Directing pathfinding along the dorsolateral path - the role of EDNRB2 and EphB2 in overcoming inhibition

Xenopus as a model system for studying pigmentation and pigmentary disorders

Human pigmentary disorders encompass a broad spectrum of phenotypic changes arising from disruptions in various stages of melanocyte formation, the melanogenesis process, or the transfer of pigment from melanocytes to keratinocytes. A large number of pigmentation genes associated with pigmentary disorders have been identified, many of them awaiting in vivo confirmation. A more comprehensive understanding of the molecular basis of pigmentary disorders requires a vertebrate animal model where changes in pigmentation are easily observable in vivo and can be combined to genomic modifications and gain/loss-of-function tools. Here we present the amphibian Xenopus with its unique features that fulfill these requirements. Changes in pigmentation are particularly easy to score in Xenopus embryos, allowing whole-organism based phenotypic screening. The development and behavior of Xenopus melanocytes closely mimic those observed in mammals. Interestingly, both Xenopus and mammalian skins exhibit comparable reactions to ultraviolet radiation. This review highlights how Xenopus constitutes an alternative and complementary model to the more commonly used mouse and zebrafish, contributing to the advancement of knowledge in melanocyte cell biology and related diseases.

Population genomics reveals that a missense mutation in EDNRB2 contributes to white plumage color in pigeons

Plumage color is an important economic trait for breed feature identification and consumer's requirements in pigeons. The domestic pigeon has multiple types of plumage color, thereby providing a unique opportunity to identify the genetic basis of plumage coloration. White feather color is common for meat and medicinal use. To investigate the genetic variation associated with white plumage color in pigeons, we use genome resequencing and population genomics to identify the genomic regions with strong selective signature between pigeons with brown and white plumage color. Meanwhile, we obtained some candidate genes with melanin or melanosome biosynthesis in selected regions. Finally, we identified a missense mutation p.E256K in the EDNRB2 completely associated with white plumage color. These findings provide a basis for genetic variation in pigeons with plumage color phenotype.

Endothelin signaling in development

Since the discovery of endothelin 1 (EDN1) in 1988, the role of endothelin ligands and their receptors in the regulation of blood pressure in normal and disease states has been extensively studied. However, endothelin signaling also plays crucial roles in the development of neural crest cell-derived tissues. Mechanisms of endothelin action during neural crest cell maturation have been deciphered using a variety of in vivo and in vitro approaches, with these studies elucidating the basis of human syndromes involving developmental differences resulting from altered endothelin signaling. In this Review, we describe the endothelin pathway and its functions during the development of neural crest-derived tissues. We also summarize how dysregulated endothelin signaling causes developmental differences and how this knowledge may lead to potential treatments for individuals with gene variants in the endothelin pathway.

An allelic series at the EDNRB2 locus controls diverse piebalding patterns in the domestic pigeon

Variation in pigment patterns within and among vertebrate species reflects underlying changes in cell migration and function that can impact health, reproductive success, and survival. The domestic pigeon (Columba livia) is an exceptional model for understanding the genetic changes that give rise to diverse pigment patterns, as selective breeding has given rise to hundreds of breeds with extensive variation in plumage color and pattern. Here, we map the genetic architecture of a suite of pigmentation phenotypes known as piebalding. Piebalding is characterized by patches of pigmented and non-pigmented feathers, and these plumage patterns are often breed-specific and stable across generations. Using a combination of quantitative trait locus mapping in F2 laboratory crosses and genome-wide association analysis, we identify a locus associated with piebalding across many pigeon breeds. This shared locus harbors a candidate gene, EDNRB2, that is a known regulator of pigment cell migration, proliferation, and survival. We discover multiple distinct haplotypes at the EDNRB2 locus in piebald pigeons, which include a mix of protein-coding, noncoding, and structural variants that are associated with depigmentation in specific plumage regions. These results identify a role for EDNRB2 in pigment patterning in the domestic pigeon, and highlight how repeated selection at a single locus can generate a diverse array of stable and heritable pigment patterns.

An allelic series at the EDNRB2 locus controls diverse piebalding patterns in the domestic pigeon

Variation in pigment patterns within and among vertebrate species reflects underlying changes in cell migration and function that can impact health, reproductive success, and survival. The domestic pigeon (Columba livia) is an exceptional model for understanding the genetic changes that give rise to diverse pigment patterns, as selective breeding has given rise to hundreds of breeds with extensive variation in plumage color and pattern. Here, we map the genetic architecture of a suite of pigmentation phenotypes known as piebalding. Piebalding is characterized by patches of pigmented and non-pigmented feathers, and these plumage patterns are often breed-specific and stable across generations. Using a combination of quantitative trait locus mapping in F2 laboratory crosses and genome-wide association analysis, we identify a locus associated with piebalding across many pigeon breeds. This shared locus harbors a candidate gene, EDNRB2, that is a known regulator of pigment cell migration, proliferation, and survival. We discover multiple distinct haplotypes at the EDNRB2 locus in piebald pigeons, which include a mix of protein-coding, noncoding, and structural variants that are associated with depigmentation in specific plumage regions. These results identify a role for EDNRB2 in pigment patterning in the domestic pigeon, and highlight how repeated selection at a single locus can generate a diverse array of stable and heritable pigment patterns.

Stripes and loss of color in ball pythons (Python regius) are associated with variants affecting endothelin signaling

Color patterns in nonavian reptiles are beautifully diverse, but little is known about the genetics and development of these patterns. Here, we investigated color patterning in pet ball pythons (Python regius), which have been bred to show color phenotypes that differ dramatically from the wildtype form. We report that several color phenotypes in pet animals are associated with putative loss-of-function variants in the gene encoding endothelin receptor EDNRB1: (1) frameshift variants in EDNRB1 are associated with conversion of the normal mottled color pattern to skin that is almost fully white, (2) missense variants affecting conserved sites of the EDNRB1 protein are associated with dorsal, longitudinal stripes, and (3) substitutions at EDNRB1 splice donors are associated with subtle changes in patterning compared to wildtype. We propose that these phenotypes are caused by loss of specialized color cells (chromatophores), with loss ranging from severe (fully white) to moderate (dorsal striping) to mild (subtle changes in patterning). Our study is the first to describe variants affecting endothelin signaling in a nonavian reptile and suggests that reductions in endothelin signaling in ball pythons can produce a variety of color phenotypes, depending on the degree of color cell loss.

Hyperpigmentation Inhibits Early Skeletal Muscle Development in Tengchong Snow Chicken Breed

Tengchong snow, which has white feathers and black meat, is one of the most important black-bone chicken breeds and a genetic treasure of black food in China. Although the black meat traits are dominant, there are some chickens with white meat traits born in the process of folk selection and breeding. The purpose of this study was to compare the differences in skeletal muscle development between Tengchong snow black meat chickens (BS) and white meat chickens (WS), as well as whether excessive melanin deposition has an effect on skeletal muscle development. The BS and WS groups were selected to determine their muscle development difference at stages of 1, 7, 14, 21, and 42 days, using histological stain methods to analyze the development and composing type of breast and leg muscle fibers, as well as the count of melanin in BS muscle fibers. Finally, we were validated key candidate genes associated with muscle development and melanin synthesis. The results showed that BS breast muscle development was inhibited at 7, 14, and 21 days, while the leg muscle was inhibited at 7, 14, 21, and 42 days, compared to WS. Melanin deposition was present in a temporal migration pattern and was greater in the leg muscles than in the breast muscles, and it focused around blood vessels, as well as the epithelium, perimysium, endomysium, and connective tissue. Additionally, melanin produced an inhibitory effect similar to MSTN during skeletal muscle fiber development, and the inhibition was strongest at the stage of melanin entry between muscle fibers, but the precise mechanisms need to be confirmed. This study revealed that melanin has an inhibitory effect on the early development of skeletal muscle, which will provide new insights into the role of melanin in the black-boned chicken and theoretical references for the future conservation and utilization of black-boned chicken.

Genome-Wide Association Study for Screening and Identifying Potential Shin Color Loci in Ducks

Shin color diversity is a widespread phenomenon in birds. In this study, ducks were assessed to identify candidate genes for yellow, black, and spotted tibiae. For this purpose, we performed whole-genome resequencing of an F2 population consisting of 275 ducks crossed between Runzhou crested-white ducks and Cherry Valley ducks. We obtained 12.6 Mb of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data, and the three shin colors were subsequently genotyped. Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) were performed to identify candidate and potential SNPs for the three shin colors. According to the results, 2947 and 3451 significant SNPs were associated with black and yellow shins, respectively, and six potential SNPs were associated with spotted shins. Based on the SNP annotations, the MITF, EDNRB2, POU family members, and the SLC superfamily were the candidate genes regulating pigmentation. In addition, the isoforms of EDNRB2, TYR, TYRP1, and MITF-M were significantly different between the black and yellow tibiae. MITF and EDNRB2 may have synergistic roles in the regulation of melanin synthesis, and their mutations may lead to phenotypic differences in the melanin deposition between individuals. This study provides new insights into the genetic factors that may influence tibia color diversity in birds.

The crucial role of model systems in understanding the complexity of cell signaling in human neurocristopathies

Animal models are useful to study the molecular, cellular, and morphogenetic mechanisms underlying normal and pathological development. Cell-based study models have emerged as an alternative approach to study many aspects of human embryonic development and disease. The neural crest (NC) is a transient, multipotent, and migratory embryonic cell population that generates a diverse group of cell types that arises during vertebrate development. The abnormal formation or development of the NC results in neurocristopathies (NCPs), which are characterized by a broad spectrum of functional and morphological alterations. The impaired molecular mechanisms that give rise to these multiphenotypic diseases are not entirely clear yet. This fact, added to the high incidence of these disorders in the newborn population, has led to the development of systematic approaches for their understanding. In this article, we have systematically reviewed the ways in which experimentation with different animal and cell model systems has improved our knowledge of NCPs, and how these advances might contribute to the development of better diagnostic and therapeutic tools for the treatment of these pathologies. This article is categorized under: Congenital Diseases > Genetics/Genomics/Epigenetics Congenital Diseases > Stem Cells and Development Congenital Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology Neurological Diseases > Genetics/Genomics/Epigenetics.

Two Genomic Loci Control Three Eye Colors in the Domestic Pigeon (Columba livia)

The iris of the eye shows striking color variation across vertebrate species, and may play important roles in crypsis and communication. The domestic pigeon (Columba livia) has three common iris colors, orange, pearl (white), and bull (dark brown), segregating in a single species, thereby providing a unique opportunity to identify the genetic basis of iris coloration. We used comparative genomics and genetic mapping in laboratory crosses to identify two candidate genes that control variation in iris color in domestic pigeons. We identified a nonsense mutation in the solute carrier SLC2A11B that is shared among all pigeons with pearl eye color, and a locus associated with bull eye color that includes EDNRB2, a gene involved in neural crest migration and pigment development. However, bull eye is likely controlled by a heterogeneous collection of alleles across pigeon breeds. We also found that the EDNRB2 region is associated with regionalized plumage depigmentation (piebalding). Our study identifies two candidate genes for eye colors variation, and establishes a genetic link between iris and plumage color, two traits that vary widely in the evolution of birds and other vertebrates.

From Bipotent Neuromesodermal Progenitors to Neural-Mesodermal Interactions during Embryonic Development

To ensure the formation of a properly patterned embryo, multiple processes must operate harmoniously at sequential phases of development. This is implemented by mutual interactions between cells and tissues that together regulate the segregation and specification of cells, their growth and morphogenesis. The formation of the spinal cord and paraxial mesoderm derivatives exquisitely illustrate these processes. Following early gastrulation, while the vertebrate body elongates, a population of bipotent neuromesodermal progenitors resident in the posterior region of the embryo generate both neural and mesodermal lineages. At later stages, the somitic mesoderm regulates aspects of neural patterning and differentiation of both central and peripheral neural progenitors. Reciprocally, neural precursors influence the paraxial mesoderm to regulate somite-derived myogenesis and additional processes by distinct mechanisms. Central to this crosstalk is the activity of the axial notochord, which, via sonic hedgehog signaling, plays pivotal roles in neural, skeletal muscle and cartilage ontogeny. Here, we discuss the cellular and molecular basis underlying this complex developmental plan, with a focus on the logic of sonic hedgehog activities in the coordination of the neural-mesodermal axis.

Genome-wide association analysis reveals that EDNRB2 causes a dose-dependent loss of pigmentation in ducks

Background

Birds have various plumage color patterns, and spot is a common phenotype. Herein, we conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in a population of 225 ducks with different sized black spots to reveal the genetic basis of this phenomenon.

Results

First, we quantified the black spot phenotype within the duck population. The results showed that the uncolored area of the body surface first appeared on the ventral side. With increasing duck age, the area of the black spots was highly conserved across the whole body surface. The GWAS results identified a 198 kb (Chr4: 10,149,651 bp to 10,348,068 bp) genetic region that was significantly associated with the black spot phenotype. The conditional GWAS and linkage disequilibrium (LD) analysis further narrowed the ultimate candidate region to 167 kb (Chr4: 10,180,939 bp to 10,348,068 bp). A key gene regulating melanoblast migration and differentiation, EDNRB2 (Endothelin B receptor-like), was found in the candidate region and having significant mRNA expression level changes in embryonic duck skin tissue with different spot sizes. The significant SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) associated with the EDNRB2 gene were annotated, and two mutations (Chr4: 10,180,939 T > C and Chr4: 10,190,671 A > T) were found to result in the loss of binding sites for two trans-factors, XBP1 and cMYB. The phenotypic effect of these two mutations suggested that they can regulate the size of black spots in a dose-dependent manner, and Chr4: 10,180,939 T > C was the major allele locus.

Conclusions

Our results revealed that EDNRB2 was the gene responsible for the variation in duck body surface spot size. Chr4: 10,180,939 T > C was the major allele that explained 49.5 % (dorsal side) and 32.9 % (ventral side) of the variation in duck body surface spot size, while 32.1 % (dorsal side) and 19.1 % (ventral side) of the variation could be explained by Chr4: 10,190,671 A > T. The trans-factor prediction also suggested that XBP1 and cMYB have the potential to interact with EDNRB2, providing new insights into the mechanism of action of these genes.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-021-07719-7.

Development of the Vertebrate Trunk Sensory System: Origins, Specification, Axon Guidance, and Central Connectivity

Crucial to an animal's movement through their environment and to the maintenance of their homeostatic physiology is the integration of sensory information. This is achieved by axons communicating from organs, muscle spindles and skin that connect to the sensory ganglia composing the peripheral nervous system (PNS), enabling organisms to collect an ever-constant flow of sensations and relay it to the spinal cord. The sensory system carries a wide spectrum of sensory modalities - from sharp pain to cool refreshing touch - traveling from the periphery to the spinal cord via the dorsal root ganglia (DRG). This review covers the origins and development of the DRG and the cells that populate it, and focuses on how sensory connectivity to the spinal cord is achieved by the diverse developmental and molecular processes that control axon guidance in the trunk sensory system. We also describe convergences and differences in sensory neuron formation among different vertebrate species to gain insight into underlying developmental mechanisms.

A 14-bp insertion in endothelin receptor B-like (EDNRB2) is associated with white plumage in Chinese geese

BACKGROUND

Gang goose is a native species with gray plumage in Sichuan, China. As a result of overhunting, the number of gray Gang geese has decreased dramatically. To keep the species from extinction, conservation work for Gang geese was undertaken. In the process of pure breeding of gray Gang geese, approximately 2% of the offspring of each generation were white. This study aims to explain the genetic mechanism of this phenomenon and provide reliable molecular markers for goose-related plumage color breeding.

RESULTS

We used the method of pooled whole genome sequencing and Fst (fixation statistics) to identify the differentiation degree of alleles between gray Gang geese and white Gang geese from their offspring. In this way, EDNRB2, a key gene that affects the migration of melanoblasts, was identified. Then, the transcriptome was sequenced for the two geese plumage color populations, and the DEGs (differentially expressed genes) were analyzed. The results indicated that EDNRB2, as a possible candidate gene, had a significantly differential mRNA expression. In addition, a 14-bp insertion (NW_013185915.1: g. 750,748-750,735 insertion. CACAGGTGAGCTCT) in exon 3 of EDNRB2 was analyzed and found to have a significant association between gray geese and Chinese white breeds (P = 0.00), while this mutation was not found in European geese. Meanwhile, the insertion was homozygous in all the white geese we detected and heterozygous in gray geese, indicating that this mutation is recessive. Furthermore, this 14-bp insertion leads to a frameshift mutation in the EDNRB2 coding region and nonsense-mediated mRNA decay.

CONCLUSION

Our study strongly suggests that the 14-bp insertion in exon 3 of the EDNRB2 gene is associated with the white plumage phenotype in Chinese geese. This study is the first to investigate the relationship between EDNRB2 and white plumage in geese.

Endothelins (EDN1, EDN2, EDN3) and their receptors (EDNRA, EDNRB, EDNRB2) in chickens: Functional analysis and tissue distribution

Endothelins (EDNs) and their receptors (EDNRs) are reported to be involved in the regulation of many physiological/pathological processes, such as cardiovascular development and functions, pulmonary hypertension, neural crest cell proliferation, differentiation and migration, pigmentation, and plumage in chickens. However, the functionality, signaling, and tissue expression of avian EDN-EDNRs have not been fully characterized, thus impeding our comprehensive understanding of their roles in this model vertebrate species. Here, we reported the cDNAs of three EDN genes (EDN1, EDN2, EDN3) and examined the functionality and expression of the three EDNs and their receptors (EDNRA, EDNRB and EDNRB2) in chickens. The results showed that: 1) chicken (c-) EDN1, EDN2, and EDN3 cDNAs were predicted to encode bioactive EDN peptides of 21 amino acids, which show remarkable degree of amino acid sequence identities (91-95%) to their respective mammalian orthologs; 2) chicken (c-) EDNRA expressed in HEK293 cells could be preferentially activated by chicken EDN1 and EDN2, monitored by the three cell-based luciferase reporter assays, indicating that cEDNRA is a functional receptor common for both cEDN1 and cEDN2. In contrast, both cEDNRB and cEDNRB2 could be activated by all three EDN peptides with similar potencies, indicating that both receptors can function as common receptors for the three EDNs and share functional similarity. Moreover, activation of three EDNRs could stimulate intracellular calcium, MAPK/ERK, and cAMP/PKA signaling pathways. 3) qPCR assay revealed that cEDNs and cEDNRs are widely, but differentially, expressed in adult chicken tissues. Taken together, our data establishes a clear molecular basis to uncover the physiological/pathological roles of EDN-EDNR system in birds and helps to reveal the conserved actions of EDN-EDNR signaling across vertebrates.

Transcriptome Analysis of the Breast Muscle of Xichuan Black-Bone Chickens Under Tyrosine Supplementation Revealed the Mechanism of Tyrosine-Induced Melanin Deposition

The Xichuan black-bone chicken, which is a rare local chicken species in China, is an important genetic resource of black-bone chickens. Tyrosine can affect melanin production, but the molecular mechanism underlying tyrosine-induced melanin deposition in Xichuan black-bone chickens is poorly understood. Here, the blackness degree and melanin content of the breast muscle of Xichuan black-bone chickens fed a basic diet with five levels of added tyrosine (i.e., 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0%; these groups were denoted test groups I-V, respectively) were assessed, and the results showed that 0.8% tyrosine was the optimal level of added tyrosine. Moreover, the effects of tyrosine supplementation on the proliferation and tyrosinase content of melanocytes in Xichuan black-bone chickens were evaluated. The results revealed a dose-dependent relationship between tyrosine supplementation and melanocyte proliferation. In addition, 417 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 160 upregulated genes and 257 downregulated genes, were identified in a comparative analysis of the transcriptome profiles constructed using the pooled total RNA from breast muscle tissues of the control group and test group IV, respectively (fold change ≥2.0, P < 0.05). These DEGs were mainly involved in melanogenesis, the calcium signaling pathway, the Wnt signaling pathway, the mTOR signaling pathway, and vascular smooth muscle contraction. The pathway analysis of the DEGs identified some key genes associated with pigmentation, such as DCT and EDNRB2. In summary, the melanin content of breast muscle could be markedly enhanced by adding an appropriate amount of tyrosine to the diet of Xichuan black-bone chickens, and the EDNRB2-mediated molecular regulatory network could play a key role in the biological process of tyrosine-induced melanin deposition. These results have deepened the understanding of the molecular regulatory mechanism of melanin deposition in black-bone chickens and provide a basis for the regulation of nutrition and genetic breeding associated with melanin deposition in Xichuan black-bone chickens.

Down-regulation of FZD3 receptor suppresses growth and metastasis of human melanoma independently of canonical WNT signaling

Frizzled 3 receptor (FZD3) plays an important role in the homeostasis of the neural crest and its derivatives, which give rise to pigment-synthesizing cells, melanocytes. While the role for FZD3 in specification of the melanocytic lineage from neural crest is well established, its significance in the formation of melanoma, its associated malignancy, is less understood. In this study we identified FZD3 as a critical regulator of human melanoma tumorigenesis. Down-regulation of FZD3 abrogated growth, colony-forming potential, and invasive capacity of patient-derived melanoma cells. Xenotransplantation of tumor cells with down-regulated FZD3 levels originating from melanomas carrying the BRAF(V600) mutation uniformly suppressed their capacity for tumor and metastasis formation. FZD3 knockdown leads to the down-regulation of the core cell cycle protein components (cyclins D1, E2, B1, and CDKs 1, 2, and 4) in melanomas with a hyperactive BRAF oncogene, indicating a dominant role of this receptor during melanoma pathogenesis. Enriched pathway analysis revealed that FZD3 inhibits transcriptional networks controlled by CREB5, FOXD1, and ATF3, which suppress the activity of MAPK-mediated signaling. Thus, FZD3 establishes a positive-feedback mechanism that activates MAPK signal transduction network, critical to melanoma carcinogenesis. Importantly, high levels of FZD3 mRNA were found to be correlated with melanoma advancement to metastatic stages and limited patient survival. Changes in gene-expression patterns mediated by FZD3 activity occur in the absence of nuclear β-catenin function, thus representing an important therapeutic target for the melanoma patients whose disease progresses independent of canonical WNT signaling.

ADAM10 and γ-secretase regulate sensory regeneration in the avian vestibular organs

The loss of sensory hair cells from the inner ear is a leading cause of hearing and balance disorders. The mammalian ear has a very limited ability to replace lost hair cells, but the inner ears of non-mammalian vertebrates can spontaneously regenerate hair cells after injury. Prior studies have shown that replacement hair cells are derived from epithelial supporting cells and that the differentiation of new hair cells is regulated by the Notch signaling pathway. The present study examined molecular influences on regeneration in the avian utricle, which has a particularly robust regenerative ability. Chicken utricles were placed in organotypic culture and hair cells were lesioned by application of the ototoxic antibiotic streptomycin. Cultures were then allowed to regenerate in vitro for seven days. Some specimens were treated with small molecule inhibitors of γ-secretase or ADAM10, proteases which are essential for transmission of Notch signaling. As expected, treatment with both inhibitors led to increased numbers of replacement hair cells. However, we also found that inhibition of both proteases resulted in increased regenerative proliferation. Subsequent experiments showed that inhibition of γ-secretase or ADAM10 could also trigger proliferation in undamaged utricles. To better understand these phenomena, we used RNA-Seq profiling to characterize changes in gene expression following γ-secretase inhibition. We observed expression patterns that were consistent with Notch pathway inhibition, but we also found that the utricular sensory epithelium contains numerous γ-secretase substrates that might regulate cell cycle entry and possibly supporting cell-to-hair cell conversion. Together, our data suggest multiple roles for γ-secretase and ADAM10 in vestibular hair cell regeneration.

Gnaq and Gna11 in the Endothelin Signaling Pathway and Melanoma

In this article, we first briefly outline the function of G protein coupled receptors in cancer, and then specifically examine the roles of the seven transmembrane G protein coupled Endothelin B receptor (Ednrb) and the G proteins, GNAQ and GNA11, in both melanocyte development and melanoma. Ednrb plays an essential role in melanocyte development. GNAQ and GNA11 are oncogenes when mutated in certain types of melanocytic lesions, being extremely frequent in uveal melanoma, which forms from melanocytes located in the eye. Previously, we reported that in mice, Schwann cell precursor derived melanocytes colonize the dermis and hair follicles, while the inter-follicular epidermis is populated by other melanocytes. A pattern has emerged whereby melanocytes whose activities are affected by gain-of-function mutations of the Endothelin 3 ligand and Gα_q/11 are the same subset that arise from Schwann cell precursors. Furthermore, the forced expression of the constitutively active human GNAQ^Q209L oncogene in mouse melanocytes only causes hyper-proliferation in the subset that arise from Schwann cell precursors. This has led us to hypothesize that in Schwann cell precursor derived melanocytes, Ednrb signals through Gα_q/11. Ednrb is promiscuous and may signal through other G protein alpha subunits in melanomas located in the inter-follicular epidermis.

Genome-wide association study identifies multiple susceptibility loci for craniofacial microsomia

Craniofacial microsomia (CFM) is a rare congenital anomaly that involves immature derivatives from the first and second pharyngeal arches. The genetic pathogenesis of CFM is still unclear. Here we interrogate 0.9 million genetic variants in 939 CFM cases and 2,012 controls from China. After genotyping of an additional 443 cases and 1,669 controls, we identify 8 significantly associated loci with the most significant SNP rs13089920 (logistic regression P=2.15 × 10(-120)) and 5 suggestive loci. The above 13 associated loci, harboured by candidates of ROBO1, GATA3, GBX2, FGF3, NRP2, EDNRB, SHROOM3, SEMA7A, PLCD3, KLF12 and EPAS1, are found to be enriched for genes involved in neural crest cell (NCC) development and vasculogenesis. We then perform whole-genome sequencing on 21 samples from the case cohort, and identify several novel loss-of-function mutations within the associated loci. Our results provide new insights into genetic background of craniofacial microsomia.

Endothelin Receptor B2 (EDNRB2) Gene Is Associated with Spot Plumage Pattern in Domestic Ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)

Endothelin receptor B subtype 2 (EDNRB2) is a seven-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor. In this study, we investigated EDNRB2 gene as a candidate gene for duck spot plumage pattern according to studies of chicken and Japanese quail. The entire coding region was cloned by the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Sequence analysis showed that duck EDNRB2 cDNA contained a 1311bp open reading frame and encoded a putative protein of 436 amino acids residues. The transcript shared 89%-90% identity with the counterparts in other avian species. A phylogenetic tree based on amino acid sequences showed that duck EDNRB2 was evolutionary conserved in avian clade. The entire coding region of EDNRB2 were sequenced in 20 spot and 20 non-spot ducks, and 13 SNPs were identified. Two of them (c.940G>A and c.995G>A) were non-synonymous substitutions, and were genotyped in 647 ducks representing non-spot and spot phenotypes. The c.995G>A mutation, which results in the amino acid substitution of Arg332His, was completely associated with the spot phenotype: all 152 spot ducks were carriers of the AA genotype and the other 495 individuals with non-spot phenotype were carriers of GA or GG genotype, respectively. Segregation in 17 GA×GG and 22 GA×GA testing combinations confirmed this association since the segregation ratios and genotypes of the offspring were in agreement with the hypothesis. In order to investigate the underlying mechanism of the spot phenotype, MITF gene was used as cell type marker of melanocyte progenitor cells while TYR and TYRP1 gene were used as cell type markers of mature melanocytes. Transcripts of MITF, TYR and TYRP1 gene with expected size were identified in all pigmented skin tissues while PCR products were not obtained from non-pigmented skin tissues. It was inferred that melanocytes are absent in non-pigmented skin tissues of spot ducks.

Sympathoadrenal neural crest cells: the known, unknown and forgotten?

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are highly migratory progenitor cells that give rise to a vast array of differentiated cell types. One of their key derivatives is the autonomic nervous system (ANS) that is comprised in part from chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and organ of Zuckerkandl, the sympathetic chain and additional prevertebral ganglia such as the celiac ganglia, suprarenal ganglia and mesenteric ganglia. In this review we discuss recent advances toward our understanding of how the NCC precursors of the ANS migrate to their target regions, how they are instructed to differentiate into the correct cell types, and the morphogenetic signals controlling their development. Many of these processes remain enigmatic to developmental biologists worldwide. Taking advantage of lineage tracing mouse models one of our own aims is to address the morphogenetic events underpinning the formation of the ANS and to identify the molecular mechanisms that help to segregate a mixed population of NCCs into pathways specific for the sympathetic ganglia, sensory ganglia or adrenal medulla.

Neuropilins define distinct populations of neural crest cells

Background

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are a transient embryonic cell type that give rise to a wide spectrum of derivatives, including neurons and glia of the sensory and autonomic nervous system, melanocytes and connective tissues in the head. Lineage-tracing and functional studies have shown that trunk NCCs migrate along two distinct paths that correlate with different developmental fates. Thus, NCCs migrating ventrally through the anterior somite form sympathetic and sensory ganglia, whereas NCCs migrating dorsolaterally form melanocytes. Although the mechanisms promoting migration along the dorsolateral path are well defined, the molecules providing positional identity to sympathetic and sensory-fated NCCs that migrate along the same ventral path are ill defined. Neuropilins (Nrp1 and Nrp2) are transmembrane glycoproteins that are essential for NCC migration. Nrp1 and Nrp2 knockout mice have disparate phenotypes, suggesting that these receptors may play a role in sorting NCCs biased towards sensory and sympathetic fates to appropriate locations.

Results

Here we have combined in situ hybridisation, immunohistochemistry and lineage-tracing analyses to demonstrate that neuropilins are expressed in a non-overlapping pattern within NCCs. Whereas Nrp1 is expressed in NCCs emigrating from hindbrain rhombomere 4 (r4) and within trunk NCCs giving rise to sympathetic and sensory ganglia, Nrp2 is preferentially expressed in NCCs emigrating from r2 and in trunk NCCs giving rise to sensory ganglia. By generating a tamoxifen-inducible lineage-tracing system, we further demonstrate that Nrp2-expressing NCCs specifically populate sensory ganglia including the trigeminal ganglia (V) in the head and the dorsal root ganglia in the trunk.

Conclusions

Taken together, our results demonstrate that Nrp1 and Nrp2 are expressed in different populations of NCCs, and that Nrp2-expressing NCCs are strongly biased towards a sensory fate. In the trunk, Nrp2-expressing NCCs specifically give rise to sensory ganglia, whereas Nrp1-expressing NCCs likely give rise to both sensory and sympathetic ganglia. Our findings therefore suggest that neuropilins play an essential role in coordinating NCC migration with fate specification.

PleiotRHOpic: Rho pathways are essential for all stages of Neural Crest development

Neural Crest (NC) cells are a multipotent migratory stem cell population unique to vertebrates, which contributes extensively to the formation of a wide array of neural and non-neural structures in the embryo. NC cells originate in the ectoderm at the border of the neural tube, undergo an epithelial-mesenchymal transition and acquire outstanding individual and collective migratory properties that allow them to disseminate and differentiate to different parts of the body. This exquisite capacity to switch from an epithelium to motile cells represents both a puzzling biological issue and an attractive model to address the basic mechanisms of cell migration and their alteration during cancer progression. Here we review how signaling pathways controlled by Rho GTPases, key players in cell adhesion, contraction, migration and polarity, contribute to the control the different phases of NC development.

Endothelin receptor B2 (EDNRB2) is responsible for the tyrosinase-independent recessive white (mo(w) ) and mottled (mo) plumage phenotypes in the chicken

A mutation that confers white plumage with black eyes was identified in the Minohiki breed of Japanese native chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus). The white plumage, with a few partially pigmented feathers, was not associated with the tyrosinase gene, and displayed an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance against the pigmented phenotype. All F1 offspring derived from crosses with mottled chickens (mo/mo), which show characteristic pigmented feathers with white tips, had plumage with a mottled-like pattern. This result indicates that the white plumage mutation is a novel allele at the mo locus; we propose the gene symbol mo(w) for this mutant allele. Furthermore, the F1 hybrid between the mo(w) /mo(w) chicken and the panda (s/s) mutant of Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), whose causative gene is the endothelin receptor B2 (EDNRB2) gene, showed a mo(w)/mo(w) chicken-like plumage, suggesting the possibility that the mutations in parental species are alleles of the same gene, EDNRB2. Nucleotide sequencing of the entire coding region of EDNRB2 revealed a non-synonymous G1008T substitution, which causes Cys244Phe amino acid substitution in exon 5 (which is part of the extracellular loop between the putative fourth and fifth transmembrane domains of EDNRB2) in the mutant chicken. This Cys244Phe mutation was also present in individuals of four Japanese breeds with white plumage. We also identified a non-synonymous substitution leading to Arg332His substitution that was responsible for the mottled (mo/mo) plumage phenotype. These results suggest that the EDN3 (endothelin 3)-EDNRB2 signaling is essential for normal pigmentation in birds, and that the mutations of EDNRB2 may cause defective binding of the protein with endothelins, which interferes with melanocyte differentiation, proliferation, and migration.

The distribution of ephrin-B1 and PNA-positive glycoconjugates is correlated with atypical melanoblast migration in Japanese Silky fowl embryos

Melanoblasts are positively stimulated to migrate in the dorsolateral pathway of the avian embryo by ephrins, but are inhibited by PNA-binding glycoconjugates. We analyzed the potential role of these molecules in the Japanese Silky fowl, which displays intense internal pigmentation. The distribution of ephrin ligands was analyzed using Eph receptor-human Fc fusion proteins. Glycoconjugates were labeled using PNA-FITC. In Japanese Silky embryos, ventral areas, including the anterior- and posterior-half somites, expressed ephrin-B1 in a pattern that correlates with the atypical migratory pathways taken by Japanese Silky melanoblasts. White Leghorn embryos displayed little to no ephrin-Bs in the ventral paths. Conversely, PNA-binding barrier tissues, proposed to prevent melanoblasts from migrating ventrally in White Leghorn, are missing or have significant gaps in Japanese Silky embryos. Thus, studies of a naturally occurring pigmentation mutant confirm that a combination of cues regulates melanoblast migration in the chick embryo.

Fascin 1 is transiently expressed in mouse melanoblasts during development and promotes migration and proliferation

Fascins, a family of actin-bundling proteins, are expressed in a spatially and temporally restricted manner during development and often in cancer. Fascin 1 has a clear role in cell migration in vitro, but its role in vivo in mammals is not well understood. Here, we investigate the role of fascin 1 in the melanocyte lineage and in melanoma cells. Fascin 1 knockout causes hypopigmentation in adult mice owing to migration and cell cycle progression defects in melanoblasts, the melanocyte precursor cell. Study of live embryo skin explants reveals that E14.5 fascin 1-null melanoblasts migrate slower, and generate fewer and thinner pseudopods. By contrast, fascin 1 expression drives faster migration and lamellipodia protrusion in melanocytes in vitro. In addition, fascin 1 depletion retards melanoblast proliferation in vivo and melanoma cell growth in vitro. These data indicate that fascin 1 not only promotes cell migration in mouse melanocytes but it also has a role in growth and cell cycle progression.

A dynamic code of dorsal neural tube genes regulates the segregation between neurogenic and melanogenic neural crest cells

Understanding when and how multipotent progenitors segregate into diverse fates is a key question during embryonic development. The neural crest (NC) is an exemplary model system with which to investigate the dynamics of progenitor cell specification, as it generates a multitude of derivatives. Based on 'in ovo' lineage analysis, we previously suggested an early fate restriction of premigratory trunk NC to generate neural versus melanogenic fates, yet the timing of fate segregation and the underlying mechanisms remained unknown. Analysis of progenitors expressing a Foxd3 reporter reveals that prospective melanoblasts downregulate Foxd3 and have already segregated from neural lineages before emigration. When this downregulation is prevented, late-emigrating avian precursors fail to upregulate the melanogenic markers Mitf and MC/1 and the guidance receptor Ednrb2, generating instead glial cells that express P0 and Fabp. In this context, Foxd3 lies downstream of Snail2 and Sox9, constituting a minimal network upstream of Mitf and Ednrb2 to link melanogenic specification with migration. Consistent with the gain-of-function data in avians, loss of Foxd3 function in mouse NC results in ectopic melanogenesis in the dorsal tube and sensory ganglia. Altogether, Foxd3 is part of a dynamically expressed gene network that is necessary and sufficient to regulate fate decisions in premigratory NC. Their timely downregulation in the dorsal neural tube is thus necessary for the switch between neural and melanocytic phases of NC development.

Molecular and developmental contributions to divergent pigment patterns in marine and freshwater sticklebacks

Pigment pattern variation across species or populations offers a tractable framework in which to investigate the evolution of development. Juvenile threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) from marine and freshwater environments exhibit divergent pigment patterns that are associated with ecological differences. Juvenile marine sticklebacks have a silvery appearance, whereas sticklebacks from freshwater environments exhibit a pattern of vertical bars. We investigated both the developmental and molecular basis of this population-level variation in pigment pattern. Time course imaging during the transition from larval to juvenile stages revealed differences between marine and freshwater fish in spatial patterns of chromatophore differentiation as well as in pigment amount and dispersal. In freshwater fish, melanophores appear primarily within dark bars whereas iridophores appear within light bars. By contrast, in marine fish, these chromatophores are interspersed across the flank. In addition to spatially segregated chromatophore differentiation, pigment amount and dispersal within melanophores varies spatially across the flank of freshwater, but not marine fish. To gain insight into the molecular pathways that underlie the differences in pigment pattern development, we evaluated differential gene expression in the flanks of developing fish using high-throughput cDNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and quantitative PCR. We identified several genes that were differentially expressed across dark and light bars of freshwater fish, and between freshwater and marine fish. Together, these experiments begin to shed light on the process of pigment pattern evolution in sticklebacks.

Neural crest and somitic mesoderm as paradigms to investigate cell fate decisions during development

The dorsal domains of the neural tube and somites are transient embryonic epithelia; they constitute the source of neural crest progenitors that generate the peripheral nervous system, pigment cells and ectomesenchyme, and of the dermomyotome that develops into myocytes, dermis and vascular cells, respectively. Based on the variety of derivatives produced by each type of epithelium, a classical yet still highly relevant question is whether these embryonic epithelia are composed of homogeneous multipotent progenitors or, alternatively, of subsets of fate-restricted cells. Growing evidence substantiates the notion that both the dorsal tube and the dermomyotome are heterogeneous epithelia composed of multipotent as well as fate-restricted precursors that emerge as such in a spatio-temporally regulated manner. Elucidation of the state of commitment of the precedent progenitors is of utmost significance for deciphering the mechanisms that regulate fate segregation during embryogenesis. In addition, it will contribute to understanding the nature of well documented neural crest-somite interactions shown to modulate the timing of neural crest cell emigration, their segmental migration, and myogenesis.

Melanoma revives an embryonic migration program to promote plasticity and invasion

Cancer cells must regulate plasticity and invasion to survive and metastasize. However, the identification of targetable mechanisms to inhibit metastasis has been slow. Signaling programs that drive stem and progenitor cells during normal development offer an inroad to discover mechanisms common to metastasis. Using a chick embryo transplant model, we have compared molecular signaling programs of melanoma and their embryonic progenitors, the neural crest. We report that malignant melanoma cells hijack portions of the embryonic neural crest invasion program. Genes associated with neural crest induction, delamination, and migration are dynamically regulated by melanoma cells exposed to an embryonic neural crest microenvironment. Specifically, we demonstrate that metastatic melanoma cells exploit neural crest-related receptor tyrosine kinases to increase plasticity and facilitate invasion while primary melanocytes may actively suppress these responses under the same microenvironmental conditions. We conclude that aberrant regulation of neural crest developmental genes promotes plasticity and invasiveness in malignant melanoma.

Specification of neural crest into sensory neuron and melanocyte lineages

Elucidating the mechanisms by which multipotent cells differentiate into distinct lineages is a common theme underlying developmental biology investigations. Progress has been made in understanding some of the essential factors and pathways involved in the specification of different lineages from the neural crest. These include gene regulatory networks involving transcription factor hierarchies and input from signaling pathways mediated from environmental cues. In this review, we examine the mechanisms for two lineages that are derived from the neural crest, peripheral sensory neurons and melanocytes. Insights into the specification of these cell types may reveal common themes in the specification processes that occur throughout development.

Neural crest delamination and migration: from epithelium-to-mesenchyme transition to collective cell migration

After induction and specification in the ectoderm, at the border of the neural plate, the neural crest (NC) population leaves its original territory through a delamination process. Soon afterwards, the NC cells migrate throughout the embryo and colonize a myriad of tissues and organs where they settle and differentiate. The delamination involves a partial or complete epithelium-to-mesenchyme transition (EMT) regulated by a complex network of transcription factors including several proto-oncogenes. Studying the relationship between these genes at the time of emigration, and their individual or collective impact on cell behavior, provides valuable information about their role in EMT in other contexts such as cancer metastasis. During migration, NC cells are exposed to large number of positive and negative regulators that control where they go by generating permissive and restricted areas and by modulating their motility and directionality. In addition, as most NC cells migrate collectively, cell-cell interactions play a crucial role in polarizing the cells and interpreting external cues. Cell cooperation eventually generates an overall polarity to the population, leading to directional collective cell migration. This review will summarize our current knowledge on delamination, EMT and migration of NC cells using key examples from chicken, Xenopus, zebrafish and mouse embryos. Given the similarities between neural crest migration and cancer invasion, these cells may represent a useful model for understanding the mechanisms of metastasis.

Gene duplication of endothelin 3 is closely correlated with the hyperpigmentation of the internal organs (Fibromelanosis) in silky chickens

During early development in vertebrates, pluripotent cells are generated from the neural crest and migrate according to their presumptive fate. In birds and mammals, one of the progeny cells, melanoblasts, generally migrate through a dorsolateral route of the trunk region and differentiate to melanocytes. However, Silky is an exceptional chicken in which numerous melanoblasts travel via a ventral pathway and disperse into internal organs. Finally, these ectopic melanocytes induce heavy dermal and visceral melanization known as Fibromelanosis (Fm). To identify the genetic basis of this phenotype, we confirmed the mode of inheritance of Fm as autosomal dominant and then performed linkage analysis with microsatellite markers and sequence-tagged site markers. Using 85 backcross progeny from crossing Black Minorca chickens (BM-C) with F(1) individuals between White Silky (WS) and BM-C Fm was located on 10.2-11.7 Mb of chicken chromosome 20. In addition, we noticed a DNA marker that all Silky chickens and the F(1) individuals showed heterozygous genotyping patterns, suggesting gene duplication in the Fm region. By quantitative real-time PCR assay, Silky line-specific gene duplication was detected as an ~130-kb interval. It contained five genes including endothelin 3 (EDN3), which encoded a potent mitogen for melanoblasts/melanocytes. EDN3 with another three of these duplicated genes in Silky chickens expressed almost twofold of those in BM-C. Present results strongly suggest that the increase of the expression levels resulting from the gene duplication in the Fm region is the trigger of hypermelanization in internal organs of Silky chickens.

Vagal neural crest cell migratory behavior: a transition between the cranial and trunk crest

Migration and differentiation of cranial neural crest cells are largely controlled by environmental cues, whereas pathfinding at the trunk level is dictated by cell-autonomous molecular changes owing to early specification of the premigratory crest. Here, we investigated the migration and patterning of vagal neural crest cells. We show that (1) vagal neural crest cells exhibit some developmental bias, and (2) they take separate pathways to the heart and to the gut. Together these observations suggest that prior specification dictates initial pathway choice. However, when we challenged the vagal neural crest cells with different migratory environments, we observed that the behavior of the anterior vagal neural crest cells (somite-level 1-3) exhibit considerable migratory plasticity, whereas the posterior vagal neural crest cells (somite-level 5-7) are more restricted in their behavior. We conclude that the vagal neural crest is a transitional population that has evolved between the head and the trunk.

Neural crest cells and motor axons in avians: Common and distinct migratory molecules

It has long been thought that the same molecules guide both trunk neural crest cells and motor axons as these cell types grow and extend to their target regions in developing embryos. There are common territories that are navigated by these cell types: both cells grow through the rostral portion of the somitic sclerotomes and avoid the caudal half of the sclerotomes. However, these cell types seem to use different molecules to guide them to their target regions. In this review, I will talk about the common and distinct methods of migration taken by trunk neural crest cells and motor axons as they grow and populate their target regions through chick embryos at the level of the trunk.

In the beginning: Generating neural crest cell diversity

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are migratory cells that delaminate from the neural tube early in development and then disseminate throughout the embryo to give rise to a wide variety of cell types that are key to the vertebrate body plan. During their journey from the neural tube to their peripheral targets, NCCs progressively differentiate, raising the question when the fate of an individual NCC is sealed. One hypothesis suggests that the fate of a NCC is specified by target-derived signals emanating from the environment they migrate through, while another hypothesis proposes that NCCs are already specified to differentiate along select lineages at the time they are born in the neural tube, with environmental signals helping them to realize their prespecified fate potential. Alternatively, both mechanisms may cooperate to drive NCC diversity. This review highlights recent advances in our understanding of prespecification during trunk NCC development.

Generation of melanocytes from neural crest cells

The neural crest is a transient structure in vertebrate embryos that generates multiple neural and mesenchymal cell types as well as melanocytes. Melanocytes in the skin either derive directly from neural crest cells populating the skin via a dorsolateral migratory pathway or arise by detaching from nerves innervating the skin. Several transcription factors, such as FoxD3, Sox10, Pax3, and Mitf, take part in a genetic network regulating melanocyte formation from the neural crest. The activity of these intrinsic factors is controlled and modulated by extracellular signals including canonical Wnt, Edn, Kitl, and other signals that remain to be identified. Here, we summarize the current view of how melanocytes are specified from the neural crest and put this process into the context of spatiotemporal lineage decisions in neural crest cells.

Genomically integrated transgenes are stably and conditionally expressed in neural crest cell-specific lineages

Neural crest cells (NCCs) are a transient embryonic structure that gives rise to a variety of cells including peripheral nervous system, melanocytes, and Schwann cells. To understand the molecular mechanisms underlying NCC development, a gene manipulation of NCCs by in ovo electroporation technique is a powerful tool, particularly in chicken embryos, the model animal that has long been used for the NCC research. However, since expression of introduced genes by the conventional electroporation method is transient, the mechanisms of late development of NCCs remain unexplored. We here report novel methods by which late-developing NCCs are successfully manipulated with electroporated genes. Introduced genes can be stably and/or conditionally expressed in a NCC-specific manner by combining 4 different techniques: Tol2 transposon-mediated genomic integration (Sato et al., 2007), a NCC-specific enhancer of the Sox10 gene (identified in this study), Cre/loxP system, and tet-on inducible expression (Watanabe et al., 2007). This is the first demonstration that late-developing NCCs in chickens are gene-manipulated specifically and conditionally. These methods have further allowed us to obtain ex vivo live-images of individual Schwann cells that are associated in axon bundles in peripheral tissues. Cellular activity and morphology dynamically change as development proceeds. This study has opened a new way to understand at the molecular and cellular levels how late NCCs develop in association with other tissues during embryogenesis.

The dorsal neural tube: a dynamic setting for cell fate decisions

The dorsal neural tube first generates neural crest cells that exit the neural primordium following an epithelial-to-mesenchymal conversion to become sympathetic ganglia, Schwann cells, dorsal root sensory ganglia, and melanocytes of the skin. Following the end of crest emigration, the dorsal midline of the neural tube becomes the roof plate, a signaling center for the organization of dorsal neuronal cell types. Recent lineage analysis performed before the onset of crest delamination revealed that the dorsal tube is a highly dynamic region sequentially traversed by fate-restricted crest progenitors. Furthermore, prospective roof plate cells were shown to originate ventral to presumptive crest and to progressively relocate dorsalward to occupy their definitive midline position following crest delamination. These data raise important questions regarding the mechanisms of cell emigration in relation to fate acquisition, and suggest the possibility that spatial and/or temporal information in the dorsal neural tube determines initial segregation of neural crest cells into their derivatives. In addition, they emphasize the need to address what controls the end of neural crest production and consequent roof plate formation, a fundamental issue for understanding the separation between central and peripheral lineages during development of the nervous system.

Embryological and genetic manipulation of chick development

The ability to combine embryological manipulations with gene function analysis makes the chick a valuable system for the vertebrate developmental biologist. We describe methods for those unfamiliar with the chick wishing to initiate chick experiments in their lab. After outlining how to prepare chick embryos, we provide protocols for introducing beads or cells expressing secreted factors into the embryo and for culturing tissue explants as a means of assessing development in vitro. Chick gain-of-function and loss-of-function (RNAi and morpholino oligonucleotide) approaches are outlined, and methods for introducing these reagents by electroporation are detailed.

Receptor tyrosine phosphatase PTPγ is a regulator of spinal cord neurogenesis

During spinal cord development the proliferation, migration and survival of neural progenitors and precursors is tightly controlled, generating the fine spatial organisation of the cord. In order to understand better the control of these processes, we have examined the function of an orphan receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP) PTPγ, in the developing chick spinal cord. Widespread expression of PTPγ occurs post-embryonic day 3 in the early cord and is consistent with a potential role in either neurogenesis or neuronal maturation. Using gain-of-function and loss-of-function approaches in ovo, we show that PTPγ perturbation significantly reduces progenitor proliferation rates and neuronal precursor numbers, resulting in hypoplasia of the neuroepithelium. PTPγ gain-of-function causes widespread suppression of Wnt/β-catenin-driven TCF signalling. One potential target of PTPγ may therefore be β-catenin itself, since PTPγ can dephosphorylate it in vitro, but alternative targets are also likely. PTPγ loss-of-function is not sufficient to alter TCF signalling. Instead, loss-of-function leads to increased apoptosis and defective cell–cell adhesion in progenitors and precursors. Furthermore, motor neuron precursor migration is specifically defective. PTPγ therefore regulates neurogenesis during a window of spinal cord development, with molecular targets most likely related to Wnt/β-catenin signalling, cell survival and cell adhesion.

Regional differences in neural crest morphogenesis

Neural crest cells are pluripotent cells that emerge from the neural epithelium, migrate extensively, and differentiate into numerous derivatives, including neurons, glial cells, pigment cells and connective tissue. Major questions concerning their morphogenesis include: 1) what establishes the pathways of migration and 2) what controls the final destination and differentiation of various neural crest subpopulations. These questions will be addressed in this review. Neural crest cells from the trunk level have been explored most extensively. Studies show that melanoblasts are specified shortly after they depart from the neural tube, and this specification directs their migration into the dorsolateral pathway. We also consider other reports that present strong evidence for ventrally migrating neural crest cells being similarly fate restricted. Cranial neural crest cells have been less analyzed in this regard but the preponderance of evidence indicates that either the cranial neural crest cells are not fate-restricted, or are extremely plastic in their developmental capability and that specification does not control pathfinding. Thus, the guidance mechanisms that control cranial neural crest migration and their behavior vary significantly from the trunk. The vagal neural crest arises at the axial level between the cranial and trunk neural crest and represents a transitional cell population between the head and trunk neural crest. We summarize new data to support this claim. In particular, we show that: 1) the vagal-level neural crest cells exhibit modest developmental bias; 2) there are differences in the migratory behavior between the anterior and the posterior vagal neural crest cells reminiscent of the cranial and the trunk neural crest, respectively; 3) the vagal neural crest cells take the dorsolateral pathway to the pharyngeal arches and the heart, but the ventral pathway to the peripheral nervous system and the gut. However, these pathways are not rigidly specified because of prior fate restriction. Understanding the molecular, cellular and behavioral differences between these three populations of neural crest cells will be of enormous assistance when trying to understand the evolution of the neck.

Division of labor during trunk neural crest development

Neural crest cells, the migratory precursors of numerous cell types including the vertebrate peripheral nervous system, arise in the dorsal neural tube and follow prescribed routes into the embryonic periphery. While the timing and location of neural crest migratory pathways has been well documented in the trunk, a comprehensive collection of signals that guides neural crest migration along these paths has only recently been established. In this review, we outline the molecular cascade of events during trunk neural crest development. After describing the sequential routes taken by trunk neural crest cells, we consider the guidance cues that pattern these neural crest trajectories. We pay particular attention to segmental neural crest development and the steps and signals that generate a metameric peripheral nervous system, attempting to reconcile conflicting observations in chick and mouse. Finally, we compare cranial and trunk neural crest development in order to highlight common themes.

Evidence for a dynamic spatiotemporal fate map and early fate restrictions of premigratory avian neural crest

Colonization of trunk neural crest derivatives in avians follows a ventral to dorsal order beginning with sympathetic ganglia, Schwann cells, sensory ganglia and finally melanocytes. Continuous crest emigration underlies this process, which is accounted for by a progressive ventral to dorsal relocation of neural tube progenitors prior to departure. This causes a gradual narrowing of FoxD3, Sox9 and Snail2 expression domains in the dorsal tube that characterize the neural progenitors of the crest and these genes are no longer transcribed by the time melanoblasts begin emigrating. Consistently, the final localization of crest cells can be predicted from their relative ventrodorsal position within the premigratory domain or by their time of delamination. Thus, a dynamic spatiotemporal fate map of crest derivatives exists in the dorsal tube at flank levels of the axis with its midline region acting as a sink for the ordered ingression and departure of progenitors. Furthermore, discrete lineage analysis of the dorsal midline at progressive stages generated progeny in single rather than multiple derivatives, revealing early fate restrictions. Compatible with this notion, when early emigrating `neural' progenitors were diverted into the lateral `melanocytic' pathway, they still adopted neural traits, suggesting that initial fate acquisition is independent of the migratory environment and that the potential of crest cells prior to emigration is limited.

Roles of endothelin signaling in melanocyte development and melanoma

Endothelin (Edn) signaling via the G-coupled, Edn receptor type B (Ednrb) is essential for the development of melanocytes from the neural crest (NC) and has been associated with melanoma progression. Edn3 plays varying roles during melanocyte development, promoting the proliferation and self-renewal of NC-derived multi- and bi-potential precursors as well as the survival, proliferation, differentiation and migration of committed melanocyte precursors. Melanocyte differentiation is achieved via the interaction of Ednrb and Kit signaling, with Ednrb being specifically required in the final differentiation step, rather than in the initial specification of melanocytic fate. Ednrb has also been implicated in the de-differentiation of mature melanocytes, a process that takes place during the malignant transformation of these cells. Ednrb was found to be upregulated in melanoma metastases and was shown to alter tumor-host interactions leading to melanoma progression. Antagonists to this receptor were shown to inhibit melanoma cell growth and increase the apoptotic rate of these cells, and to lead to disease stabilization in melanoma patients. Thus, Edn signaling inhibition may prove useful in the treatment of certain types of melanoma.