Definition of brainstem afferents to gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons in the mouse using conditional viral tract tracing

Norepinephrine Neurons in the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract Suppress Luteinizing Hormone Secretion in Female Mice

Stress impairs fertility, at least in part, via inhibition of gonadotropin secretion. Luteinizing hormone (LH) is an important gonadotropin that is released in a pulsatile pattern in males and in females throughout the majority of the ovarian cycle. Several models of stress, including acute metabolic stress, suppress LH pulses via inhibition of neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus that coexpress kisspeptin, neurokinin B, and dynorphin (termed KNDy cells) which form the pulse generator. The mechanism for inhibition of KNDy neurons during stress, however, remains a significant outstanding question. Here, we investigated a population of catecholamine neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), marked by expression of the enzyme dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH), in female mice. First, we found that a subpopulation of DBH neurons in the NTS is activated (express c-Fos) during metabolic stress. Then, using chemogenetics, we determined that activation of these cells is sufficient to suppress LH pulses, augment corticosterone secretion, and induce sickness-like behavior. In subsequent studies, we identified evidence for suppression of KNDy cells (rather than downstream signaling pathways) and determined that the suppression of LH pulses was not dependent on the acute rise in glucocorticoids. Together these data support the hypothesis that DBH cells in the NTS are important for regulation of neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to stress.

Serotonin stimulates female preoptic area kisspeptin neurons via activation of type 2 serotonin receptors in mice

Background

The neuroendocrine control of ovulation is orchestrated by neuronal circuits that ultimately drive the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus to trigger the preovulatory surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion. While estrogen feedback signals are determinant in triggering activation of GnRH neurons, through stimulation of afferent kisspeptin neurons in the rostral periventricular area of the third ventricle (RP3VKISS1 neurons), many neuropeptidergic and classical neurotransmitter systems have been shown to regulate the LH surge. Among these, several lines of evidence indicate that the monoamine neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) has an excitatory, permissive, influence over the generation of the surge, via activation of type 2 5-HT (5-HT2) receptors. The mechanisms through which this occurs, however, are not well understood. We hypothesized that 5-HT exerts its influence on the surge by stimulating RP3VKISS1 neurons in a 5-HT2 receptor-dependent manner.

Methods

We tested this using kisspeptin neuron-specific calcium imaging and electrophysiology in brain slices obtained from male and female mice.

Results

We show that exogenous 5-HT reversibly increases the activity of the majority of RP3VKISS1 neurons. This effect is more prominent in females than in males, is likely mediated directly at RP3VKISS1 neurons and requires activation of 5-HT2 receptors. The functional impact of 5-HT on RP3VKISS1 neurons, however, does not significantly vary during the estrous cycle.

Conclusion

Taken together, these data suggest that 5-HT2 receptor-mediated stimulation of RP3VKISS1 neuron activity might be involved in mediating the influence of 5-HT on the preovulatory LH surge.

Age-related changes in gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) splice variants in mouse brain

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is the primary regulator of the mammalian reproductive axis. We investigated the spatiotemporal expression of GnRH splice variants (V1, V2, and V3) and splicing factors (Srsf7, Srsf9, and Tra-2) in the male mice brain. Further, using in silico tools, we predicted protein structure and the reason for the low translational efficiency of V2 and V3. Messenger RNA levels of GnRH variants and splicing factors were quantified using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction at different age groups. Our data show that expression of almost all the variants alters with aging in all the brain regions studied; even in comparison to the hypothalamus, several brain areas were found to have higher expression of these variants. Hypothalamic expression of splicing factors such as Srsf7, Srsf9, and Tra-2 also change with aging. Computational studies have translation repressors site on the V3, which probably reduces its translation efficiency. Also, V2 is an intrinsically disordered protein that might have a regulatory or signaling function. In conclusion, this study provides novel crucial information and multiple starting points for future analysis of GnRH splice variants in the brain.

Regulation of the gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuron during stress

The effect of stress on reproduction and gonadal function has captivated investigators for almost 100 years. Following the identification of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) 50 years ago, a niche research field emerged fixated on how stress impairs this central node controlling downstream pituitary and gonadal function. It is now clear that both episodic GnRH secretion in males and females and surge GnRH secretion in females are inhibited during a variety of stress types. There has been considerable advancement in our understanding of numerous stress-related signaling molecules and their ability to impair reproductive neuroendocrine activity during stress. Recently, much attention has turned to the effects of stress on two populations of kisspeptin neurons: the stimulatory afferents to GnRH neurons that regulate pulsatile and surge-type gonadotropin secretion. Indeed, future work is still required to fully construct the neuroanatomical framework underlying stress effects, directly or indirectly, on GnRH neuron function. The present review evaluates and synthesizes evidence related to stress-related signaling molecules acting directly on GnRH neurons. Here, we review the evidence for and against the action of a handful of signaling molecules as inhibitors of GnRH neuron function, including corticotropin-releasing hormone, urocortins, norepinephrine, cortisol/corticosterone, calcitonin gene-related peptide and arginine-phenylalanine-amide-related peptide-3.

An Inhibitory Circuit From Brainstem to GnRH Neurons in Male Mice: A New Role for the RFRP Receptor

RFamide-related peptides (RFRPs, mammalian orthologs of gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone) convey circadian, seasonal, and social cues to the reproductive system. They regulate gonadotropin secretion by modulating gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons via the RFRP receptor. Mice lacking this receptor are fertile but exhibit abnormal gonadotropin responses during metabolic challenges, such as acute fasting, when the normal drop in gonadotropin levels is delayed. Although it is known that these food intake signals to the reproductive circuit originate in the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) in the brainstem, the phenotype of the neurons conveying the signal remains unknown. Given that neuropeptide FF (NPFF), another RFamide peptide, resides in the NTS and can bind to the RFRP receptor, we hypothesized that NPFF may regulate GnRH neurons. To address this question, we used a combination of techniques: cell-attached electrophysiology on GnRH-driven green fluorescent protein-tagged neurons in acute brain slices; calcium imaging on cultured GnRH neurons; and immunostaining on adult brain tissue. We found (1) NPFF inhibits GnRH neuron excitability via the RFRP receptor and its canonical signaling pathway (Gi/o protein and G protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium channels), (2) NPFF-like fibers in the vicinity of GnRH neurons coexpress neuropeptide Y, (3) the majority of NPFF-like cell bodies in the NTS also coexpress neuropeptide Y, and (4) acute fasting increased NPFF-like immunoreactivity in the NTS. Together these data indicate that NPFF neurons within the NTS inhibit GnRH neurons, and thus reproduction, during fasting but prior to the energy deficit.

The connections of Locus Coeruleus with hypothalamus: potential involvement in Alzheimer's disease

The hypothalamus and Locus Coeruleus (LC) share a variety of functions, as both of them take part in the regulation of the sleep/wake cycle and in the modulation of autonomic and homeostatic activities. Such a functional interplay takes place due to the dense and complex anatomical connections linking the two brain structures. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the occurrence of endocrine, autonomic and sleep disturbances have been associated with the disruption of the hypothalamic network; at the same time, in this disease, the occurrence of LC degeneration is receiving growing attention for the potential roles it may have both from a pathophysiological and pathogenetic point of view. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the anatomical and functional connections between the LC and hypothalamus, to better understand whether the impairment of the former may be responsible for the pathological involvement of the latter, and whether the disruption of their interplay may concur to the pathophysiology of AD. Although only a few papers specifically explored this topic, intriguingly, some pre-clinical and post-mortem human studies showed that aberrant protein spreading and neuroinflammation may cause hypothalamus degeneration and that these pathological features may be linked to LC impairment. Moreover, experimental studies in rodents showed that LC plays a relevant role in modulating the hypothalamic sleep/wake cycle regulation or neuroendocrine and systemic hormones; in line with this, the degeneration of LC itself may partly explain the occurrence of hypothalamic-related symptoms in AD.

Kisspeptin/Neurokinin B/Dynorphin (KNDy) cells as integrators of diverse internal and external cues: evidence from viral-based monosynaptic tract-tracing in mice

Neurons in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) that co-express kisspeptin, neurokinin B and dynorphin (KNDy cells) are essential for mammalian reproduction as key regulators of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion. Although multiple endogenous and exogenous signals act indirectly via KNDy neurons to regulate GnRH, the identity of upstream neurons that provide synaptic input to this subpopulation is unclear. We used rabies-mediated tract-tracing in transgenic Kiss1-Cre mice combined with whole-brain optical clearing and multiple-label immunofluorescence to create a comprehensive and quantitative brain-wide map of neurons providing monosynaptic input to KNDy cells, as well as identify the estrogen receptor content and peptidergic phenotype of afferents. Over 90% of monosynaptic input to KNDy neurons originated from hypothalamic nuclei in both male and female mice. The greatest input arose from non-KNDy ARC neurons, including proopiomelanocortin-expressing cells. Significant female-dominant sex differences in afferent input were detected from estrogen-sensitive hypothalamic nuclei critical for reproductive endocrine function and sexual behavior in mice, indicating KNDy cells may provide a unique site for the coordination of sex-specific behavior and gonadotropin release. These data provide key insight into the structural framework underlying the ability of KNDy neurons to integrate endogenous and environmental signals important for the regulation of reproductive function.

Modulation of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Neuron Activity and Secretion in Mice by Non-peptide Neurotransmitters, Gasotransmitters, and Gliotransmitters

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neuron activity and GnRH secretion are essential for fertility in mammals. Here, I review findings from mouse studies on the direct modulation of GnRH neuron activity and GnRH secretion by non-peptide neurotransmitters (GABA, glutamate, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine, ATP, adenosine, and acetylcholine), gasotransmitters (nitric oxide and carbon monoxide), and gliotransmitters (prostaglandin E2 and possibly GABA, glutamate, and ATP). These neurotransmitters, gasotransmitters, and gliotransmitters have been shown to directly modulate activity and/or GnRH secretion in GnRH neurons in vivo or ex vivo (brain slices), from postnatal through adult mice, or in embryonic or immortalized mouse GnRH neurons. However, except for GABA, nitric oxide, and prostaglandin E2, which appear to be essential for normal GnRH neuron activity, GnRH secretion, and fertility in males and/or females, the biological significance of their direct modulation of GnRH neuron activity and/or GnRH secretion in the central regulation of reproduction remains largely unknown and requires further exploration.

The role of neuropeptides and neurotransmitters on kisspeptin/kiss1r-signaling in female reproduction

Reproductive function is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonads (HPG) axis. Hypothalamic neurons synthesizing kisspeptin play a fundamental role in the central regulation of the timing of puberty onset and reproduction in mammals. Kisspeptin is a regulator of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). In female rodent, the kisspeptin (encoded by kiss1 gene), neurokinin B (Tac3) and dynorphin neurons form the basis for the "KNDy neurons" in the arcuate nucleus and play a fundamental role in the regulation of GnRH/LH release. Furthermore, various factors including neurotransmitters and neuropeptides may cooperate with kisspeptin signaling to modulate GnRH function. Many neuropeptides including proopiomelanocortin, neuropeptide Y, agouti-related protein, and other neuropeptides, as well as neurotransmitters, dopamine, norepinephrine and γ-aminobutyric acid are suggested to control feeding and HPG axis, the underlying mechanisms are not well known. Nonetheless, to date, information about the neurochemical factors of kisspeptin neurons remains incomplete in rodent. This review is intended to provide an overview of KNDy neurons; major neuropeptides and neurotransmitters interfere in kisspeptin signaling to modulate GnRH function for regulation of puberty onset and reproduction, with a focus on the female rodent.

Gene Expression Profiling with Cre-Conditional Pseudorabies Virus Reveals a Subset of Midbrain Neurons That Participate in Reward Circuitry

The mesolimbic dopamine pathway receives inputs from numerous regions of the brain as part of a neural system that detects rewarding stimuli and coordinates a behavioral response. The capacity to simultaneously map and molecularly define the components of this complex multisynaptic circuit would thus advance our understanding of the determinants of motivated behavior. To accomplish this, we have constructed pseudorabies virus (PRV) strains in which viral propagation and fluorophore expression are activated only after exposure to Cre recombinase. Once activated in Cre-expressing neurons, the virus serially labels chains of presynaptic neurons. Dual injection of GFP and mCherry tracing viruses simultaneously illuminates nigrostriatal and mesolimbic circuitry and shows no overlap, demonstrating that PRV transmission is confined to synaptically connected neurons. To molecularly profile mesolimbic dopamine neurons and their presynaptic inputs, we injected Cre-conditional GFP virus into the NAc of (anti-GFP) nanobody-L10 transgenic mice and immunoprecipitated translating ribosomes from neurons infected after retrograde tracing. Analysis of purified RNA revealed an enrichment of transcripts expressed in neurons of the dorsal raphe nuclei and lateral hypothalamus that project to the mesolimbic dopamine circuit. These studies identify important inputs to the mesolimbic dopamine pathway and further show that PRV circuit-directed translating ribosome affinity purification can be broadly applied to identify molecularly defined neurons comprising complex, multisynaptic circuits.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The mesolimbic dopamine circuit integrates signals from key brain regions to detect and respond to rewarding stimuli. To further define this complex multisynaptic circuit, we constructed a panel of Cre recombinase-activated pseudorabies viruses (PRVs) that enabled retrograde tracing of neural inputs that terminate on Cre-expressing neurons. Using these viruses and Retro-TRAP (translating ribosome affinity purification), a previously reported molecular profiling method, we developed a novel technique that provides anatomic as well as molecular information about the neural components of polysynaptic circuits. We refer to this new method as PRV-Circuit-TRAP (PRV circuit-directed TRAP). Using it, we have identified major projections to the mesolimbic dopamine circuit from the lateral hypothalamus and dorsal raphe nucleus and defined a discrete subset of transcripts expressed in these projecting neurons, which will allow further characterization of this important pathway. Moreover, the method we report is general and can be applied to the study of other neural circuits.

Altered Expression of Genes Encoding Neurotransmitter Receptors in GnRH Neurons of Proestrous Mice

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons play a key role in the central regulation of reproduction. In proestrous female mice, estradiol triggers the pre-ovulatory GnRH surge, however, its impact on the expression of neurotransmitter receptor genes in GnRH neurons has not been explored yet. We hypothesized that proestrus is accompanied by substantial changes in the expression profile of genes coding for neurotransmitter receptors in GnRH neurons. We compared the transcriptome of GnRH neurons obtained from intact, proestrous, and metestrous female GnRH-GFP transgenic mice, respectively. About 1500 individual GnRH neurons were sampled from both groups and their transcriptome was analyzed using microarray hybridization and real-time PCR. In this study, changes in mRNA expression of genes involved in neurotransmitter signaling were investigated. Differential gene expression was most apparent in GABA-ergic (Gabbr1, Gabra3, Gabrb3, Gabrb2, Gabrg2), glutamatergic (Gria1, Gria2, Grin1, Grin3a, Grm1, Slc17a6), cholinergic (Chrnb2, Chrm4) and dopaminergic (Drd3, Drd4), adrenergic (Adra1b, Adra2a, Adra2c), adenosinergic (Adora2a, Adora2b), glycinergic (Glra), purinergic (P2rx7), and serotonergic (Htr1b) receptors. In concert with these events, expression of genes in the signaling pathways downstream to the receptors, i.e., G-proteins (Gnai1, Gnai2, Gnas), adenylate-cyclases (Adcy3, Adcy5), protein kinase A (Prkaca, Prkacb) protein kinase C (Prkca) and certain transporters (Slc1a4, Slc17a6, Slc6a17) were also changed. The marked differences found in the expression of genes involved in neurotransmitter signaling of GnRH neurons at pro- and metestrous stages of the ovarian cycle indicate the differential contribution of these neurotransmitter systems to the induction of the pre-ovulatory GnRH surge, the known prerequisite of the subsequent hormonal cascade inducing ovulation.

The Increase in Signaling by Kisspeptin Neurons in the Preoptic Area and Associated Changes in Clock Gene Expression That Trigger the LH Surge in Female Rats Are Dependent on the Facilitatory Action of a Noradrenaline Input

In rodents, kisspeptin neurons in the rostral periventricular area of the third ventricle (RP3V) of the preoptic area are considered to provide a major stimulatory input to the GnRH neuronal network that is responsible for triggering the preovulatory LH surge. Noradrenaline (NA) is one of the main modulators of GnRH release, and NA fibers are found in close apposition to kisspeptin neurons in the RP3V. Our objective was to interrogate the role of NA signaling in the kisspeptin control of GnRH secretion during the estradiol induced LH surge in ovariectomized rats, using prazosin, an α1-adrenergic receptor antagonist. In control rats, the estradiol-induced LH surge at 17 hours was associated with a significant increase in GnRH and kisspeptin content in the median eminence with the increase in kisspeptin preceding that of GnRH and LH. Prazosin, administered 5 and 3 hours prior to the predicted time of the LH surge truncated the LH surge and abolished the rise in GnRH and kisspeptin in the median eminence. In the preoptic area, prazosin blocked the increases in Kiss1 gene expression and kisspeptin content in association with a disruption in the expression of the clock genes, Per1 and Bmal1. Together these findings demonstrate for the first time that NA modulates kisspeptin synthesis in the RP3V through the activation of α1-adrenergic receptors prior to the initiation of the LH surge and indicate a potential role of α1-adrenergic signaling in the circadian-controlled pathway timing of the preovulatory LH surge.

60 YEARS OF NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY: The structure of the neuroendocrine hypothalamus: the neuroanatomical legacy of Geoffrey Harris

In November 1955, Geoffrey Harris published a paper based on the Christian A Herter Lecture he had given earlier that year at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, MD, USA. The paper reviewed the contemporary research that was starting to explain how the hypothalamus controlled the pituitary gland. In the process of doing so, Harris introduced a set of properties that helped define the neuroendocrine hypothalamus. They included: i) three criteria that putative releasing factors for adenohypophysial hormones would have to fulfill; ii) an analogy between the representation of body parts in the sensory and motor cortices and the spatial localization of neuroendocrine function in the hypothalamus; and iii) the idea that neuroendocrine neurons are motor neurons and the pituitary stalk functions as a Sherringtonian final common pathway through which the impact of sensory and emotional events on neuroendocrine neurons must pass in order to control pituitary hormone release. Were these properties a sign that the major neuroscientific discoveries that were being made in the early 1950s were beginning to influence neuroendocrinology? This Thematic Review discusses two main points: the context and significance of Harris's Herter Lecture for how our understanding of neuroendocrine anatomy (particularly as it relates to the control of the adenohypophysis) has developed since 1955; and, within this framework, how novel and powerful techniques are currently taking our understanding of the structure of the neuroendocrine hypothalamus to new levels.

Distinct brainstem and forebrain circuits receiving tracheal sensory neuron inputs revealed using a novel conditional anterograde transsynaptic viral tracing system

Sensory nerves innervating the mucosa of the airways monitor the local environment for the presence of irritant stimuli and, when activated, provide input to the nucleus of the solitary tract (Sol) and paratrigeminal nucleus (Pa5) in the medulla to drive a variety of protective behaviors. Accompanying these behaviors are perceivable sensations that, particularly for stimuli in the proximal end of the airways, can be discrete and localizable. Airway sensations likely reflect the ascending airway sensory circuitry relayed via the Sol and Pa5, which terminates broadly throughout the CNS. However, the relative contribution of the Sol and Pa5 to these ascending pathways is not known. In the present study, we developed and characterized a novel conditional anterograde transneuronal viral tracing system based on the H129 strain of herpes simplex virus 1 and used this system in rats along with conventional neuroanatomical tracing with cholera toxin B to identify subcircuits in the brainstem and forebrain that are in receipt of relayed airway sensory inputs via the Sol and Pa5. We show that both the Pa5 and proximal airways disproportionately receive afferent terminals arising from the jugular (rather than nodose) vagal ganglia and the output of the Pa5 is predominately directed toward the ventrobasal thalamus. We propose the existence of a somatosensory-like pathway from the proximal airways involving jugular ganglia afferents, the Pa5, and the somatosensory thalamus and suggest that this pathway forms the anatomical framework for sensations arising from the proximal airway mucosa.

Overexpression of corticotropin releasing factor in the central nucleus of the amygdala advances puberty and disrupts reproductive cycles in female rats

Prolonged exposure to environmental stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and generally disrupts the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. Because CRF expression in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) is a key modulator in adaptation to chronic stress, and central administration of CRF inhibits the hypothalamic GnRH pulse generator, we tested the hypothesis that overexpression of CRF in the CeA of female rats alters anxiety behavior, dysregulates the HPA axis response to stress, changes pubertal timing, and disrupts reproduction. We used a lentiviral vector to increase CRF expression site specifically in the CeA of preweaning (postnatal day 12) female rats. Overexpression of CRF in the CeA increased anxiety-like behavior in peripubertal rats shown by a reduction in time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze and a decrease in social interaction. Paradoxically, puberty onset was advanced but followed by irregular estrous cyclicity and an absence of spontaneous preovulatory LH surges associated with proestrous vaginal cytology in rats overexpressing CRF. Despite the absence of change in basal corticosterone secretion or induced by stress (lipopolysaccharide or restraint), overexpression of CRF in the CeA significantly decreased lipopolysaccharide, but not restraint, stress-induced suppression of pulsatile LH secretion in postpubertal ovariectomized rats, indicating a differential stress responsivity of the GnRH pulse generator to immunological stress and a potential adaptation of the HPA axis to chronic activation of amygdaloid CRF. These data suggest that the expression profile of this key limbic brain CRF system might contribute to the complex neural mechanisms underlying the increasing incidence of early onset of puberty on the one hand and infertility on the other attributed to chronic stress in modern human society.

Long-term Cre-mediated retrograde tagging of neurons using a novel recombinant pseudorabies virus

Brain regions contain diverse populations of neurons that project to different long-range targets. The study of these subpopulations in circuit function and behavior requires a toolkit to characterize and manipulate their activity in vivo. We have developed a novel set of reagents based on Pseudorabies Virus (PRV) for efficient and long-term genetic tagging of neurons based on their projection targets. By deleting IE180, the master transcriptional regulator in the PRV genome, we have produced a mutant virus capable of infection and transgene expression in neurons but unable to replicate in or spread from those neurons. IE180-null mutants showed no cytotoxicity, and infected neurons exhibited normal physiological function more than 45 days after infection, indicating the utility of these engineered viruses for chronic experiments. To enable rapid and convenient construction of novel IE180-null recombinants, we engineered a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) shuttle-vector system for moving new constructs into the PRV IE180-null genome. Using this system we generated an IE180-null recombinant virus expressing the site-specific recombinase Cre. This Cre-expressing virus (PRV-hSyn-Cre) efficiently and robustly infects neurons in vivo and activates transgene expression from Cre-dependent vectors in local and retrograde projecting populations of neurons in the mouse. We also generated an assortment of recombinant viruses expressing fluorescent proteins (mCherry, EGFP, ECFP). These viruses exhibit long-term labeling of neurons in vitro but transient labeling in vivo. Together these novel IE180-null PRV reagents expand the toolkit for targeted gene expression in the brain, facilitating functional dissection of neuronal circuits in vivo.

Transneuronal circuit analysis with pseudorabies viruses

Our ability to understand the function of the nervous system is dependent upon defining the connections of its constituent neurons. Development of methods to define connections within neural networks has always been a growth industry in the neurosciences. Transneuronal spread of neurotropic viruses currently represents the best means of defining synaptic connections within neural networks. The method exploits the ability of viruses to invade neurons, replicate, and spread through the intimate synaptic connections that enable communication among neurons. Since the method was first introduced in the 1970s, it has benefited from an increased understanding of the virus life cycle, the function of viral genome, and the ability to manipulate the viral genome in support of directional spread of virus and the expression of transgenes. In this unit, we review these advances in viral tracing technology and the way in which they may be applied for functional dissection of neural networks.

Social opportunity rapidly regulates expression of CRF and CRF receptors in the brain during social ascent of a teleost fish, Astatotilapia burtoni

In social animals, hierarchical rank governs food availability, territorial rights and breeding access. Rank order can change rapidly and typically depends on dynamic aggressive interactions. Since the neuromodulator corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) integrates internal and external cues to regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, we analyzed the CRF system during social encounters related to status. We used a particularly suitable animal model, African cichlid fish, Astatotilapia burtoni, whose social status regulates reproduction. When presented with an opportunity to rise in rank, subordinate A. burtoni males rapidly change coloration, behavior, and their physiology to support a new role as dominant, reproductively active fish. Although changes in gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH1), the key reproductive molecular actor, have been analyzed during social ascent, little is known about the roles of CRF and the HPA axis during transitions. Experimentally enabling males to ascend in social rank, we measured changes in plasma cortisol and the CRF system in specific brain regions 15 minutes after onset of social ascent. Plasma cortisol levels in ascending fish were lower than subordinate conspecifics, but similar to levels in dominant animals. In the preoptic area (POA), where GnRH1 cells are located, and in the pituitary gland, CRF and CRF₁ receptor mRNA levels are rapidly down regulated in ascending males compared to subordinates. In the Vc/Vl, a forebrain region where CRF cell bodies are located, mRNA coding for both CRFR₁ and CRFR₂ receptors is lower in ascending fish compared to stable subordinate conspecifics. The rapid time course of these changes (within minutes) suggests that the CRF system is involved in the physiological changes associated with shifts in social status. Since CRF typically has inhibitory effects on the neuroendocrine reproductive axis in vertebrates, this attenuation of CRF activity may allow rapid activation of the reproductive axis and facilitate the transition to dominance.

Role of dorsal vagal complex A2 noradrenergic neurons in hindbrain glucoprivic inhibition of the luteinizing hormone surge in the steroid-primed ovariectomized female rat: effects of 5-thioglucose on A2 functional biomarker and AMPK activity

Neuro-glucostasis is required for normal expression of the steroid positive-feedback-induced preovulatory pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) surge, a critical element of female reproduction. Glucoprivic signals from the caudal hindbrain restrain this surge, but the cellular source of this stimulus is unclear. Norepinephrine (NE) exerts well-defined stimulatory effects on the reproductive neuroendocrine axis. Our studies show that medullary A2 noradrenergic neurons are both estrogen- and glucoprivic-sensitive. Here, we investigated the premise that the LH surge is inhibited by A2 cell reactivity to hindbrain glucopenia and diminished preoptic NE neurotransmission. Estradiol- and progesterone-primed ovariectomized (OVX) female rats were injected into the caudal fourth ventricle (CV4) with the glucose anti-metabolite, 5-thioglucose (5TG) or saline (SAL) prior to onset of the LH surge. Pretreatment by intra-CV4 delivery of the selective catecholamine neurotoxin, 6-OHDA, attenuated LH output, but prevented inhibition by 5TG. 5TG modified patterns of steroid feedback-associated Fos staining of A2, but not other medullary catecholamine cell groups. Intra-preoptic administration of the alpha₁-adrenergic receptor agonist, methoxamine, elicited site-specific reversal of hindbrain glucoprivic suppression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neuron Fos labeling and LH release. Western blotting of laser-microdissected A2 neurons revealed glucoprivic stimulation of Fos, but inhibition of the catecholamine synthetic enzyme, dopamine-β-hydroxylase; 5TG also diminished A2 estrogen receptor (ER)-α and progesterone receptor profiles, but augmented ER-β protein. Intriguingly, A2 AMPK activity was decreased in 5TG-treated rats, despite down-regulation of GLUT3 and no change in MCT2 protein expression. Rostral preoptic GnRH neurons also exhibited decreased AMPK activation simultaneous with apparent reduction of neuropeptide signaling to the pituitary. The present studies demonstrate that hindbrain glucoprivation inhibits the LH surge, in part, by reducing preoptic noradrenergic input, and furthermore implicate A2 neurons as a source of this altered signal. Results also suggest that AMPK sensor deactivation does not supersede the impact of pharmacological inhibition of glucose catabolism on A2 cell function nor afferent signaling of hindbrain glucopenia on GnRH neurons. Further studies are needed to determine if decreased AMPK activation in these cell populations reflect compensatory gain in positive energy balance and/or direct effects of estrogen on AMPK.

The neuroinvasive profiles of H129 (herpes simplex virus type 1) recombinants with putative anterograde-only transneuronal spread properties

The use of viruses as transneuronal tracers has become an increasingly powerful technique for defining the synaptic organization of neural networks. Although a number of recombinant alpha herpesviruses are known to spread selectively in the retrograde direction through neural circuits only one strain, the H129 strain of herpes simplex virus type 1, is reported to selectively spread in the anterograde direction. However, it is unclear from the literature whether there is an absolute block or an attenuation of retrograde spread of H129. Here, we demonstrate efficient anterograde spread, and temporally delayed retrograde spread, of H129 and three novel recombinants. In vitro studies revealed no differences in anterograde and retrograde spread of parental H129 and its recombinants through superior cervical ganglion neurons. In vivo injections of rat striatum revealed a clear bias of anterograde spread, although evidence of deficient retrograde transport was also present. Evidence of temporally delayed retrograde transneuronal spread of H129 in the retina was observed following injection of the lateral geniculate nucleus. The data also demonstrated that three novel recombinants efficiently express unique fluorescent reporters and have the capacity to infect the same neurons in dual infection paradigms. From these experiments we conclude that H129 and its recombinants not only efficiently infect neurons through anterograde transneuronal passage, but also are capable of temporally delayed retrograde transneuronal spread. In addition, the capacity to produce dual infection of projection targets following anterograde transneuronal passage provides an important addition to viral transneuronal tracing technology.

Serotonin acts through 5-HT1 and 5-HT2 receptors to exert biphasic actions on GnRH neuron excitability in the mouse

The effect of serotonin (5-HT) on the electrical excitability of GnRH neurons was examined using gramicidin perforated-patch electrophysiology in transgenic GnRH-green fluorescent protein mice. In diestrous female, the predominant effect of 5-HT was inhibition (70%) with 50% of these cells also exhibiting a late-onset excitation. Responses were dose dependent (EC(50) = 1.2μM) and persisted in the presence of amino acid receptor antagonists and tetrodotoxin, indicating a predominant postsynaptic action of 5-HT. Studies in neonatal, juvenile, peripubertal, and adult mice revealed that 5-HT exerted less potent responses from GnRH neurons with advancing postnatal age in both sexes. In adult male mice, 5-HT exerted less potent hyperpolarizing responses with more excitations compared with females. In addition, adult proestrous female GnRH neurons exhibited reduced inhibition and a complete absence of biphasic hyperpolarization-excitation responses. Studies using 5-HT receptor antagonists demonstrated that the activation of 5-HT(1A) receptors mediated the inhibitory responses, whereas the excitation was mediated by the activation of 5-HT(2A) receptors. The 5-HT-mediated hyperpolarization involved both potassium channels and adenylate cyclase activation, whereas the 5-HT excitation was dependent on protein kinase C. The effects of exogenous 5-HT were replicated using fluoxetine, which enhances endogenous 5-HT levels. These studies demonstrate that 5-HT exerts a biphasic action on most GnRH neurons whereby a fast 5HT(1A)-mediated inhibition occurs alongside a slow 5-HT(2A) excitation. The balance of 5-HT-evoked inhibition vs excitation is developmentally regulated, sexually differentiated, and variable across the estrous cycle and may play a role in regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis throughout postnatal development.

C1 neurons: the body's EMTs

The C1 neurons reside in the rostral and intermediate portions of the ventrolateral medulla (RVLM, IVLM). They use glutamate as a fast transmitter and synthesize catecholamines plus various neuropeptides. These neurons regulate the hypothalamic pituitary axis via direct projections to the paraventricular nucleus and regulate the autonomic nervous system via projections to sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons. The presympathetic C1 cells, located in the RVLM, are probably organized in a roughly viscerotopic manner and most of them regulate the circulation. C1 cells are variously activated by hypoglycemia, infection or inflammation, hypoxia, nociception, and hypotension and contribute to most glucoprivic responses. C1 cells also stimulate breathing and activate brain stem noradrenergic neurons including the locus coeruleus. Based on the various effects attributed to the C1 cells, their axonal projections and what is currently known of their synaptic inputs, subsets of C1 cells appear to be differentially recruited by pain, hypoxia, infection/inflammation, hemorrhage, and hypoglycemia to produce a repertoire of stereotyped autonomic, metabolic, and neuroendocrine responses that help the organism survive physical injury and its associated cohort of acute infection, hypoxia, hypotension, and blood loss. C1 cells may also contribute to glucose and cardiovascular homeostasis in the absence of such physical stresses, and C1 cell hyperactivity may contribute to the increase in sympathetic nerve activity associated with diseases such as hypertension.

Release of norepinephrine in the preoptic area activates anteroventral periventricular nucleus neurons and stimulates the surge of luteinizing hormone

The role of norepinephrine (NE) in regulation of LH is still controversial. We investigated the role played by NE in the positive feedback of estradiol and progesterone. Ovarian-steroid control over NE release in the preoptic area (POA) was determined using microdialysis. Compared with ovariectomized (OVX) rats, estradiol-treated OVX (OVX+E) rats displayed lower release of NE in the morning but increased release coincident with the afternoon surge of LH. OVX rats treated with estradiol and progesterone (OVX+EP) exhibited markedly greater NE release than OVX+E rats, and amplification of the LH surge. The effect of NE on LH secretion was confirmed using reverse microdialysis. The LH surge and c-Fos expression in anteroventral periventricular nucleus neurons were significantly increased in OVX+E rats dialyzed with 100 nm NE in the POA. After Fluoro-Gold injection in the POA, c-Fos expression in Fluoro-Gold/tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive neurons increased during the afternoon in the A2 of both OVX+E and OVX+EP rats, in the locus coeruleus (LC) of OVX+EP rats, but was unchanged in the A1. The selective lesion of LC terminals, by intracerebroventricular N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine, reduced the surge of LH in OVX+EP but not in OVX+E rats. Thus, estradiol and progesterone activate A2 and LC neurons, respectively, and this is associated with the increased release of NE in the POA and the magnitude of the LH surge. NE stimulates LH secretion, at least in part, through activation of anteroventral periventricular neurons. These findings contribute to elucidation of the role played by NE during the positive feedback of ovarian steroids.

Interleukin-1 beta simultaneously affects the stress and reproductive axes by modulating norepinephrine levels in different brain areas

AIMS

Interleukin-1β (IL-1β) is a cytokine that is known to activate the stress axis and suppress the reproductive axis. Different brain areas are involved in the regulation of these two axes. However, they are both under the stimulatory control of the catecholamine, norepinephrine (NE). Here, we hypothesized that IL-1β differentially affects these two axes by modulating NE levels in specific brain regions.

MAIN METHODS

Female Sprague-Dawley rats in proestrus were injected intraperitoneally with either PBS-1.0% BSA (control) or 5μg of IL-1β at 1pm. Groups of rats were sacrificed at 1, 3, and 5pm and their brains were collected. Brain areas associated with reproduction as well as areas associated with stress axis activity were isolated and analyzed for NE concentrations using HPLC-EC. Trunk blood was analyzed for IL-1β, corticosterone and luteinizing hormone levels.

KEY FINDINGS

As a general trend, treatment with IL-1β significantly decreased NE levels (p<0.05) in the areas controlling reproductive functions when compared to the control group. In contrast, NE levels increased significantly (p<0.05) in the stress associated areas. LH levels were markedly decreased with IL-1β treatment while corticosterone levels increased dramatically.

SIGNIFICANCE

The ability of IL-1β to produce differential effects on the stress and reproductive axis could be explained by modulation of NE levels in specific brain areas that are associated with these functions. This differential regulation of NE may be an adaptive phenomenon in response to a systemic immune challenge.

Divergent roles of the CRH receptors in the control of gonadotropin secretion induced by acute restraint stress at proestrus

CRH has been implicated as a mediator of stress-induced effects on the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, acting via CRH receptors in various brain regions. We investigated whether the effects of restraint stress on the secretion of gonadotropins on the morning of proestrus are mediated by the CRH-R1 or CRH-R2 receptors in the oval subdivision of the anterolateral BST, the central amygdala, the locus coeruleus (LC), or the A1 and A2 neuron groups in the medulla. At proestrus morning, rats were injected with antalarmin (a CRH-R1 antagonist), asstressin2-B (a CRH-R2 antagonist) or vehicles. Thirty minutes after the injection, the animals were placed into restraints for 30 min, and blood was sampled for 2 h. At the end of the experiment, the brains were removed for immunofluorescence analyses. Restraint stress increased the levels of FSH and LH. Antalarmin blocked the stress-induced increases in FSH and LH secretion, but astressin2-B only blocked the increase in FSH secretion. LC showed intense stress-induced neuronal activity. FOS/tyrosine-hydroxylase coexpression in LC was reduced by antalarmin, but not astressin2-B. The CRH-R1 receptor, more than CRH-R2 receptor, appears to be essential for the stimulation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis by acute stress; this response is likely mediated in part by noradrenergic neurons in the LC. We postulate that the stress-induced facilitation of reproductive function is mediated, at least in part, by CRH action through CRH-R1 on noradrenaline neurons residing in the LC that trigger GnRH discharge and gonadotropin secretion.

Neuronal projections from V1 to V2 in amblyopia

The mechanism of amblyopia in children with congenital cataract is not understood fully, but studies in macaques have shown that geniculate synapses are lost in striate cortex (V1). To search for other projection abnormalities in amblyopia, the pathway from V1 to V2 was examined using a triple-label technique in three animals raised with monocular suture. [(3)H]proline was injected into one eye to label the ocular dominance columns. Cholera toxin B subunit conjugated to gold (CTB-Au) was injected into V2 to label V1 projection neurons. Alternate sections were processed for cytochrome oxidase (CO) and CTB-Au, or dipped for autoradiography. Eight fields of CTB-Au-labeled cells in V1 opposite injection sites were plotted in layers 2/3 or 4B. After thin stripe injection, labeled cells were concentrated in CO patches. Despite column shrinkage, cells in deprived and normal columns were equal in size and density in both layers 2/3 and 4B. After pale or thick stripe injection, labeled cells were concentrated in interpatches. Only 23% of projection neurons originated from deprived columns. This reduction exceeded the degree of column shrinkage, a result explained by the fact that column shrinkage causes disproportionate loss of interpatch territory. These data indicate that early monocular form deprivation does not alter the segregation of patch and interpatch pathways to V2 stripes or cause selective loss or atrophy of V1 projection neurons. The effect of shrinkage of geniculocortical afferents in layer 4C following visual deprivation is not amplified further by attenuation of the amblyopic eye's projections from V1 to V2.

Cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus in the C57BL/6J male mouse: a study of immunostaining and multiple fluorescent tract tracing

The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) plays a critical role in the regulation of autonomic, neuroendocrine, and behavioral activities. This understanding has come from extensive characterization of the PVH in rats, and for this mammalian species we now have a robust model of basic PVH neuroanatomy and function. However, in mice, whose use as a model research animal has burgeoned with the increasing sophistication of tools for genetic manipulation, a comparable level of PVH characterization has not been achieved. To address this, we employed a variety of fluorescent tract tracing and immunostaining techniques in several different combinations to determine the neuronal connections and cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the PVH in the commonly used C57BL/6J male mouse. Our findings reveal a distinct organization in the mouse PVH that is substantially different from the PVH of male rats. The differences are particularly evident with respect to the spatial relations of two principal neuroendocrine divisions (magnocellular and parvicellular) and three descending preautonomic populations in the PVH. We discuss these data in relation to what is known about PVH function and provide the work as a resource for further studies of the neuronal architecture and function of the mouse PVH.

The CRH-R₁ receptor mediates luteinizing hormone, prolactin, corticosterone and progesterone secretion induced by restraint stress in estrogen-primed rats

Acute stress has been shown to modify hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis activity. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), the principal regulator of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, has been implicated as a mediator of stress-induced effects on the reproductive axis. The role of the specific CRH receptor subtypes in this response is not completely understood. In the current study, we investigated the role of the CRH-R(1) receptor on luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin (PRL), progesterone (P) and corticosterone (CT) secretion in stress-induced responses under the influence of estrogen (E(2)). Estrogen-primed ovariectomized rats (estradiol cypionate, 10 μg sc) received an i.v. administration of antalarmin (0.1 or 1mg/kg), a selective CRH-R(1) antagonist, or vehicle before restraint stress for 40 min. Seven blood samples were collected from two experimental groups (one from 10:00 h to 14:00 h and the other from 10:00 h to 18:00 h). An increase of plasma LH induced by restraint acute-stress was followed by alteration of the secretion pattern in the estrogen-induced afternoon surge. In a similar manner, we observed a suppression of the afternoon surge in plasma FSH, a delay of E(2)-induced PRL secretion, and an increase in plasma P and CT. Antalarmin attenuated stress-induce LH increase, decreased CT and P secretion and blocked the stress effects on PRL secretion. These findings suggest that CRH-R(1) mediates, at least in part, the restraint stress effects on the HPA, PRL, and reproductive axes.

A dual infection pseudorabies virus conditional reporter approach to identify projections to collateralized neurons in complex neural circuits

Replication and transneuronal transport of pseudorabies virus (PRV) are widely used to define the organization of neural circuits in rodent brain. Here we report a dual infection approach that highlights connections to neurons that collateralize within complex networks. The method combines Cre recombinase (Cre) expression from a PRV recombinant (PRV-267) and Cre-dependent reporter gene expression from a second infecting strain of PRV (PRV-263). PRV-267 expresses both Cre and a monomeric red fluorescent protein (mRFP) fused to viral capsid protein VP26 (VP26-mRFP) that accumulates in infected cell nuclei. PRV-263 carries a Brainbow cassette and expresses a red (dTomato) reporter that fills the cytoplasm. However, in the presence of Cre, the dTomato gene is recombined from the cassette, eliminating expression of the red reporter and liberating expression of either yellow (EYFP) or cyan (mCerulean) cytoplasmic reporters. We conducted proof-of-principle experiments using a well-characterized model in which separate injection of recombinant viruses into the left and right kidneys produces infection of neurons in the renal preautonomic network. Neurons dedicated to one kidney expressed the unique reporters characteristic of PRV-263 (cytoplasmic dTomato) or PRV-267 (nuclear VP26-mRFP). Dual infected neurons expressed VP26-mRFP and the cyan or yellow cytoplasmic reporters activated by Cre-mediated recombination of the Brainbow cassette. Differential expression of cyan or yellow reporters in neurons lacking VP26-mRFP provided a unique marker of neurons synaptically connected to dual infected neurons, a synaptic relationship that cannot be distinguished using other dual infection tracing approaches. These data demonstrate Cre-enabled conditional reporter expression in polysynaptic circuits that permits the identification of collateralized neurons and their presynaptic partners.

Dual phenotype kisspeptin-dopamine neurones of the rostral periventricular area of the third ventricle project to gonadotrophin-releasing hormone neurones

The neuropeptide kisspeptin and its G-protein-coupled receptor, Gpr54, are critical regulators of fertility. Two major populations of kisspeptin neurones exist in the rodent: one in the rostral periventricular area of the third ventricle (RP3V) and another in the arcuate nucleus. The RP3V population of kisspeptin neurones is crucial for the generation of the luteinising hormone surge that drives ovulation in females. The RP3V kisspeptin neurones are sexually dimorphic, with many more neurones in females than males, and they project to gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) neurones. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expressing neurones in the RP3V are also sexually dimorphic and are assumed to project to GnRH neurones. In the present study, we examined the coexpression of kisspeptin and TH peptides in the RP3V of dioestrous and pro-oestrous female mice. We also investigated whether kisspeptin and TH peptides colocalised in terminal appositions with GnRH neurones in the rostral preoptic area (rPOA). Approximately half of the kisspeptin neurones in the RP3V were found to also express TH and vice versa, although there was no difference between mice in dioestrus or pro-oestrus. The majority (95%) of GnRH neurones in the rPOA exhibited a close apposition from a kisspeptin fibre, whereas only one quarter exhibited a close apposition from a TH fibre. Many of the TH close appositions with GnRH neurones coexpressed kisspeptin (62-86%), although these dual-labelled appositions comprised <20% of all kisspeptin appositions on GnRH neurones. The percentage of GnRH neurones with kisspeptin, TH and double-labelled appositions did not differ between dioestrous and pro-oestrous mice. These findings indicate that a subpopulation of kisspeptin neurones expressing dopamine innervate GnRH neurones in the rPOA.

Microdissection of neural networks by conditional reporter expression from a Brainbow herpesvirus

Transneuronal transport of neurotropic viruses is widely used to define the organization of neural circuitry in the mature and developing nervous system. However, interconnectivity within complex circuits limits the ability of viral tracing to define connections specifically linked to a subpopulation of neurons within a network. Here we demonstrate a unique viral tracing technology that highlights connections to defined populations of neurons within a larger labeled network. This technology was accomplished by constructing a replication-competent strain of pseudorabies virus (PRV-263) that changes the profile of fluorescent reporter expression in the presence of Cre recombinase (Cre). The viral genome carries a Brainbow cassette that expresses a default red reporter in infected cells. However, in the presence of Cre, the red reporter gene is excised from the genome and expression of yellow or cyan reporters is enabled. We used PRV-263 in combination with a unique lentivirus vector that produces Cre expression in catecholamine neurons. Projection-specific infection of central circuits containing these Cre-expressing catecholamine neurons with PRV-263 resulted in Cre-mediated recombination of the PRV-263 genome and conditional expression of cyan/yellow reporters. Replication and transneuronal transport of recombined virus produced conditional reporter expression in neurons synaptically linked to the Cre-expressing catecholamine neurons. This unique technology highlights connections specific to phenotypically defined neurons within larger networks infected by retrograde transneuronal transport of virus from a defined projection target. The availability of other technologies that restrict Cre expression to defined populations of neurons indicates that this approach can be widely applied across functionally defined systems.

The role of the medial and central amygdala in stress-induced suppression of pulsatile LH secretion in female rats

Stress exerts profound inhibitory effects on reproductive function by suppressing the pulsatile release of GnRH and therefore LH. Although the mechanisms by which stressors disrupt the hypothalamic GnRH pulse generator remain to be fully elucidated, numerous studies have implicated the amygdala, especially its medial (MeA) and central nuclei (CeA), as key modulators of the neuroendocrine response to stress. In the present study, we investigated the roles of the MeA and CeA in stress-induced suppression of LH pulses. Ovariectomized rats received bilateral ibotenic acid or sham lesions targeting the MeA or CeA; blood samples (25 μl) were taken via chronically implanted cardiac catheters every 5 min for 6 h for the measurement of LH pulses. After 2 h of baseline sampling, the rats were exposed to either: restraint (1 h), insulin-induced hypoglycemia (IIH) (0.3 U/kg, iv), or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (25 μg/kg, iv) stress. The restraint but not IIH or LPS stress-induced suppression of LH pulses was markedly attenuated by the MeA lesions. In contrast, CeA lesioning attenuated LPS, but not restraint or IIH stress-induced suppression of LH pulses. Moreover, after restraint stress, the number of Fos-positive neurons and the percentage of glutamic acid decarboxylase(67) neurons expressing Fos was significantly greater in the GnRH-rich medial preoptic area (mPOA) of rats with intact, rather than lesioned, MeA. These data indicate that the MeA and CeA play key roles in psychogenic and immunological stress-induced suppression of the GnRH pulse generator, respectively, and the MeA-mediated effect may involve γ-aminobutyric acid ergic signaling within the mPOA.

Beyond Leptin: Emerging Candidates for the Integration of Metabolic and Reproductive Function during Negative Energy Balance

Reproductive status is tightly coupled to metabolic state in females, and ovarian cycling in mammals is halted when energy output exceeds energy input, a metabolic condition known as negative energy balance. This inhibition of reproductive function during negative energy balance occurs due to suppression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release in the hypothalamus. The GnRH secretagogue kisspeptin is also inhibited during negative energy balance, indicating that inhibition of reproductive neuroendocrine circuits may occur upstream of GnRH itself. Understanding the metabolic signals responsible for the inhibition of reproductive pathways has been a compelling research focus for many years. A predominant theory in the field is that the status of energy balance is conveyed to reproductive neuroendocrine circuits via the adipocyte hormone leptin. Leptin is stimulatory for GnRH release and lower levels of leptin during negative energy balance are believed to result in decreased stimulatory drive for GnRH cells. However, recent evidence found that restoring leptin to physiological levels did not restore GnRH function in three different models of negative energy balance. This suggests that although leptin may be an important permissive signal for reproductive function as indicated by many years of research, factors other than leptin must critically contribute to negative energy balance-induced reproductive inhibition. This review will focus on emerging candidates for the integration of metabolic status and reproductive function during negative energy balance.

Corticotrophin-releasing factor and stress-induced inhibition of the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone pulse generator in the female

It is well established that stress activates the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and suppresses the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. A large literature dealing with various stressors that regulate gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion in a variety of species (including nonhuman primates, sheep, and rats) provides evidence that stress modulates GnRH secretion by activating the corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) system and sympathoadrenal pathways, as well as the limbic brain. Different stressors may suppress the HPG axis by activating or inhibiting various pathways in the CNS. In addition to CRF being the principal hypophysiotropic factor driving the HPA axis, it is a potent inhibitor of the GnRH pulse generator. The suppression of the GnRH pulse generator by a variety of stressful stimuli can be blocked by CRF antagonists, suggesting a pivotal role for endogenous CRF. The differential roles for CRF receptor type 1 (CRF-R1) and CRF-R2 in stress-induced suppression of the GnRH pulse generator add to the complexity of CRF regulation of the HPG axis. Although the precise sites and mechanisms of action remain to be elucidated, noradrenergic and gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) neurones are implicated in the system's regulation, and opioids and kisspeptin in the medial preoptic area (mPOA) and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) may operate downstream of the CRF neuronal system.

Mouse models to study the central regulation of puberty

At puberty, the mammalian reproductive axis is activated by neuroendocrine events within the hypothalamus that initiate pulsatile secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) to activate the pituitary/gonadal axis. Thus, puberty is critically dependent on the integrity of GnRH neuronal activity. Defects in the migration of GnRH neurons into the forebrain during development or in GnRH synthesis or release prevent pubertal maturation of the reproductive axis. Both naturally occurring and genetically modified mutant mice have provided valuable information about the cellular and molecular events required for normal pubertal development. This review focuses specifically on the molecules that have been identified from studies in mutant mice that act centrally to control entry into puberty.

Gene transfer in the nervous system and implications for transsynaptic neuronal tracing

IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD

Neuronal circuitries are determined by specific synaptic connections and they provide the cellular basis of cognitive processes and behavioral functions. To investigate neuronal circuitries, tracers are typically used to identify the original neurons and their projection targets.

AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW

Traditional tracing methods using chemical tracers have major limitations such as non-specificity. In this review, we highlight novel genetic tracing approaches that enable visualization of specific neuronal pathways by introducing cDNA encoding a transsynaptic tracer. In contrast to conventional tracing methods, these genetic approaches use cell-type-specific promoters to express transsynaptic tracers such as wheat germ agglutinin and C-terminal fragment of tetanus toxin, which allows labeling of either the input or output populations and connections of specific neuronal type.

WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN

Specific neuronal circuit information by these genetic approaches will allow more precise, comprehensive and novel information about individual neural circuits and their function in normal and diseased brains.

TAKE HOME MESSAGE

Using tracer gene transfer, neuronal circuit plasticity after traumatic injury or neurodegenerative diseases can be visualized. Also, this can provide a good marker for evaluation of therapeutic effects of neuroprotective or neurotrophic agents.

Viral strategies for studying the brain, including a replication-restricted self-amplifying delta-G vesicular stomatis virus that rapidly expresses transgenes in brain and can generate a multicolor golgi-like expression

Viruses have substantial value as vehicles for transporting transgenes into neurons. Each virus has its own set of attributes for addressing neuroscience-related questions. Here we review some of the advantages and limitations of herpes, pseudorabies, rabies, adeno-associated, lentivirus, and others to study the brain. We then explore a novel recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (dG-VSV) with the G-gene deleted and transgenes engineered into the first position of the RNA genome, which replicates only in the first brain cell infected, as corroborated with ultrastructural analysis, eliminating spread of virus. Because of its ability to replicate rapidly and to express multiple mRNA copies and additional templates for more copies, reporter gene expression is amplified substantially, over 500-fold in 6 hours, allowing detailed imaging of dendrites, dendritic spines, axons, and axon terminal fields within a few hours to a few days after inoculation. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression is first detected within 1 hour of inoculation. The virus generates a Golgi-like appearance in all neurons or glia of regions of the brain tested. Whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology, calcium digital imaging with fura-2, and time-lapse digital imaging showed that neurons appeared physiologically normal after expressing viral transgenes. The virus has a wide range of species applicability, including mouse, rat, hamster, human, and Drosophila cells. By using dG-VSV, we show efferent projections from the suprachiasmatic nucleus terminating in the periventricular region immediately dorsal to the nucleus. DG-VSVs with genes coding for different color reporters allow multicolor visualization of neurons wherever applied.

Noradrenaline involvement in the negative-feedback effects of ovarian steroids on luteinising hormone secretion

Noradrenaline has been shown to modulate the ovarian-steroid feedback on luteinising-hormone (LH) release. However, despite the high amount of evidence accumulated over many years, the role of noradrenaline in LH regulation is still not clearly understood. The present study aimed to further investigate the involvement of noradrenaline in the negative-feedback effect of oestradiol and progesterone on basal LH secretion. In experiment 1, ovariectomised (OVX) rats received a single injection of oil, oestradiol, or progesterone at 09.00-10.00 h and were decapitated 30 or 60 min later. Levels of noradrenaline and its metabolite, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol (MHPG), were determined in microdissections of the preoptic area (POA) and medial basal hypothalamus-median eminence (MBH-ME) and correlated with LH secretion. Basal LH levels were decreased 30 and 60 min after oestradiol or progesterone injection, and this hormonal response was significantly correlated with a reduction in POA MHPG levels, which reflect noradrenaline release. In addition, noradrenaline levels in the POA were increased, whereas noradrenaline turnover (MHPG/noradrenaline ratio) was decreased 60 min after the injection of both hormones. No effect was found in the MBH-ME. In experiment 2, i.c.v. administration of noradrenaline (60 nmol), performed 15 min before oestradiol or progesterone injection in jugular vein-cannulated OVX rats, completely prevented the ovarian steroid-induced inhibition of LH secretion. The data obtained provide direct evidence that LH secretion in OVX rats is positively regulated by basal noradrenergic activity in the POA, and its reduction appears to play a role in the negative-feedback effect of ovarian steroids on LH secretion in vivo.

Effects of estrogen receptor alpha and beta gene deletion on estrogenic induction of progesterone receptors in the locus coeruleus in female mice

Locus coeruleus (LC) is involved in the LHRH regulation by gonadal steroids. We investigated the expression of progesterone and estrogen receptors (PR; ER) in LC neurons of ERalpha (alphaERKO) or ERbeta (betaERKO) knockout mice, and their wild-type (alphaWT and betaWT). Immunocytochemical studies showed that LC expresses PR and both ERs, although ERbeta was more abundant. Estradiol benzoate (EB) decreased ERalpha-positive cells in WT and betaERKO mice, and progesterone caused a further reduction, whereas none of the steroids influenced ERbeta expression. ERbeta deletion increased ERalpha while ERalpha deletion did not alter ERbeta expression. In both WT mice, EB increased PR expression, which was diminished by progesterone. These steroid effects were also observed in alphaERKO animals but to a lesser extent, suggesting that ERalpha is partially responsible for the estrogenic induction of PR in LC. Steroid effects on PR in betaERKO mice were similar to those in the alphaERKO but to a lesser extent, probably because PR expression was already high in the oil-treated group. This expression seems to be specific of LC neurons, since it was not observed in other areas studied, the preoptic area and ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus. These findings show that LC in mice expresses alphaER, betaER, and PR, and that a balance between them may be critical for the physiological control of reproductive function.

Ovarian-steroid modulation of locus coeruleus activity in female rats: involvement in luteinising hormone regulation

The noradrenergic nucleus locus coeruleus (LC) has been reported to regulate luteinising hormone (LH) secretion in female rats. Both oestrogen and progestin receptors have been demonstrated in LC neurones, suggesting that these cells are possibly responsive to variations in circulating levels of ovarian steroids. We therefore evaluated changes in the activity of LC neurones during the oestrous cycle and after ovarian-steroid treatment in ovariectomised (OVX) rats, as determined by immunoreactivity to Fos-related antigens (FRA), which comprises all of the known members of the Fos family. Effects of ovarian steroids on the firing rate of LC neurones were also determined in a slice preparation. The number of FRA/tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactive (ir) neurones in the LC increased from 14.00-16.00 h on pro-oestrus, coinciding with the onset of the LH surge and rise in plasma progesterone. FRA immunoreactivity was unaltered during dioestrus. Oestradiol-treated OVX rats (OVX+E) displayed marked reduction in FRA/TH-ir neurones in LC compared to oil-treated OVX rats. Accordingly, oestradiol superfusion significantly reduced the spontaneous firing rate of LC neurones in slices from OVX rats. Compared to OVX+E, oestradiol-treated rats injected with progesterone at 08.00 h (OVX+EP) exhibited higher number of FRA/TH-ir neurones in the LC at 10.00 h and 16.00 h, and great amplification of the LH surge. Bath application of progesterone significantly increased the spontaneous firing rate of OVX+E LC neurones. Our data suggest that ovarian steroids may physiologically modulate the activity of LC neurones in females, with possible implications for LH secretion. Moreover, oestradiol and progesterone appear to exert opposite and complementary effects (i.e. whereas oestradiol inhibits, progesterone, after oestradiol priming, stimulates LC activity).

Inputs to serotonergic neurons revealed by conditional viral transneuronal tracing

Descending projections arising from brainstem serotonergic (5HT) neurons contribute to both facilitatory and inhibitory controls of spinal cord "pain" transmission neurons. Unclear, however, are the brainstem networks that influence the output of these 5HT neurons. To address this question, here we used a novel neuroanatomical tracing method in a transgenic line of mice in which Cre recombinase is selectively expressed in 5HT neurons (ePet-Cre mice). Specifically, we injected the conditional pseudorabies virus recombinant (BA2001) that can replicate only in Cre-expressing neurons. Because BA2001 transports exclusively in a retrograde manner, we were able to reveal a subset of the neurons and circuits that are located upstream of the Cre-expressing 5HT neurons. We show that diverse brainstem regions differentially target the 5HT neurons of the dorsal raphe (DR) and the nucleus raphe magnus of the rostroventral medulla (RVM). Among these are several catecholaminergic and cholinergic cell groups, the periaqueductal gray, several brainstem reticular nuclei, and the nucleus of the solitary tract. We conclude that a brainstem 5HT network integrates somatic and visceral inputs arising from various areas of the body. We also identified a circuit that arises from projection neurons of deep spinal cord laminae V-VIII and targets the 5HT neurons of the NRM, but not of the DR. This spinoreticular pathway constitutes an anatomical substrate through which a noxious stimulus can activate 5HT neurons of the NRM and in turn could trigger descending serotonergic antinociceptive controls.

Transneuronal circuit tracing with neurotropic viruses

Because neurotropic viruses naturally traverse neural pathways, they are extremely valuable for elucidating neural circuits. Naturally occurring herpes and rabies viruses have been used for transneuronal circuit tracing for decades. Depending on the type of virus and strain, virus can travel preferentially in the anterograde or the retrograde direction. More recently, genetic modifications have allowed for many improvements. These include: reduced pathogenicity; addition of marker genes; control of synaptic spread; pseudotyping for infection of selected cells; addition of ancillary genetic elements for combining circuit tracing with manipulation of activity or functional assays. These modifications, along with the likelihood of future developments, suggest that neurotropic viruses will be increasingly important and effective tools for future studies of neural circuits.

Emerging methodologies for the study of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing-hormone (GnRH) neurons

Gonadotropin-releasing-hormone (GnRH) neurons form part of a central neural oscillator that controls sexual reproduction through intermittent release of the GnRH peptide. Activity of GnRH neurons, and by extension release of GnRH, has been proposed to reflect intrinsic properties and synaptic input of GnRH neurons. To study GnRH neurons, we used traditional electrophysiology and computational methods. These emerging methodologies enhance the elucidation of processing in GnRH neurons. We used dynamic current-clamping to understand how living GnRH somata process input from glutamate and GABA, two key neurotransmitters in the neuroendocrine hypothalamus. In order to study the impact of synaptic integration in dendrites and neuronal morphology, we have developed full-morphology models of GnRH neurons. Using dynamic clamping, we have demonstrated that small-amplitude glutamatergic currents can drive repetitive firing in GnRH neurons. Furthermore, application of simulated GABAergic synapses with a depolarized reversal potential have revealed two functional subpopulations of GnRH neurons: one population in which GABA chronically depolarizes membrane potential (without inducing action potentials) and a second population in which GABAergic excitation results in slow spiking. Finally, when AMPA-type and GABA-type simulated inputs are applied together, action potentials occur when the AMPA-type conductance occurs during the descending phase of GABAergic excitation and at the nadir of GABAergic inhibition. Compartmental computer models have shown that excitatory synapses at >300 microns from somtata are unable to drive spiking with purely passive dendrites. In models with active dendrites, distal synapses are more efficient at driving spiking than somatic inputs. We then used our models to extend the results from dynamic current clamping at GnRH somata to distribute synaptic inputs along the dendrite. We show that propagation delays for dendritic synapses alter synaptic integration in GnRH neurons by widening the temporal window of interaction for the generation of action potentials. Finally, we have shown that changes in dendrite morphology can modulate the output of GnRH neurons by altering the efficacy of action potential generation in response to after-depolarization potentials (ADPs). Taken together, the methodologies of dynamic current clamping and multi-compartmental modeling can make major contributions to the study of synaptic integration and structure-function relationships in hypothalamic GnRH neurons. Use of these methodological approaches will continue to provide keen insights leading to conceptual advances in our understanding of reproductive hormone secretion in normal and pathological physiology and open the door to understanding whether the mechanisms of pulsatile GnRH release are conserved across species.

Hypothalamic control of anterior pituitary function: a history

The concept of neurohumoral control of anterior pituitary function championed by Geoffrey Harris was based upon clinical and biological observation backed by rigorous experimental testing. The areas of the brain involved in the control of gonadotrophic hormone synthesis and release were identified by electrical stimulation, lesioning and fibre tract cutting. The medial preoptic area (MPOA) proved to be a major integrating centre, with axon terminals from this region terminating at the median eminence releasing factors into the portal vessels to give a direct route from brain to pituitary. It took over a decade before the gonadotrophic hormone-releasing hormone (GnRH) was isolated, sequenced and synthesised. With antibodies raised against this peptide, the MPOA was identified as a site rich in GnRH neurones and the hormone was detected at high levels in portal blood extracts. A natural knockout of the GnRH gene was discovered in a hypogonadal (hpg) mouse. Hormone injections, gene replacement methods and neural grafting in these mutants all confirmed the central role of GnRH in reproduction. The modern techniques of molecular biology have allowed us to extend our knowledge base. In the last few years the role of kisspeptin and its receptor (GPR54) in the control of the GnRH neurone has added a further level of hypothalamic involvement in the modulation of reproduction.

Norepinephrine suppresses gonadotropin-releasing hormone neuron excitability in the adult mouse

Norepinephrine (NE) is considered to exert an important modulatory influence upon the activity of GnRH neurons. In the present study, we used a transgenic GnRH-green fluorescent protein mouse model to examine the effects of NE on the electrical excitability of GnRH neurons in male and female mice. Gramicidin-perforated patch recordings demonstrated that NE (10-100 mum) exerted a robust membrane hyperpolarization, with associated suppression of firing, in more than 85% of male prepubertal and adult GnRH neurons (n = 25). The same hyperpolarizing action was observed in female GnRH neurons from diestrous (91%, n = 11), proestrous (50%, n = 14), estrous (77%, n = 13), and ovariectomized (82%, n = 11) mice. A subpopulation (<10%) of silent GnRH neurons in all groups responded to NE with hyperpolarization followed by the initiation of firing upon NE washout. The hyperpolarizing actions of NE were mimicked by alpha1-adrenergic (phenylephrine) and beta-adrenergic (isoproterenol) receptor agonists, but alpha2 receptor activation (guanabenz) had no effect. Approximately 75% of the NE-evoked hyperpolarization was blocked by the alpha1 receptor antagonist prazosin, and 75% of GnRH neurons responded to both phenylephrine and isoproterenol. These findings indicate that NE acts through both alpha1- and beta-adrenergic receptors located on the soma/dendrites of GnRH neurons to directly suppress their excitability throughout the estrous cycle and after ovariectomy. These data force a reanalysis of existing models explaining the effects of NE on gonadotropin secretion.

The alpha-herpesviruses: molecular pathfinders in nervous system circuits

Several neuroinvasive viruses can be used to study the mammalian nervous system. In particular, infection by pseudorabies virus (PRV), an alpha-herpesvirus with broad host range, reveals chains of functionally connected neurons in the nervous systems of a variety of mammals. The specificity of PRV trans-neuronal spread has been established in several systems. One attenuated strain, PRV-Bartha, causes a reduced inflammatory response and also spreads only from infected post- to pre-synaptic neurons. We review the basics of PRV tracing and then discuss new developments and novel approaches that have enabled a more detailed understanding of the architecture of the nervous system. As questions and techniques evolve in the field of neuroscience, advances in PRV tracing will certainly follow.