined the physiological consequences of adrenocortical-specific deletion of scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI) function in C57BL/6 wild-type mice.
Methods and Results—
One adrenal from 10-day-old SR-BI knockout (KO) mice or wild-type controls was transplanted under the renal capsule of adrenalectomized C57BL/6 recipient mice. The fasting plasma corticosterone level increased over time in transplanted mice. Corticosterone values in SR-BI KO transplanted mice remained ≈50% lower (
P
<0.001) as compared with wild-type transplanted mice, which coincided with adrenocortical lipid depletion. A 6.5-fold higher (
P
<0.01) plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone level was present in SR-BI KO transplanted mice reminiscent of primary glucocorticoid insufficiency. On feeding with cholic acid-containing high cholesterol/high fat diet, SR-BI KO transplanted mice exhibited a 26% (
P
<0.05) reduction in their liver triglyceride level. Hepatic myosin regulatory light chain interacting protein/inducible degrader of the low-density lipoprotein receptor mRNA expression was 48% (
P
<0.01) decreased in adrenal-specific SR-BI KO mice, which was paralleled by a marked decrease (–46%;
P
<0.01) in proatherogenic very-low-density and low-density lipoprotein levels.
Conclusion—
Adrenal-specific disruption of SR-BI function induces glucocorticoid insufficiency and lowers plasma very-low-density and low-density lipoprotein levels in atherogenic diet-fed C57BL/6 mice. These findings further highlight the interaction between adrenal high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol uptake by SR-BI, adrenal steroidogenesis, and the regulation of hepatic lipid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- From the Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald J. van der Sluis
- From the Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- From the Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Theo J.C. Van Berkel
- From the Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
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40
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Hoekstra M, Korporaal SJA, van der Sluis RJ, Hirsch-Reinshagen V, Bochem AE, Wellington CL, Van Berkel TJC, Kuivenhoven JA, Van Eck M. LCAT deficiency in mice is associated with a diminished adrenal glucocorticoid function. J Lipid Res 2012. [PMID: 23178225 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m030080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro studies have suggested that HDL and apoB-containing lipoproteins can provide cholesterol for synthesis of glucocorticoids. Here we assessed adrenal glucocorticoid function in LCAT knockout (KO) mice to determine the specific contribution of HDL-cholesteryl esters to adrenal glucocorticoid output in vivo. LCAT KO mice exhibit an 8-fold higher plasma free cholesterol-to-cholesteryl ester ratio (P < 0.001) and complete HDL-cholesteryl ester deficiency. ApoB-containing lipoprotein and associated triglyceride levels are increased in LCAT KO mice as compared with C57BL/6 control mice (44%; P < 0.05). Glucocorticoid-producing adrenocortical cells within the zona fasciculata in LCAT KO mice are devoid of neutral lipids. However, adrenal weights and basal corticosterone levels are not significantly changed in LCAT KO mice. In contrast, adrenals of LCAT KO mice show compensatory up-regulation of genes involved in cholesterol synthesis (HMG-CoA reductase; 516%; P < 0.001) and acquisition (LDL receptor; 385%; P < 0.001) and a marked 40-50% lower glucocorticoid response to adrenocorticotropic hormone exposure, endotoxemia, or fasting (P < 0.001 for all). In conclusion, our studies show that HDL-cholesteryl ester deficiency in LCAT KO mice is associated with a 40-50% lower adrenal glucocorticoid output. These findings further highlight the important novel role for HDL as cholesterol donor for the synthesis of glucocorticoids by the adrenals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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41
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Hoekstra M, van der Sluis RJ, Li Z, Oosterveer MH, Groen AK, Van Berkel TJC. FXR agonist GW4064 increases plasma glucocorticoid levels in C57BL/6 mice. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 362:69-75. [PMID: 22643070 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2011] [Revised: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 05/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Since high expression of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) has been detected in glucocorticoid-producing adrenocortical cells, we evaluated the potential role of FXR in adrenal glucocorticoid production. FXR agonist GW4064 increased fasting plasma corticosterone levels (+45%; P<0.01) in C57BL/6 mice, indicative of enhanced adrenal steroidogenesis. GW4064 treatment did not affect plasma ACTH levels, adrenal weight, or adrenal expression of steroidogenic genes. Scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI) mRNA and protein expression, respectively, increased 1.9-fold (P<0.01) and 1.5-fold, which suggests a stimulated lipoprotein-associated cholesterol uptake into the adrenals upon GW4064 treatment. In line with an enhanced flux of cellular cholesterol into the steroidogenic pathway, adrenal unesterified and esterified cholesterol stores were 21-41% decreased (P<0.01) upon GW4064 treatment. In conclusion, we have shown that the FXR agonist GW4064 stimulates plasma corticosterone levels in C57BL/6 mice. Our findings suggest a novel role for FXR in the modulation of adrenal cholesterol metabolism and glucocorticoid synthesis in mice.
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MESH Headings
- Adrenal Glands/anatomy & histology
- Adrenal Glands/drug effects
- Adrenal Glands/metabolism
- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone/blood
- Animals
- Apolipoproteins A/genetics
- Apolipoproteins A/metabolism
- Cholesterol Side-Chain Cleavage Enzyme/genetics
- Cholesterol Side-Chain Cleavage Enzyme/metabolism
- Corticosterone/blood
- Female
- Glucocorticoids/blood
- Isoxazoles/pharmacology
- Lipid Metabolism
- Lipids/blood
- Liver/metabolism
- Membrane Transport Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Transport Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Organ Size/drug effects
- Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (ATP)/genetics
- Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase (ATP)/metabolism
- Progesterone Reductase/genetics
- Progesterone Reductase/metabolism
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 2/genetics
- Receptor, Melanocortin, Type 2/metabolism
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/agonists
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/genetics
- Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear/metabolism
- Scavenger Receptors, Class B/genetics
- Scavenger Receptors, Class B/metabolism
- Steroid 11-beta-Hydroxylase/genetics
- Steroid 11-beta-Hydroxylase/metabolism
- Steroid 21-Hydroxylase/genetics
- Steroid 21-Hydroxylase/metabolism
- Tryptophan Oxygenase/genetics
- Tryptophan Oxygenase/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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42
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Kunnen S, Van Eck M. Lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase: old friend or foe in atherosclerosis? J Lipid Res 2012; 53:1783-99. [PMID: 22566575 PMCID: PMC3413220 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r024513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2012] [Revised: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) is a key enzyme that catalyzes the esterification of free cholesterol in plasma lipoproteins and plays a critical role in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) metabolism. Deficiency leads to accumulation of nascent preβ-HDL due to impaired maturation of HDL particles, whereas enhanced expression is associated with the formation of large, apoE-rich HDL(1) particles. In addition to its function in HDL metabolism, LCAT was believed to be an important driving force behind macrophage reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) and, therefore, has been a subject of great interest in cardiovascular research since its discovery in 1962. Although half a century has passed, the importance of LCAT for atheroprotection is still under intense debate. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the insights that have been gained in the past 50 years on the biochemistry of LCAT, the role of LCAT in lipoprotein metabolism and the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in animal models, and its impact on cardiovascular disease in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Kunnen
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Miranda Van Eck
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Hoekstra M, Van Eck M, Korporaal SJA. Genetic studies in mice and humans reveal new physiological roles for the high-density lipoprotein receptor scavenger receptor class B type I. Curr Opin Lipidol 2012; 23:127-32. [PMID: 22262054 DOI: 10.1097/mol.0b013e3283508c09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Scavenger receptor class B type I (BI) is primarily known for its role in the selective uptake of cholesteryl esters from HDL, the final step in reverse cholesterol transport. Here, we will discuss findings that highlight the recently established novel link between scavenger receptor BI and adrenal and platelet function. RECENT FINDINGS Human heterozygote carriers of a functional P297S mutation in the scavenger receptor BI gene show an attenuated adrenal glucocorticoid output and an altered platelet function. Scavenger receptor BI knockout mice lack adrenal cholesteryl ester stores and suffer from primary adrenal glucocorticoid insufficiency, indicating that adrenal HDL cholesteryl ester uptake by scavenger receptor BI is needed for generating the cholesterol pool used for steroidogenesis. Scavenger receptor BI knockout mice exhibit thrombocytopenia, an impaired platelet aggregation response, and higher susceptibility for arterial thrombosis. Bone marrow-specific deletion of scavenger receptor BI in mice indicates that scavenger receptor BI indirectly modulates platelet function through regulation of plasma cholesterol levels. SUMMARY Scavenger receptor BI is not merely a crucial mediator of reverse cholesterol transport, but rather acts as a multipurpose player in cholesterol and steroid metabolism. Further understanding of the contribution of scavenger receptor BI's roles in adrenal steroidogenesis and platelet function to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and atherothrombosis will hopefully show its potential as a therapeutic target for cardiovascular benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno Hoekstra
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Leelahavanichkul A, Bocharov AV, Kurlander R, Baranova IN, Vishnyakova TG, Souza AC, Hu X, Doi K, Vaisman B, Amar M, Sviridov D, Chen Z, Remaley AT, Csako G, Patterson AP, Yuen PST, Star RA, Eggerman TL. Class B scavenger receptor types I and II and CD36 targeting improves sepsis survival and acute outcomes in mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2012; 188:2749-58. [PMID: 22327076 PMCID: PMC3859147 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1003445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Class B scavenger receptors (SR-Bs), such as SR-BI/II or CD36, bind lipoproteins but also mediate bacterial recognition and phagocytosis. In evaluating whether blocking receptors can prevent intracellular bacterial proliferation, phagocyte cytotoxicity, and proinflammatory signaling in bacterial infection/sepsis, we found that SR-BI/II- or CD36-deficient phagocytes are characterized by a reduced intracellular bacterial survival and a lower cytokine response and were protected from bacterial cytotoxicity in the presence of antibiotics. Mice deficient in either SR-BI/II or CD36 are protected from antibiotic-treated cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis, with greatly increased peritoneal granulocytic phagocyte survival (8-fold), a drastic diminution in peritoneal bacteria counts, and a 50-70% reduction in systemic inflammation (serum levels of IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10) and organ damage relative to CLP in wild-type mice. The survival rate of CD36-deficient mice after CLP was 58% compared with 17% in control mice. When compensated for mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid deficiency, SR-BI/II-deficient mice had nearly a 50% survival rate versus 5% in mineralo-/glucocorticoid-treated controls. Targeting SR-B receptors with L-37pA, a peptide that functions as an antagonist of SR-BI/II and CD36 receptors, also increased peritoneal granulocyte counts, as well as reduced peritoneal bacteria and bacterium-induced cytokine secretion. In the CLP mouse sepsis model, L-37pA improved survival from 6 to 27%, reduced multiple organ damage, and improved kidney function. These results demonstrate that the reduction of both SR-BI/II- and CD36-dependent bacterial invasion and inflammatory response in the presence of antibiotic treatment results in granulocyte survival and local bacterial containment, as well as reduces systemic inflammation and organ damage and improves animal survival during severe infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asada Leelahavanichkul
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Alexander V. Bocharov
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Roger Kurlander
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Irina N. Baranova
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Tatyana G. Vishnyakova
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Ana C.P. Souza
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Xuzhen Hu
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Kent Doi
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Boris Vaisman
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Marcelo Amar
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Denis Sviridov
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Zhigang Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Alan T. Remaley
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Gyorgy Csako
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Amy P. Patterson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
- Office of Biotechnology Activities, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Peter S. T. Yuen
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Robert A Star
- Renal Diagnostics and Therapeutics Unit, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Thomas L. Eggerman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
- Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD 20892
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van der Sluis RJ, van Puijvelde GH, Van Berkel TJ, Hoekstra M. Adrenalectomy stimulates the formation of initial atherosclerotic lesions: Reversal by adrenal transplantation. Atherosclerosis 2012; 221:76-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Lipoprotein distribution and serum concentrations of 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one and bile acids: effects of monogenic disturbances in high-density lipoprotein metabolism. Clin Sci (Lond) 2012; 122:385-96. [PMID: 22010943 DOI: 10.1042/cs20110482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BA (bile acid) formation is considered an important final step in RCT (reverse cholesterol transport). HDL (high-density lipoprotein) has been reported to transport BAs. We therefore investigated the effects of monogenic disturbances in human HDL metabolism on serum concentrations and lipoprotein distributions of the major 15 BA species and their precursor C4 (7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one). In normolipidaemic plasma, approximately 84%, 11% and 5% of BAs were recovered in the LPDS (lipoprotein-depleted serum), HDL and the combined LDL (low-density lipoprotein)/VLDL (very-low-density lipoproteins) fraction respectively. Conjugated BAs were slightly over-represented in HDL. For C4, the respective percentages were 23%, 21% and 56% (41% in LDL and 15% in VLDL) respectively. Compared with unaffected family members, neither HDL-C (HDL-cholesterol)-decreasing mutations in the genes APOA1 [encoding ApoA-I (apolipoprotein A-I], ABCA1 (ATP-binding cassette transporter A1) or LCAT (lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase) nor HDL-C-increasing mutations in the genes CETP (cholesteryl ester transfer protein) or LIPC (hepatic lipase) were associated with significantly different serum concentrations of BA and C4. Plasma concentrations of conjugated and secondary BAs differed between heterozygous carriers of SCARB1 (scavenger receptor class B1) mutations and unaffected individuals (P<0.05), but this difference was not significant after correction for multiple testing. Moreover, no differences in the lipoprotein distribution of BAs in the LPDS and HDL fractions from SCARB1 heterozygotes were observed. In conclusion, despite significant recoveries of BAs and C4 in HDL and despite the metabolic relationships between RCT and BA formation, monogenic disorders of HDL metabolism do not lead to altered serum concentrations of BAs and C4.
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Bates HE, Campbell JE, Ussher JR, Baggio LL, Maida A, Seino Y, Drucker DJ. Gipr is essential for adrenocortical steroidogenesis; however, corticosterone deficiency does not mediate the favorable metabolic phenotype of Gipr(-/-) mice. Diabetes 2012; 61:40-8. [PMID: 22043004 PMCID: PMC3237652 DOI: 10.2337/db11-1060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) promotes glucose-dependent insulin secretion. However, GIP also enhances glucocorticoid secretion and promotes adiposity. Because obesity and diabetes are glucocorticoid dependent, we examined whether the effects of GIP on energy balance and glycemia are regulated by glucocorticoids using pharmacological activation of GIP receptor (GIPR) signaling with [d-Ala(2)]GIP in mice and in Y1 adrenocortical cells. Genetic elimination of GIPR activity was also studied in normal- and high-fat (HF)-fed Gipr-deficient (Gipr(-/-)) mice. [d-Ala(2)]GIP increased murine corticosterone levels in a GIPR-dependent manner. Conversely, basal corticosterone levels were reduced, whereas food deprivation resulted in significantly enhanced plasma corticosterone levels in Gipr(-/-) mice. [d-Ala(2)]GIP increased cAMP levels, activated extracellular signal\x{2013}related kinase (ERK)1/2, increased expression of steroidogenic genes, and increased neutral lipid storage in Y1GIPR cells. Gipr(-/-) adrenal glands demonstrated a twofold upregulation of the ACTH receptor mRNA and increased sensitivity to ACTH ex vivo. Although HF-fed Gipr(-/-) mice exhibited significantly lower plasma corticosterone, glucocorticoid-treated HF-fed Gipr(-/-) mice had similar energy balance and glycemia compared with Gipr(+)(/+) controls. Hence, although the Gipr is essential for adrenal steroidogenesis and links HF feeding to increased levels of corticosterone, reduced glucocorticoid levels do not significantly contribute to the enhanced metabolic phenotypes in HF-fed Gipr(-/-) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly E. Bates
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jonathan E. Campbell
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - John R. Ussher
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Laurie L. Baggio
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Adriano Maida
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Daniel J. Drucker
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Corresponding author: Daniel J. Drucker,
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Baranova IN, Vishnyakova TG, Bocharov AV, Leelahavanichkul A, Kurlander R, Chen Z, Souza ACP, Yuen PST, Star RA, Csako G, Patterson AP, Eggerman TL. Class B scavenger receptor types I and II and CD36 mediate bacterial recognition and proinflammatory signaling induced by Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharide, and cytosolic chaperonin 60. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 188:1371-80. [PMID: 22205027 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1100350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Class B scavenger receptors (SR-B) are lipoprotein receptors that also mediate pathogen recognition, phagocytosis, and clearance as well as pathogen-induced signaling. In this study we report that three members of the SR-B family, namely, CLA-1, CLA-2, and CD36, mediate recognition of bacteria not only through interaction with cell wall LPS but also with cytosolic chaperonin 60. HeLa cells stably transfected with any of these SR-Bs demonstrated markedly (3- to 5-fold) increased binding and endocytosis of Escherichia coli, LPS, and chaperonin 60 (GroEL) as revealed by both FACS analysis and confocal microscopy imaging. Increased pathogen (E. coli, LPS, and GroEL) binding to SR-Bs was also associated with the dose-dependent stimulation of cytokine secretion in the order of CD36 > CLA-2 > CLA-1 in HEK293 cells. Pathogen-induced IL-6-secretion was reduced in macrophages from CD36- and SR-BI/II-null mice by 40-50 and 30-40%, respectively. Intravenous GroEL administration increased plasma IL-6 and CXCL1 levels in mice. The cytokine responses were 40-60% lower in CD36(-/-) relative to wild-type mice, whereas increased cytokine responses were found in SR-BI/II(-/-) mice. While investigating the discrepancy of in vitro versus in vivo data in SR-BI/II deficiency, SR-BI/II(-/-) mice were found to respond to GroEL administration without increases in either plasma corticosterone or aldosterone as normally seen in wild-type mice. SR-BI/II(-/-) mice with mineralocorticoid replacement demonstrated an ∼40-50% reduction in CXCL1 and IL-6 responses. These results demonstrate that, by recognizing and mediating inflammatory signaling of both bacterial cell wall LPS and cytosolic GroEL, all three SR-B family members play important roles in innate immunity and host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina N Baranova
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Uda S, Accossu S, Spolitu S, Collu M, Angius F, Sanna F, Banni S, Vacca C, Murru E, Mulas C, Diaz G, Batetta B. A lipoprotein source of cholesteryl esters is essential for proliferation of CEM-CCRF lymphoblastic cell line. Tumour Biol 2011; 33:443-53. [PMID: 22161086 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-011-0270-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumour are characterised by a high content of cholesteryl esters (CEs) stored in lipid droplets purported to be due to a high rate of intracellular esterification of cholesterol. To verify whether and which pathways involved in CE accumulation are essential in tumour proliferation, the effect of CE deprivation, from both exogenous and endogenous sources, on CEM-CCRF cells was investigated. Cholesterol synthesis, esterification and content, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) binding and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-CE uptake were evaluated in cultured in both conventional and delipidated bovine serum with or without oleic or linoleic acids, cholesteryl oleate, LDL and HDL. High content of CEs in lipid droplets in this cell line was due to esterification of both newly synthesised cholesterol and that obtained from hydrolysis of LDL; moreover, a significant amount of CE was derived from HDL-CE uptake. Cell proliferation was slightly affected by either acute or chronic treatment up to 400 μM with Sz-58035, an acyl-cholesteryl cholesterol esterification inhibitor (ACAT); although when the enzyme activity was continuously inhibited, CE content in lipid droplets was significantly higher than those in control cells. In these cells, analysis of intracellular and medium CEs revealed a profile reflecting the characteristics of bovine serum, suggesting a plasma origin of CE molecules. Cell proliferation arrest in delipidated medium was almost completely prevented in the first 72 h by LDL or HDL, although in subsequent cultures with LDL, it manifested an increasing mortality rate. This study suggests that high content of CEs in CEM-CCRF is mainly derived from plasma lipoproteins and that part of CEs stored in lipid droplets are obtained after being taken up from HDL. This route appears to be up-regulated according to cell requirements and involved in low levels of c-HDL during cancer. Moreover, the dependence of tumour cells on a source of lipoprotein provides a novel impetus in developing therapeutic strategies for use in the treatment of some tumours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Uda
- Department of Science and Biomedical Technologies, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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Induction of macrophage scavenger receptor type BI expression by tamoxifen and 4-hydroxytamoxifen. Atherosclerosis 2011; 218:435-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.06.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Revised: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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