Antiinflammatory and Antihyperalgesic Activity of C-Phycocyanin

C-phycocyanin acts as a positive immunomodulator in different primary and secondary organs of mice

Objective: C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a photosynthetic pigment with interesting therapeutic properties. However, its effectiveness in modulating the immune system cell populations has not been elucidated. We analyzed the action of C-PC on the modulation of mice immune system.

Methods: The animals were treated subcutaneously with C-PC for 3 consecutive days. On the fourth day, the animals were euthanized and cells from different organs were analyzed by flow cytometry. Cytotoxicity was analyzed using biochemical parameters.

Results: The results showed that C-PC increased the total cellularity in percentage and absolute number in the inguinal lymph node as well as the absolute number of B cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and myeloid cells. The percentage of B cells was also increased in the lymph node. In the bone marrow, there was a reduction in immature and mature B cells. In contrast, C-PC increased the percentage and absolute number of myeloid cells in the bone marrow. C-PC administration also promoted an increase of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the thymus, and a reduction in these populations in the spleen.

Conclusion: The data show for the first time the positive immunomodulatory role of C-PC by recruiting distinct populations of immune system cells to the treatment-draining lymphoid organ.

Lipid extract of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris and Arthrospira platensis as a bioactive ingredient

A growing market for seaweed products has emerged in the last 20 years, with microalgae and their extracts representing a source of high-value chemicals. In this study, antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities of lipid fraction extract from Chlorella vulgaris (Chlorella) and Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina) on Normal Human Dermal Fibroblasts (NHDF cells) were evaluated. Treatments with Chlorella and Spirulina lipid extracts in NHDF cells at 0.1, 0.5, and 1% significantly protect UVA-induced damage by decreasing oxidative stress in the form of reactive oxygen species (ROS) but do not display any significant protection from HEV-induced damage. Chlorella or Spirulina lipid extracts at 0.1 and 0.5% display significant anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the 2-propanol-induced IL-6 expression on NHDF cells in vitro but showed no decrease in TNF-α expression. Chlorella and Spirulina lipid extracts present antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity on NHDF cells.

C-Phycocyanin Prevents Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Lung Remodeling in an Ovalbumin-Induced Rat Asthma Model

Asthma is a chronic immunological disease related to oxidative stress and chronic inflammation; both processes promote airway remodeling with collagen deposition and matrix thickening, causing pulmonary damage and lost function. This study investigates the immunomodulation of C-phycocyanin (CPC), a natural blue pigment purified from cyanobacteria, as a potential alternative treatment to prevent the remodeling process against asthma. We conducted experiments using ovalbumin (OVA) to induce asthma in Sprague Dawley rats. Animals were divided into five groups: (1) sham + vehicle, (2) sham + CPC, (3) asthma + vehicle, (4) asthma + CPC, and (5) asthma + methylprednisolone (MP). Our findings reveal that asthma promotes hypoxemia, leukocytosis, and pulmonary myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity by increasing lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, inflammation associated with Th2 response, and airway remodeling in the lungs. CPC and MP treatment partially prevented these physiological processes with similar action on the biomarkers evaluated. In conclusion, CPC treatment enhanced the antioxidant defense system, thereby preventing oxidative stress and reducing airway inflammation by regulating pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, consequently avoiding asthma-induced airway remodeling.

Exploring the NRF2/HO-1 and NF-κB Pathways: Spirulina Nanoparticles as a Novel Approach to Combat Diabetic Nephropathy

Arthrospira platensis has been the subject of plentiful studies due to its purported health advantages; nevertheless, additional investigation is required to determine whether several chronic diseases may be treated or avoided with its nanoform. Therefore, we set out to examine A. platensis nanoparticles (SNPs) to protect against kidney impairment caused by Streptozotocin (STZ) in diabetic rats, precisely focusing on its effect and the cellular intracellular pathways involved. Male Wistar rats were assigned into four groups: Group 1 was set as control, comprising the normal rats; group 2 was administered SNPs (0.5 mg/kg BW, once/day) orally for 84 consecutive days; group 3, STZ-diabetic rats were injected with STZ (65 mg/kg BW); and group 4, in which the diabetic rats were treated with SNPs. After inducing diabetes in rats for 84 days, the animals were euthanized. The results disclosed that SNP treatment substantially (P < 0.05) improved the glucose and glycated hemoglobin levels (HbA1c %), insulin, C-peptide, and cystatin C deterioration in diabetic rats. Furthermore, SNP administration significantly lowered (P < 0.05) nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in renal tissue and enhanced kidney function metrics, as well as improved the antioxidant capacity of the renal tissue. In addition, oral SNPs overcame the diabetic complications concerning diabetic nephropathy, indicated by downregulation and upregulation of apoptotic and antiapoptotic genes, respectively, along with prominent modulation of the antiangiogenic marker countenance level, improving kidney function. SNP modulated the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 and heme oxygenase-1 (NRF2/HO-1) pathways and inhibited the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) expression, strengthening the SNP pathways in alleviating diabetic nephropathy. The histopathology results corroborated the obtained biochemical and molecular observations, suggesting the therapeutic potential of SNPs in diabetic nephropathy via mechanisms other than its significant antioxidant and hypoglycemic effects, including modulation of antiangiogenic and inflammatory mediators and the NRF2/HO-1 pathways.

Innovative Bioactive Products with Medicinal Value from Microalgae and Their Overall Process Optimization through the Implementation of Life Cycle Analysis-An Overview

Microalgae are being recognized as valuable sources of bioactive chemicals with important medical properties, attracting interest from multiple industries, such as food, feed, cosmetics, and medicines. This review study explores the extensive research on identifying important bioactive chemicals from microalgae, and choosing the best strains for nutraceutical manufacturing. It explores the most recent developments in recovery and formulation strategies for creating stable, high-purity, and quality end products for various industrial uses. This paper stresses the significance of using Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) as a strategic tool with which to improve the entire process. By incorporating LCA into decision-making processes, researchers and industry stakeholders can assess the environmental impact, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of raw materials of several approaches. This comprehensive strategy will allow for the choosing of the most effective techniques, which in turn will promote sustainable practices for developing microalgae-based products. This review offers a detailed analysis of the bioactive compounds, strain selection methods, advanced processing techniques, and the incorporation of LCA. It will serve as a valuable resource for researchers and industry experts interested in utilizing microalgae for producing bioactive products with medicinal properties.

Bioactive C-phycocyanin exerts immunomodulatory and antitumor activity in mice with induced melanoma

Melanoma is the most aggressive and deadly skin cancer. The difficulty in its treatment arises from its ability to suppress the immune system, making it crucial to find a substance that increases anti-tumor immunity. C-phycocyanin (C-PC) appears as a promising bioactive, with multifaceted effects against several cancers, but its efficacy against melanoma has only been tested in vitro. Therefore, we investigated C-PC's the anti-tumor and immunomodulatory action in a murine melanoma model. The tumor was subcutaneously induced in C57BL/6 mice by injecting B16F10 cells. The animals were injected subcutaneously with C-PC for three consecutive days. After euthanasia, the tumor was weighed and measured. The inguinal lymph node was removed, and the cells were stained with antibodies and analyzed by flow cytometry. The heart, brain and lung were analyzed by histopathology. C-PC increased the B cell population of the inguinal lymph node in percentage and absolute number. The absolute number of T lymphocytes and myeloid cells were also increased in the groups treated with C-PC. Thus, C-PC showed a positive immunomodulatory effect both animals with and without tumor. However, this effect was more pronounced in the presence of the tumor. Positive immune system modulation may be associated with a reduction in tumor growth in animals treated with C-PC. Administration of C-PC subcutaneously did not cause organ damage. Our findings demonstrate C-PC's immunomodulatory and anti-melanoma action, paving the way for clinical research with this bioactive.

Marine algae: A treasure trove of bioactive anti-inflammatory compounds

This comprehensive review examines the diverse classes of pharmacologically active compounds found in marine algae and their promising anti-inflammatory effects. The review covers various classes of anti-inflammatory compounds sourced from marine algae, including phenolic compounds, flavonoids, terpenoids, caretenoids, alkaloids, phlorotannins, bromophenols, amino acids, peptides, proteins, polysaccharides, and fatty acids. The anti-inflammatory activities of marine algae-derived compounds have been extensively investigated using in vitro and in vivo models, demonstrating their ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory mediators, such as cytokines, chemokines, and enzymes involved in inflammation. Moreover, marine algae-derived compounds have exhibited immunomodulatory properties, regulating immune cell functions and attenuating inflammatory responses. Specific examples of compounds with notable anti-inflammatory activities are highlighted. This review provides valuable insights for researchers in the field of marine anti-inflammatory pharmacology and emphasizes the need for further research to harness the pharmacological benefits of marine algae-derived compounds for the development of effective and safe therapeutic agents.

Reversible disassembly-reassembly of C-phycocyanin in pressurization-depressurization cycles of high hydrostatic pressure

Hydrostatic pressure can reversibly modulate protein-protein and protein-chromophore interactions of C-phycocyanin (C-PC) from Spirulina platensis. Small-angle X-ray scattering combined with UV-Vis spectrophotometry and protein modeling was used to explore the color and structural changes of C-PC under high pressure conditions at different pH levels. It was revealed that pressures up to 350 MPa were enough to fully disassemble C-PC from trimers to monomers at pH 7.0, or from monomers to detached subunits at pH 9.0. These disassemblies were accompanied by protein unfolding that caused these high-pressure induced structures to be more extended. These changes were reversible following depressurization. The trimer-to-monomer transition proceeded through a collection of previously unrecognized, L-shaped intermediates resembling C-PC dimers. Additionally, pressurized C-PC showed decayed Q-band absorption and fortified Soret-band absorption. This was evidence that the folded tetrapyrroles, which had folded at ambient pressure, formed semicyclic unfolded conformations at a high pressure. Upon depressurization, the peak intensity and shift all recovered stepwise, showing pressure can precisely manipulate C-PC's structure as well as its color. Overall, a protein-chromophore regulatory theory of C-PC was unveiled. The pressure-tunability could be harnessed to modify and stabilize C-PC's structure and photochemical properties for designing new delivery and optical materials.

Targeting beta-catenin signaling for prevention of colorectal cancer - Nutraceutical, drug, and dietary options

Progressive up-regulation of β-catenin signaling is very common in the transformation of colorectal epithelium to colorectal cancer (CRC). Practical measures for opposing such signaling hence have potential for preventing or slowing such transformation. cAMP/PKA activity in colon epithelium, as stimulated by COX-2-generated prostaglandins and β2-adrenergic signaling, boosts β-catenin activity, whereas cGMP/PKG signaling has the opposite effect. Bacterial generation of short-chain fatty acids (as supported by unrefined high-carbohydrate diets, berberine, and probiotics), dietary calcium, daily aspirin, antioxidants opposing cox-2 induction, and nicotine avoidance, can suppress cAMP production in colonic epithelium, whereas cGMP can be boosted via linaclotides, PDE5 inhibitors such as sildenafil or icariin, and likely high-dose biotin. Selective activation of estrogen receptor-β by soy isoflavones, support of adequate vitamin D receptor activity with UV exposure or supplemental vitamin D, and inhibition of CK2 activity with flavanols such as quercetin, can also oppose β-catenin signaling in colorectal epithelium. Secondary bile acids, the colonic production of which can be diminished by low-fat diets and berberine, can up-regulate β-catenin activity by down-regulating farnesoid X receptor expression. Stimulation of PI3K/Akt via insulin, IGF-I, TLR4, and EGFR receptors boosts β-catenin levels via inhibition of glycogen synthase-3β; plant-based diets can down-regulate insulin and IGF-I levels, exercise training and leanness can keep insulin low, anthocyanins and their key metabolite ferulic acid have potential for opposing TLR4 signaling, and silibinin is a direct antagonist for EGFR. Partially hydrolyzed phytate can oppose growth factor-mediated down-regulation of β-catenin by inhibiting Akt activation. Multifactorial strategies for safely opposing β-catenin signaling can be complemented with measures that diminish colonic mutagenesis and DNA hypomethylation - such as avoidance of heme-rich meat and charred or processed meats, consumption of phase II-inductive foods and nutraceuticals (e.g., Crucifera), and assurance of adequate folate status.

Exploring the Benefits of Phycocyanin: From Spirulina Cultivation to Its Widespread Applications

Large-scale production of microalgae and their bioactive compounds has steadily increased in response to global demand for natural compounds. Spirulina, in particular, has been used due to its high nutritional value, especially its high protein content. Promising biological functions have been associated with Spirulina extracts, mainly related to its high value added blue pigment, phycocyanin. Phycocyanin is used in several industries such as food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, which increases its market value. Due to the worldwide interest and the need to replace synthetic compounds with natural ones, efforts have been made to optimize large-scale production processes and maintain phycocyanin stability, which is a highly unstable protein. The aim of this review is to update the scientific knowledge on phycocyanin applications and to describe the reported production, extraction, and purification methods, including the main physical and chemical parameters that may affect the purity, recovery, and stability of phycocyanin. By implementing different techniques such as complete cell disruption, extraction at temperatures below 45 °C and a pH of 5.5-6.0, purification through ammonium sulfate, and filtration and chromatography, both the purity and stability of phycocyanin have been significantly improved. Moreover, the use of saccharides, crosslinkers, or natural polymers as preservatives has contributed to the increased market value of phycocyanin.

The effectiveness of anti-inflammatory agents in reducing chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment in preclinical models - A systematic review

Chemotherapy-induced cognitive impairment (CICI) is a debilitating condition resulting from chemotherapy administration for cancer treatment. CICI is characterised by various cognitive impairments, including issues with learning, memory, and concentration, impacting quality of life. Several neural mechanisms are proposed to drive CICI, including inflammation, therefore, anti-inflammatory agents could ameliorate such impairments. Research is still in the preclinical stage; however, the efficacy of anti-inflammatories to reduce CICI in animal models is unknown. Therefore, a systematic review was conducted, with searches performed in PubMed, Scopus, Embase, PsycInfo and Cochrane Library. A total of 64 studies were included, and of the 50 agents identified, 41 (82%) reduced CICI. Interestingly, while non-traditional anti-inflammatory agents and natural compounds reduced impairment, the traditional agents were unsuccessful. Such results must be taken with caution due to the heterogeneity observed in terms of methods employed. Nevertheless, preliminary evidence suggests anti-inflammatory agents could be beneficial for treating CICI, although it may be critical to think beyond the use of traditional anti-inflammatories when considering which specific compounds to prioritise in development.

Assessment of the Anticancer Potentials of the Free and Metal-Organic Framework (UiO-66) - Delivered Phycocyanobilin

Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a constitutive chromoprotein of Arthrospira platensis, which exhibits promising efficacy against different types of cancer. In this study, we cleaved C-PC's chromophore phycocyanobilin (PCB) and demonstrated its ability as an anti-cancer drug for Colorectal cancer (CRC). PCB displayed an anti-cancer effect for CRC (HT-29) cells with IC50 of 108 µg/ml. Assessing the transcripts levels of some biomarkers revealed that the PCB caused an upregulation in the anti-metastatic gene NME1 level and downregulation of the COX-2 level. The flow cytometric results showed the effect of PCB on the arrest of the cell cycle's G1 phase. In addition, we successfully synthesized the UiO-66 (Zr-MOF). We incorporated the PCB into UiO-66 nanoparticles with a loading percentage of 46 %. Assessment of the cytotoxic effects of UiO-66@PCB showed a 2-fold improvement in the IC50 compared to the free PCB. In conclusion, we have shown that PCB displayed a promising potential as an anti-cancer agent. Yet, it is considered a safe and natural substance that can help to mitigate cancer spread and symptoms. In the meantime, UiO-66 can be used as a safe nano-delivery tool for PCB.

C-Phycocyanin and Lycium barbarum Polysaccharides Protect against Aspirin-Induced Inflammation and Apoptosis in Gastric RGM-1 Cells

Aspirin causes gastrotoxicity and damaged epithelial defense via cyclooxygenase inhibition. C-phycocyanin (CPC) and Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP), an active ingredient of Spirulina platensis and wolfberry, respectively, exerted antioxidation, anti-inflammation, and/or immunoregulation. The actions of CPC and/or LBP on gastric damage induced by aspirin were explored in rat gastric mucosal RGM-1 cells. Gastric injury was performed by 21 mM aspirin for 3 h after the pretreatment of CPC and/or LBP (100-500 μg/mL) for 24 h in RGM-1 cells. Proinflammatory, anti-inflammatory, and apoptotic markers were examined by ELISA or gel electrophoresis and Western blotting. Cell viability and interleukin 10 (IL-10) were reduced by aspirin. Increased proinflammatory markers, caspase 3 activity, and Bax protein were observed in RGM-1 cells with aspirin treatment. Aspirin elevated nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activation, while CPC and/or LBP increased IL-10, and attenuated proinflammatory markers, Bax protein, NF-κB, and the activation of ERK and JNK. Therefore, CPC and/or LBP possess anti-inflammation by restraining the activation of the ERK signaling pathway, and LBP decreases apoptosis by suppressing the JNK signaling pathway activation in gastric RGM-1 cells with aspirin-induced epithelial damage.

Improved pH stability, heat stability, and functionality of phycocyanin after PEGylation

Phycocyanin (PC), a spirulina-derived protein-chromophore complex, suffers from poor techno-functional properties and is highly susceptible to aggregation and color changes upon heating and pH fluctuations. We tackled these issues by modifying PC via PEGylation. Electrophoresis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy proved successful conjugation of methoxy PEG (mPEG) chains on PC after PEGylation. Circular dichroism indicated highly ordered folding states adopted by PEGylated PC, which we attributed to the mPEG chains on the protein surface that sterically stabilized the protein structure. Consequently, the mPEG-PC conjugates exhibited high blue color intensity and improved thermodynamic stability. Further, benefit from an electrostatic shielding effect of mPEG chains, surface charges of PEGylated PC were neutralized over pH 2-9 and the blue hue of PC was stabilized against pH variations. Additionally, the flexible and hydrophilic mPEG polymers on the PC surface promoted protein-protein and protein-water interactions. PEGylated PC thus gained increased protein solubility, techno-functionality (emulsifying, foaming, and gelling performance), and antioxidant activities, when compared to unmodified PC. Heat-induced gels formed by mPEG-PC conjugates exhibited increased stiffness, higher water retention, and weak gel-type rheological properties. After PEGylation, the improved functional properties, bioactivity, and color stability against heat and pH fluctuations will facilitate food and pharmaceutical applications of PC.

Lipophilic and Hydrophilic Compounds from Arthrospira platensis and Its Effects on Tissue and Blood Cells-An Overview

The cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina platensis) is a natural source of considerable amounts of ingredients that are relevant for nutra- and pharmaceutical uses. Different hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances can be obtained by extraction from the biomass. The respective extraction techniques determine the composition of substances in the extract and thus its biological activity. In this short review, we provide an overview of the hydrophilic compounds (phenols, phycobiliproteins, polysaccharides, and vitamins) and lipophilic ingredients (chlorophylls, vitamins, fatty acids, and glycolipids) of Arthrospira platensis. The principal influences of these substances on blood and tissue cells are briefly summarized.

Arthrospira platensis nanoparticles defeat against diabetes-induced testicular injury in rat targeting, oxidative, apoptotic, and steroidogenesis pathways

Varieties of studies have been used to investigate the health benefits of Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis); however, more research is needed to examine if its nano form may be utilized to treat or prevent several chronic diseases. So, we designed this study to explore the effect and the cellular intracellular mechanisms by which Arthrospira platensis Nanoparticles (NSP) alleviates the testicular injury induced by diabetes in male Wistar rats. Eighty Wistar male rats (n = 80) were randomly allocated into eight groups. Group 1 is untreated rats (control), Group 2 including STZ-induced diabetic rats with 65 mg/kg body weight STZ (STZ-diabetic), Group 3-5: including diabetic rats treated with NSP1, NSP2, and NSP3 at 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg body weight, respectively, once daily orally by the aid of gastric gavage for 12 consecutive weeks and groups 6-8 include normal rats received NSP (0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg body weight once daily orally. The identical volume of normal saline was injected into both control and diabetic rats. After 12 weeks of diabetes induction, the rats were killed. According to our findings, NSP administration to diabetic rats enhances the total body weight and the weight of testes and accessory glands; in addition, NSP significantly reduced nitric oxide and malondialdehyde in testicular tissue improved sperm parameters. Intriguingly, it raises testicular GSH and SOD activity by a significant amount (p < 0.05). As well, Oral administration of NSP to diabetic rats resulted in a decrease in the blood glucose levels, HA1C, induced in the diabetic group, which overcame the diabetic complications NSP caused down-regulation of apoptotic genes with upregulation of BCL-2 mRNA expression (p < 0.05) and prominent up-regulation of steroidogenesis genes expression level in testes in comparison to the diabetic rats which resulted in improving the decreased levels of testosterone hormone, FSH, and LH induced by diabetes. In the same way, our histopathological findings support our biochemical and molecular findings; in conclusion, NSP exerted a protective effect against reproductive dysfunction induced by diabetes not only through its high antioxidant and hypoglycemic action but also through its down-regulation of Apoptotic genes and up-regulation of steroidogenesis regulatory genes expression level in diabetic testes.

The Potential of Spirulina platensis to Ameliorate the Adverse Effects of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the most prevalent diseases globally. It is estimated that 37.7 million people are infected with HIV globally, and 8.2 million persons are infected with the virus in South Africa. The highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) involves combining various types of antiretroviral drugs that are dependent on the infected person’s viral load. HAART helps regulate the viral load and prevents its associated symptoms from progressing into acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Despite its success in prolonging HIV-infected patients’ lifespans, the use of HAART promotes metabolic syndrome (MetS) through an inflammatory pathway, excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial dysfunction. Interestingly, Spirulina platensis (SP), a blue-green microalgae commonly used as a traditional food by Mexican and African people, has been demonstrated to mitigate MetS by regulating oxidative and inflammatory pathways. SP is also a potent antioxidant that has been shown to exhibit immunological, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. This review is aimed at highlighting the biochemical mechanism of SP with a focus on studies linking SP to the inhibition of HIV, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Further, we propose SP as a potential supplement for HIV-infected persons on lifelong HAART.

Modulating the Growth, Antioxidant Activity, and Immunoexpression of Proinflammatory Cytokines and Apoptotic Proteins in Broiler Chickens by Adding Dietary Spirulina platensis Phycocyanin

This study investigated the dietary effect of Spirulina platensis phycocyanin (SPC) on growth performance (body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), feed conversion ratio (FCR)) at starter, grower, and finisher stages, intestinal histomorphology, serum biochemical parameters, inflammatory and antioxidant indices, and proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and caspase-3) immune expression in broiler chickens. In total, 250 one-day-old chicks (Ross 308 broiler) were randomly allotted to five experimental groups (5 replicates/group, 10 chicks/replicate) and fed basal diets supplemented with five levels of SPC (0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1 g kg–1 diet) for 35 days. Compared with SPC0 treatment, different SPC levels increased the overall BW and BWG without affecting the total feed consumption. However, the FCR decreased linearly with an increase in supplementation level. The serum levels of total proteins, albumin, globulins, and growth hormone increased linearly by increasing levels of SPC supplementation. Further, SPC supplementation increased the thyroxin hormones without affecting serum glucose and leptin levels. Serum total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) values decreased in broilers fed SPC0.250 and SPC1 diets. Triglycerides (TG) decreased in SPC0.25-, SPC0.75-, and SPC1-treated groups. Though antioxidant enzyme activities (total antioxidant capacity, catalase, and superoxide dismutase) increased linearly and quadratically, malondialdehyde (MDA) decreased linearly by increasing the SPC level. There was no effect on serum proinflammatory cytokines IL1β levels. Immunolabelling index of caspase-3 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were downregulated by SPC supplementation. The intestinal histomorphology is represented by increased villus height, the villus height to crypt depth ratio, and numbers of goblet cells in different sections of the small intestine. In conclusion, SPC supplementation is beneficial in broiler chicken diets due to its growth-promoting, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties.

The Therapeutic Effect and the Possible Mechanism of C-Phycocyanin in Lipopolysaccharide and Seawater-Induced Acute Lung Injury

Background

Seawater drowning-induced acute lung injury (ALI) is a severe clinical condition characterized by increased alveolar-capillary permeability, excessive inflammatory response, and refractory hypoxemia. C-phycocyanin (C-PC), a biliprotein found in blue-green algae such as spirulina platensis, is widely used in the food and dietary nutritional supplement fields due to its beneficial pharmacological effects. Previous studies have revealed that C-PC has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic activities.

Purpose

Therefore, this study investigated the protective effect and underlying mechanisms of C-PC on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and seawater (SW) induced ALI (SW and LPS-induced ALI).

Methods

An SW and LPS mouse model of ALI mice was established through intratracheal administration of 5mg/kg LPS and 25% SW. Different doses of C-PC (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) were administered by intraperitoneal injection for seven days. In addition, gap junction communication in RAW264.7 and MLE-12 cells was determined following stimulation with 25% SW and 10 μg/ml LPS after treatment with C-PC (120 μg/ml). Moreover, the arterial partial pressure of oxygen, lung wet/dry weight ratios, total protein content and MPO levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and the histopathologic and ultrastructure staining of the lung tissues were determined. The oxidative stress index, levels of the pro-inflammatory mediators, epithelial cell viability and apoptosis, and the regulatory effect of C-PC on the NF-κB/NLRP3 axis were investigated.

Results

The results showed that C-PC significantly alleviated pathological damages, suppressed oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis, and enhanced the viability of epithelial cells in the lung tissues. Furthermore, C-PC was shown to inhibit activation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway and the formation of the NLRP3 inflammasome complex.

Conclusions

In conclusion, C-PC shows promising therapeutic value in SW and LPS-induced ALI/ARDS, providing new insight into ALI/ARDS treatment.

The Nutraceutical Antihypertensive Action of C-Phycocyanin in Chronic Kidney Disease Is Related to the Prevention of Endothelial Dysfunction

C-phycocyanin (CPC) is an antihypertensive that is not still wholly pharmacologically described. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether CPC counteracts endothelial dysfunction as an antihypertensive mechanism in rats with 5/6 nephrectomy (NFx) as a chronic kidney disease (CKD) model. Twenty-four male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: sham control, sham-treated with CPC (100 mg/Kg/d), NFx, and NFx treated with CPC. Blood pressure was measured each week, and renal function evaluated at the end of the treatment. Afterward, animals were euthanized, and their thoracic aortas were analyzed for endothelium functional test, oxidative stress, and NO production. 5/6 Nephrectomy caused hypertension increasing lipid peroxidation and ROS production, overexpression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), reduction in the first-line antioxidant enzymes activities, and reduced-glutathione (GSH) with a down-expression of eNOS. The vasomotor response reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilation in aorta segments exposed to acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside. However, the treatment with CPC prevented hypertension by reducing oxidative stress, NO system disturbance, and endothelial dysfunction. The CPC treatment did not prevent CKD-caused disturbance in the antioxidant enzymes activities. Therefore, CPC exhibited an antihypertensive activity while avoiding endothelial dysfunction.

C-phycocyanin decreases proliferation and migration of melanoma cells: In silico and in vitro evidences

The incidence and number of deaths caused by melanoma have been increasing in recent years, and the pigment C-phycocyanin (C-PC) appears as a possible alternative to treat this disease. So, the objective of this study was to combine in silico and in vitro analysis to understand the main anti-melanoma pathways exerted by C-PC. We evaluated the ability of C-PC to bind to the main cellular targets related in the progression of melanoma through molecular docking, and the reflection of this bind in the biological effects in the B16F10 cell line through in vitro analysis. Our results showed that C-PC was able to bind BRAF and MEK, which are related to the signal transduction pathway for proliferation and survival. There was also an interaction between C-PC and cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6. In vitro analysis demonstrated that C-PC decreased B16F10 cell proliferation, as observed by cell viability and mitotic index assays. C-PC also interacted with matrix metalloproteinase 2 and 9 and N-cadherin, which may have caused the decrease in cell migration observed in vitro. Besides that, C-PC interacts with VEGF, a factor responsible for regulating the proliferation and cellular invasion pathways. Finally, C-PC did not alter the cell viability of the non-tumoral melanocytes. Therefore, C-PC is a strong anti-tumor candidate for the treatment of melanoma, since it acts in different cellular pathways of melanoma, without causing damage to non-tumoral cells.

Identification of Apocarotenoids as Chemical Markers of In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity for Spirulina Supplements

Identification of chemical markers in food additives and dietary supplements is crucial for quantitative assessment and standardization of their quality and efficacy. Arthrospira platensis, formerly Spirulina platensis and known colloquially as spirulina, has been widely investigated for its various biological effects, including anti-inflammation, antihypertension, antioxidant, and antiatherosclerosis. In this study, we utilized an approach involving a combination of bioassay-guided fractionation, synthesis, mass spectral molecular networking, principal component analysis (PCA), and correlation analysis to identify measurable chemical markers in spirulina products that can be used to evaluate the efficacy of commercial products in downregulating the expression level of the proinflammatory cytokines, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). Consequently, we found that the apocarotenoids 3-hydroxy-β-ionone (1) and apo-13-zeaxanthinones (2a/2b) significantly repressed expression of IL-1β (9.5 ± 1.5 and 28.7 ± 0.6%, respectively) and IL-6 (10.1 ± 0.7 and 6.1 ± 0.4%, respectively) at 10 μg/mL (p < 0.05) using RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages. Notably, this is the first report of the isolation of these apocarotenoids from spirulina and their in vitro anti-inflammatory properties. Finally, we propose the use of our approach as a convenient way to establish markers in other dietary supplements.

Effect of formulations and fermentation processes on volatile organic compounds and prebiotic potential of gluten-free bread fortified by spirulina (Arthrospira platensis)

Gluten free (GF) foods, designed and marketed for the needs of people who are unable to metabolize gluten, in recent years have aroused growing interest that has led to the conquest of important market segments, with a strongly growing trend. Given the low protein content of standard GF flours, it is particularly important to fortify GF foods, and to study the effect that this process exerts on functional and sensorial characteristics. In this work, fortification of GF bakery goods was done with the addition of Arthrospira platensis (spirulina) flour. Two different dough formulations (with and without fortification) were fermented by four different processes, including spontaneous, single strains and sourdough starters. The baked products were then subjected to "consumer's tests". During the process, fermentation performances, prebiotic activity, and the VOC (Volatile Organic Compound) profiles were analyzed and compared through robust multivariate statistics. The results obtained evidenced that fortification led to a product with more abundant (medium organic acids) and exclusive bioactives (thymol, borneol, and nicotinic acid), which were correlated to the prebiotic activity of spirulina breads. This work, for the first time indicates that spirulina can be used to fortify GF bakery, improving also its functional potential.

Combined Lycium babarum polysaccharides and C-phycocyanin increase gastric Bifidobacterium relative abundance and protect against gastric ulcer caused by aspirin in rats

BACKGROUND

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin are used for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Chronic use of low-dose aspirin is associated with the occurrence of gastric ulcer. The aim of this study was to investigate the healing potential of Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP) from Chinese Goji berry and C-phycocyanin (CPC) from Spirulina platensis on gastric ulcer in rats.

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into five groups: normal, aspirin (700 mg/kg bw), LBP (aspirin + 100 mg/kg bw/d LBP), CPC (aspirin + 50 mg/kg bw/d CPC), and MIX (aspirin + 50 mg/kg bw/d LBP + 25 mg/kg bw/d CPC) groups. Gastric ulcer was developed by daily oral feeding of aspirin for 8 weeks. Treatments were given orally a week before ulcer induction for 9 weeks.

RESULTS

The MIX group elevated gastric cyclooxygenase-1, prostaglandin E2, and total nitrite and nitrate levels by 139%, 86%, and 66%, respectively, compared with the aspirin group (p < 0.05). Moreover, the MIX group reduced lipid peroxides malondialdehyde levels by 78% (p < 0.05). The treatment of LBP and/or CPC increased gastric Bifidobacterium relative abundance by 2.5-4.0 times compared with the aspirin group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that combined LBP and CPC enhance gastroprotective factors, inhibit lipid peroxidation, and increase gastric Bifidobacterium relative abundance. Combined LBP and CPC have protective potential against gastric ulcer caused by aspirin in rats.

Bioactive Metabolites from Marine Algae as Potent Pharmacophores against Oxidative Stress-Associated Human Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

In addition to cancer and diabetes, inflammatory and ROS-related diseases represent one of the major health problems worldwide. Currently, several synthetic drugs are used to reduce oxidative stress; nevertheless, these approaches often have side effects. Therefore, to overcome these issues, the search for alternative therapies has gained importance in recent times. Natural bioactive compounds have represented, and they still do, an important source of drugs with high therapeutic efficacy. In the ''synthetic'' era, terrestrial and aquatic photosynthetic organisms have been shown to be an essential source of natural compounds, some of which might play a leading role in pharmaceutical drug development. Marine organisms constitute nearly half of the worldwide biodiversity. In the marine environment, algae, seaweeds, and seagrasses are the first reported sources of marine natural products for discovering novel pharmacophores. The algal bioactive compounds are a potential source of novel antioxidant and anticancer (through modulation of the cell cycle, metastasis, and apoptosis) compounds. Secondary metabolites in marine Algae, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins, could have great therapeutic implications against several diseases. In this context, this review focuses on the diversity of functional compounds extracted from algae and their potential beneficial effects in fighting cancer, diabetes, and inflammatory diseases.

Novel 1,3,4-Oxadiazole Derivatives of Pyrrolo[3,4-d]pyridazinone Exert Antinociceptive Activity in the Tail-Flick and Formalin Test in Rodents and Reveal Reduced Gastrotoxicity

Despite the availability of the current drug arsenal for pain management, there is still a clinical need to identify new, more effective, and safer analgesics. Based on our earlier study, newly synthesized 1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives of pyrrolo[3,4-d]pyridazinone, especially 10b and 13b, seem to be promising as potential analgesics. The current study was designed to investigate whether novel derivatives attenuate nociceptive response in animals subjected to thermal or chemical noxious stimulus, and to compare this effect to reference drugs. The antinociceptive effect of novel compounds was studied using the tail-flick and formalin test. Pretreatment with novel compounds at all studied doses increased the latency time in the tail-flick test and decreased the licking time during the early phase of the formalin test. New derivatives given at the medium and high doses also reduced the late phase of the formalin test. The achieved results indicate that new derivatives dose-dependently attenuate nociceptive response in both models of pain and exert a lack of gastrotoxicity. Both studied compounds act more efficiently than indomethacin, but not morphine. Compound 13b at the high dose exerts the greatest antinociceptive effect. It may be due to the reduction of nociceptor sensitization via prostaglandin E₂ and myeloperoxidase levels decrease.

Improved spinal cord gray matter morphology induced by Spirulina platensis following spinal cord injury in rat models

Despite intense preclinical research focusing on developing potential strategies of mitigating spinal cord injury (SCI), SCI still results in permanent, debilitating symptoms for which there are currently no effective pharmacological interventions to improve the recovery of the fine ultrastructure of the spinal cord. Spirulina platensis is thought to have potential neuroprotective effects. We have previously demonstrated its protective potential on the lesioned corticospinal tracts and behavioral recovery. In this study, spirulina, known for its neuroprotective properties was used to further explore its protective effects on spinal cord gray matter ultrastructural. Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were used and divided into sham group (laminectomy without SCI), control group (SCI without S. platensis), and S. platensis group (SCI + 180 mg/kg S. platensis). All animals were anesthetized via intramuscular injection. A partial crush injury was induced at the level of T12. The rats were humanely sacrificed for 28 days postinjury for ultrastructural study. There were significant mean differences with respect to pairwise comparisons between the ultrastructural grading score of neuronal perikarya of control and the S. platensis following injury at day 28, which correlates with the functional locomotor recovery at this timepoint in our previous study. The group supplemented with spirulina, thus, revealed a better improvement in the fine ultrastructure of the spinal cord gray matter when compared to the control group thereby suggesting neuroprotective potentials of spirulina in mitigating the effects of spinal cord injury and inducing functional recovery.

Whey protein improves the stability of C-phycocyanin in acidified conditions during light storage

C-phycocyanin is a bright blue natural colorant used in food and beverage applications. However, its color stability is poor in acidic conditions under exposure to light. In this work, we study the use of whey protein isolate (WPI) to protect C-phycocyanin from color degradation. Low concentration (0.05-0.1%) WPI addition delayed (~2 days) the color degradation of C-phycocyanin at pH 3.0 over 5-day storage in light. However, the color degradation was aggravated adversely during 5-day light storage when C-phycocyanin mixed with a higher concentration (~1%) of WPI degraded after heat-treatment. The Fourier transform infrared and fluorescence spectroscopy confirmed that structural changes (e.g., alpha-helix protection and transformation from alpha-helix to beta-sheet) of C-phycocyanin due to interaction with WPI. These results, along with quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation technology outcomes, suggest that a low concentration of WPI may help protect C-phycocyanin's secondary structure from becoming damaged during light storage, preventing its color degradation.

Oxy+ (arthrospira) and its medicinal importance: an appraisal

Oxy+ is a natural source of arthrospira found in nature, used as a dietary supplement and manufactured in Aruba for lifefactors. Arthrospira contains good quality of proteins, sulfated polysaccharides, γ-linoleic acid, along with an array of carotene and phytopigments, vitamins, and minerals which are reported to be antioxidant, immunomodulator, antihyperglycemic, antidyslipidemic, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, antiviral, anticancerous, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, neuroprotective and renoprotective activities. Several studies have shown arthrospira, and active ingredients of it revealed various pharmacological activities. It can be used for the management of various ailments such as diabetes, dyslipidemia, obesity, hypertension, cancer, arthritis, osteoarthritis, autoimmune disorders, etc. This review attempts to explore the hidden benefits of Oxy+ (arthrospira).

Oxy+ (arthrospira) and its medicinal importance: an appraisal

Oxy+ is a natural source of arthrospira found in nature, used as a dietary supplement and manufactured in Aruba for lifefactors. Arthrospira contains good quality of proteins, sulfated polysaccharides, γ-linoleic acid, along with an array of carotene and phytopigments, vitamins, and minerals which are reported to be antioxidant, immunomodulator, antihyperglycemic, antidyslipidemic, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, antiviral, anticancerous, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, neuroprotective and renoprotective activities. Several studies have shown arthrospira, and active ingredients of it revealed various pharmacological activities. It can be used for the management of various ailments such as diabetes, dyslipidemia, obesity, hypertension, cancer, arthritis, osteoarthritis, autoimmune disorders, etc. This review attempts to explore the hidden benefits of Oxy+ (arthrospira).

Effects of phycocyanin on pulmonary and gut microbiota in a radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis model

Objective

Radiation pneumonia and fibrosis are major clinical complications of radiotherapy for thoracic tumor patients, and may significantly reduce survival and quality of life. At present, no safe and effective radiation protection measures have been approved for clinical use. Phycocyanin, a protein responsible for photosynthesis from Spirulina, has been shown to have a variety of biological activities and to be beneficial for a variety of diseases, including pulmonary fibrosis. However, the preventive and protective effects of phycocyanin on radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis have not been studied.

Design

X-ray single dose irradiation was used on the chest of mice to prepare a mouse model of pulmonary fibrosis, from which the effect of phycocyanin on pulmonary histopathologic change, pulmonary fibrosis, the microbiota in lung and gut, LPS, TNF-α, and IL-6 at different time after irradiation were evaluated.

Results

Phycocyanin alleviated the radiation-induced lung injury and reduced the level of inflammatory factors. Thorax irradiation led to the disorder in microbiota of the lung and gut. The variation trend of the diversity of the two tissues was opposite, but that of the microbiota composition was similar. The phycocyanin intervention regulated the composition of the lung and gut microbiota, transformed them into normal state, and reduced the level of LPS, which significantly reduced the abundance of inflammation-related bacteria, and increased the abundance of probiotics that produce short-chain fatty acids.

Conclusion

Phycocyanin could regulate the radiation-induced disorder in lung and gut microbiota of mice, and reduce the radiation-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis.

Phycocyanin of marine Oscillatoria sp. inhibits lipoxygenase by protein-protein interaction-induced change of active site entry apace: A model for non-specific biofunctions of phycocyanins

An overview of the biological properties of phycocyanin (PC) amply illustrates that it may not have any specific functional feature towards any system at which it may elicit a specific function, but for the molecular interactions. Nevertheless, based on existing evidences, it is hypothesized that PC has more than one functional target with the interacting systems; therefore, it has diversity of effects. The mechanism of PC action remains elusive of a comprehensive idea. The present investigation focuses on the pro inflammatory enzyme, lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibiting property of PC purified from Oscillatoria sp. Enzyme kinetics studies show that the molecular composite of PC is required for its inhibition shown on LOX. Isothermal titration calorimetric study proves that one molecule of PC interacts with two molecules of LOX. Molecular dynamics simulation study pertaining to PC-LOX interactions shows it to be appropriate as a model to give molecular mechanistic insight into the varied biological properties of PC, demonstrated elsewhere in experimental studies including animal model studies. It explains that the PC-LOX interaction is of a function-freezing, protein-protein interaction in nature. The wide spectrum of properties of PC might be due to its function as a powerful protein hub showing non-specific protein-protein interactions.

Oral Spirulina Platensis Attenuates Hyperglycemia and Exhibits Antinociceptive Effect in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Neuropathy Rat Model

Introduction

Diabetic neuropathy is a common consequence of diabetes. Hyperalgesia is one of the main symptoms of diabetic neuropathy. In response to noxious stimuli, streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats show exaggerated hyperalgesic behavior, while Spirulina platensis has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and insulin-like effects. To assess the antinociceptive effect of oral Spirulina platensis (SP) powder on formalin-induced nociceptive responses in STZ-induced diabetic rats.

Methods

Sixty mature male albino rats were randomly allocated into six equal groups (10 in each group). Group 1 (control non-diabetic group) received 0.9% saline; group 2 was given oral pure SP powder-treated as a non-diabetic control group, group 3 was sodium salicylate-treated rats and used as a positive non-diabetic control group, group 4 managed as vehicle-treated diabetic rats, group 5 considered as SP-treated-diabetic group, and sodium salicylate-treated-diabetic rats used as a diabetic positive control group (group 6). STZ-diabetic rats were orally given SP in a dose of 500 mg kg/day for 1 month. The formalin test was implemented in two phases: the early phase in the first 10-min post-formalin injection, and the late phase was considered in the 15–60 min post-formalin injection time interval.

Results

Pain scores were increased in the diabetic groups during both phases of the experiment. Blood glucose was significantly reduced in diabetic rats that received oral SP, P < 0.01. Besides, SP-treated rats had lower pain scores during both phases of the experiment than untreated diabetic ones. However, in the sodium salicylate group, the pain score was reduced only during the second phase. An exaggerated nociceptive response occurred in diabetic rats after the formalin test. A significant antinociceptive effect appeared in SP-treated control and diabetic rats.

Discussion

The findings suggest that oral Spirulina platensis could have a potential therapeutic role for managing induced painful diabetic neuropathy in rats.

Phycocyanin alleviates ICV-STZ induced cognitive and molecular deficits via PI3-Kinase dependent pathway

In this study, the effect of Phycocyanin (Pc) to ameliorate the cognitive dysfunction in experimental model of Alzheimer's disease (AD) was evaluated. Intracerebroventricular (ICV) induction of Streptozotocin (STZ) (3 mg/kg) was done bilaterally twice in rats on alternative days. Rats were injected with Pc (50, 100 mg/kg; i. p.) for 28 days daily for behavioural and cholinergic activity assessment. As the effect was only significant at 100 mg/kg, later molecular experiments were performed using the same only. STZ induction led to increased activity of hippocampal cholinesterases and BAX and decreased activity of BCL-2 and ChAT. It enhanced TNF-α, and NF-κB in rat's brain and reduced BDNF and IGF-1 levels. Dysfunctional insulin signaling and decreased gene expressions of PI3-K, AKT was also observed. However, Pc treatment significantly prevented STZ-induced increased activity of hippocampal cholinesterases and BAX as well as increased the levels of BCL-2 and ChAT. Neuroinflammation was significantly attenuated and BDNF and IGF-1 levels were upregulated. Further, Pc also alleviated dysfunctional insulin signaling as evidenced by increased gene expression of IRS-1, PI3-K, AKT. In conclusion, our study demonstrated the immense potential of Pc in attenuating STZ-induced cognitive decline and it may be further explored as a therapeutic agent in managing AD.

Potential Therapeutic Applications of C-Phycocyanin

BACKGROUND

Cancer and other disorders such as inflammation, autoimmune diseases and diabetes are the major health problems observed all over the world. Therefore, identifying a therapeutic target molecule for the treatment of these diseases is urgently needed to benefit public health. C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is an important light yielding pigment intermittently systematized in the cyanobacterial species along with other algal species. It has numerous applications in the field of biotechnology and drug industry and also possesses antioxidant, anticancer, antiinflammatory, enhanced immune function, including liver and kidney protection properties. The molecular mechanism of action of C-PC for its anticancer activity could be the blockage of cell cycle progression, inducing apoptosis and autophagy in cancer cells.

OBJECTIVES

The current review summarizes an update on therapeutic applications of C-PC, its mechanism of action and mainly focuses on the recent development in the field of C-PC as a drug that exhibits beneficial effects against various human diseases including cancer and inflammation.

CONCLUSION

The data from various studies suggest the therapeutic applications of C-PC such as anti-cancer activity, anti-inflammation, anti-angiogenic activity and healing capacity of certain autoimmune disorders. Mechanism of action of C-PC for its anticancer activity is the blockage of cell cycle progression, inducing apoptosis and autophagy in cancer cells. The future perspective of C-PC is to identify and define the molecular mechanism of its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which would shed light on our knowledge on therapeutic applications of C-PC and may contribute significant benefits to global public health.

Mechanisms of the antiplatelet and analgesic effects of dextromethorphan and its metabolites

Objective

In the present study, we investigated the effects of dextromethorphan (DM) and its metabolites, including dextrorphan (LK2), 3-methoxymorphinan (LK3), and 3-hydroxymorphinan (LK4), on platelet aggregation in vitro and the inflammatory pain caused by carrageenan in rats, and their underlying mechanisms.

Materials and Methods

Rabbit platelets were pretreated with DM or its metabolites to assess their effects on platelet aggregation and related target mediators. In addition, the analgesic activity and the underlying mechanisms of DM and LK3 were investigated in a carrageenan-evoked thermal hyperalgesia rat model.

Results

The inhibitory potency of DM and its metabolites on platelet aggregation induced by arachidonic acid or collagen was LK3> DM > LK4>> LK2 as demonstrated by the half-maximal inhibitory concentration values. Moreover, the mechanisms of the antiplatelet effect of DM and LK3 may involve the inhibition of intracellular calcium mobilization, expression of platelet surface glycoprotein IIb/IIIa, the formation of thromboxane B2, and elevation of platelet membrane fluidity. DM and LK3 also exhibited analgesic effects on carrageenan-evoked thermal hyperalgesia by suppressing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, nitric oxide, prostaglandin E2, and neutrophil infiltration in inflammatory sites.

Conclusion

DM and its metabolites, especially LK3, exhibit both antiplatelet and analgesic effects, and may, therefore, potentially ameliorate platelet hyperactivity and inflammatory-related diseases.

Neuroprotective potential of Spirulina platensis on lesioned spinal cord corticospinal tract under experimental conditions in rat models

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results from penetrating or compressive traumatic injury to the spine in humans or by the surgical compression of the spinal cord in experimental animals. In this study, the neuroprotective potential of Spirulina platensis was investigated on ultrastructural and functional recovery of the spinal cord following surgical-induced injury. Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups; sham group, control (trauma) group, and experimental (S. platensis) group (180 mg/kg) of eight rats each. For each group, the rats were then subdivided into two groups to allow measurement at two different timepoints (day 14 and 28) for the microscopic analysis. Rats in the control and experimental S. platensis groups were subjected to partial crush injury at the level of T12 with Inox number 2 modified forceps by compressing on the spinal cord for 30 s. Pairwise comparisons of ultrastructural grading mean scores difference between the control and experimental S. platensis groups reveals that there were significant differences on the axonal ultrastructure, myelin sheath and BBB Score on Day 28; these correlate with the functional locomotor recovery at this timepoint. The results suggest that supplementation with S. platensis induces functional recovery and effective preservation of the spinal cord ultrastructure after SCI. These findings will open new potential avenue for further research into the mechanism of S. platensis-mediated spinal cord repair.

The effects of phycocyanin on bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis and the intestinal microbiota in C57BL/6 mice

Phycocyanin (PC) is a light-harvesting protein isolated from Spirulina and has health benefits for a range of diseases including pulmonary fibrosis (PF). In this study, a bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis model was used to determine whether PC attenuates PF and modulates the intestinal microbiota. The results showed that PC intervention attenuated the pulmonary fibrosis, demonstrated by hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE), Masson's trichrome staining, and lung dry-wet weight ratio, and PC significantly inhibited the production of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Additionally, intestinal microbiota analysis revealed that PC intervention significantly increased the bacterial diversity and richness. Correlation analysis indicated that 9 families and 17 genes were significantly associated with at least 1 physiological index. And PC intervention significantly decreased the bacteria which is related to inflammation and dramatically increased the SCFAs-producing bacteria and probiotics. These data indicated that PC can decrease the pro-inflammatory cytokines and regulate the intestinal microbiota in BLM-induced PF mice.

C-Phycocyanin Alleviates Bladder Inflammation and Dysfunction in Cyclophosphamide-Induced Cystitis in a Mouse Model by Inhibiting COX-2 and EP4

Objective

To explore the effect of C-phycocyanin (C-PC) on voiding behavior and histological changes in cyclophosphamide- (CYP-) induced cystitis in mice.

Methods

Sixty female mice were included. The mice in the C-PC group received C-PC (25 mg/kg, twice, i.p.) and then CYP (200 mg/kg, i.p.) two hours later, while the mice in the CYP group only received the equivalent CYP. Saline was injected in the mice in the control group. A voided stain on paper (VSOP) test was conducted to analyze the micturition. The bladders were harvested for histological evaluation and measurements of inflammatory factors.

Results

C-PC reduced the micturition frequency in the mice with CYP-induced cystitis. The bladder/body weight ratio and edema were remarkably higher in the CYP group compared to the C-PC group. C-PC suppressed the expressions of COX-2, PGE₂, and EP4 (prostaglandin E receptor 4) according to the ELISA assay. Immunohistochemical staining also indicated that C-PC reduced the expressions of COX-2 in urothelium and EP4 in smooth muscles.

Conclusions

C-PC relieved symptoms associated with CYP-induced cystitis in mice by inhibiting bladder inflammation through COX-2 and EP4 expression.

Cloning of pcB and pcA Gene from Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis and Expression of a Fluorescent Phycocyanin in Heterologous Host

In order to study the assembly mechanism of phycocyanin in red algae, the apo-phycocyanin genes (pcB and pcA) were cloned from Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis. The full length of phycocyanin β-subunit (pcB) contained 519 nucleotides encoding a protein of 172 amino acids, and the full length of phycocyanin α-subunit(pcA) contained 489 nucleotides encoding a protein of 162 amino acids. Expression vector pACYCDuet-pcB-pcA was constructed and transformed into E. coli BL21 with pET-ho-pcyA (containing ho and pcyA gene to synthesize phycocyanobilin). The recombinant strain showed fluorescence activity, indicating the expression of optically active phycocyanin in E. coli. To further investigate the possible binding sites between phycocyanobilin and apo-phycocyanin, Cys-82 and Cys-153 of the β subunit and the Cys-84 of the α subunit were respectively mutated, and four mutants were obtained. All mutant strains had lower fluorescence intensity than the non-mutant strains, which indicated that these mutation sites could be the active binding sites between apo-phycocyanin and phycocyanobilin (PCB). This research provides a supplement for the comprehensive understanding of the assembly mechanism of optically active phycocyanin in red algae.

Spirulina platensis attenuates the associated neurobehavioral and inflammatory response impairments in rats exposed to lead acetate

Heavy metals are well known as environmental pollutants with hazardous impacts on human and animal health because of their wide industrial usage. In the present study, the role of Spirulina platensis in reversing the oxidative stress-mediated brain injury elicited by lead acetate exposure was evaluated. In order to accomplish this aim, rats were orally administered with 300 mg/kg bw Spirulina for 15 d, before and simultaneously with an intraperitoneal injection of 50 mg/kg bw lead acetate [6 injections through the two weeks]. As a result, the co-administration of Spirulina with lead acetate reversed the most impaired open field behavioral indices; however, this did not happen for swimming performance, inclined plane, and grip strength tests. In addition, it was observed that Spirulina diminished the lead content that accumulated in both the blood and the brain tissue of the exposed rats, and reduced the elevated levels of oxidative damage indices, and brain proinflammatory markers. Also, because of the Spirulina administration, the levels of the depleted biomarkers of antioxidant status and interleukin-10 in the lead-exposed rats were improved. Moreover, Spirulina protected the brain tissue (cerebrum and cerebellum) against the changes elicited by lead exposure, and also decreased the reactivity of HSP70 and Caspase-3 in both cerebrum and cerebellum tissues. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that Spirulina has a potential use as a food supplement in the regions highly polluted with heavy metals.

Effect of dietary supplementation with Spirulina platensis on Atrazine-induced oxidative stress- mediated hepatic damage and inflammation in the common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.)

The present study evaluated the potential modulatory effect(s) of dietary supplementation with Spirulina platensis (SP) on Atrazine (ATZ)-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Common carp was exposed to ATZ (428μg/L) and SP (1%), either alone or in combination, for 40 days. Subsequently, the treatment groups were evaluated for ATZ-induced oxidative stress-mediated hepatic damage and the potential antioxidant effect(s) of SP supplementation. The results indicated that ATZ exposure led to a significant increase in the oxidative stress as suggested by the increased levels of lipid and DNA oxidative damage markers and the significant decline of antioxidant status biomarkers. Further, a real-time PCR analysis of the liver tissues revealed that the ATZ exposure resulted in the significant modulation of the mRNA expression of cytokines involved in the inflammatory response pathway in the liver, such as Interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-10. The expression of IL-1ß mRNA was up-regulated while that of IL-10 mRNA was down-regulated. The group subjected to supplementation with SP exhibited a significant decrease in ATZ-induced oxidative stress-mediated hepatotoxic and inflammatory responses; however, these did not attain the levels of the control group. Owing to its ability for protecting against ATZ-induced oxidative stress-mediated hepatic damage in carps, SP could be a potentially effective and promising candidate as a feed additive for carps in aquaculture.

Arthrospira Platensis - Potential in Dermatology and Beyond

The search for natural products with benefits for health in general and of potential for treating human disease has gained wider interest world-wide. Here, we analyse current data on the microalga Arthrospira platensis (AP), that has been used in nutrition since ancient times in Fare East and African communities, for medical purposes with a focus on dermatology. Extracts of AP have been investigated in vitro and in vivo. The alga is rich in proteins, lipopolysaccharides and gamma-linolenic acid. AP extracts, phycocyanin compounds and polysaccharide calcium spirulan (Ca-SP) have been evaluated in various models. It could be demonstrated, that AP has significant antioxidant activity, prevents viruses from entry into target cells and inhibits the colonisation of wounds by multi-resistant bacteria. Furthermore, anti-cancer activity was documented in models of oral cancer, melanoma, and UV-induced non-melanoma skin cancer.

Phycocyanin: A Potential Drug for Cancer Treatment

Phycocyanin isolated from marine organisms has the characteristics of high efficiency and low toxicity, and it can be used as a functional food. It has been reported that phycocyanin has anti-oxidative function, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-cancer function, immune enhancement function, liver and kidney protection pharmacological effects. Thus, phycocyanin has an important development and utilization as a potential drug, and phycocyanin has become a new hot spot in the field of drug research. So far, there are more and more studies have shown that phycocyanin has the anti-cancer effect, which can block the proliferation of cancer cells and kill cancer cells. Phycocyanin exerts anti-cancer activity by blocking tumor cell cell cycle, inducing tumor cell apoptosis and autophagy, thereby phycocyanin can serve as a promising anti-cancer agent. This review discusses the therapeutic use of phycocyanin and focuses on the latest advances of phycocyanin as a promising anti-cancer drug.