Evolutionary crossroads in developmental biology: Cnidaria

From ctenophores to scyphozoans: parasitic spillover of a burrowing sea anemone

Most host-parasite associations are explained by phylogenetically conservative capabilities for host utilization, and therefore parasite switches between distantly related hosts are rare. Here we report the first evidence of a parasitic spillover of the burrowing sea anemone Edwardsiella carnea from the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi to two scyphozoan hosts: the native Mediterranean barrel jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo and the invasive Indo-Pacific nomad jellyfish Rhopilema nomadica, collected from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Edwardsiella carnea planulae found in these jellyfish were identified using molecular analyses of the mitochondrial 16S and nuclear 18S rRNA genes. Overall, 93 planulae were found on tentacles, oral arms, and inside of the gastrovascular canals of the scyphomedusae, whereas no infection was observed in co-occurring ctenophores. DNA metabarcoding approach indicated seasonal presence of Edwardsiella sp. in the Eastern Mediterranean mesozooplankton, coinciding with jellyfish blooms in the region. Our findings suggest a non-specific parasitic relationship between Edwardsiella carnea and various gelatinous hosts based on shared functionality rather than evolutionary history, potentially driven by shifts in host availability due to jellyfish blooms. This spillover raises questions about the ecological impacts of parasitism on native and invasive scyphozoan hosts and the potential role of Edwardsiella in controlling their populations.

Genome and tissue-specific transcriptomes of the large-polyp coral, Fimbriaphyllia (Euphyllia) ancora: a recipe for a coral polyp

Coral polyps are composed of four tissues; however, their characteristics are largely unexplored. Here we report biological characteristics of tentacles (Te), mesenterial filaments (Me), body wall (Bo), and mouth with pharynx (MP), using comparative genomic, morpho-histological, and transcriptomic analyses of the large-polyp coral, Fimbriaphyllia ancora. A draft F. ancora genome assembly of 434 Mbp was created. Morpho-histological and transcriptomic characterization of the four tissues showed that they have distinct differences in structure, primary cellular composition, and transcriptional profiles. Tissue-specific, highly expressed genes (HEGs) of Te are related to biological defense, predation, and coral-algal symbiosis. Me expresses multiple digestive enzymes, whereas Bo expresses innate immunity and biomineralization-related molecules. Many receptors for neuropeptides and neurotransmitters are expressed in MP. This dataset and new insights into tissue functions will facilitate a deeper understanding of symbiotic biology, immunology, biomineralization, digestive biology, and neurobiology in corals.

Mechanical characterization of regenerating Hydra tissue spheres

Hydra vulgaris, long known for its remarkable regenerative capabilities, is also a long-standing source of inspiration for models of spontaneous patterning. Recently it became clear that early patterning during Hydra regeneration is an integrated mechanochemical process whereby morphogen dynamics is influenced by tissue mechanics. One roadblock to understanding Hydra self-organization is our lack of knowledge about the mechanical properties of these organisms. In this study, we combined microfluidic developments to perform parallelized microaspiration rheological experiments and numerical simulations to characterize these mechanical properties. We found three different behaviors depending on the applied stresses: an elastic response, a viscoelastic response, and tissue rupture. Using models of deformable shells, we quantify their Young's modulus, shear viscosity, and the critical stresses required to switch between behaviors. Based on these experimental results, we propose a description of the tissue mechanics during normal regeneration. Our results provide a first step toward the development of original mechanochemical models of patterning grounded in quantitative experimental data.

Induction of apoptosis by double-stranded RNA was present in the last common ancestor of cnidarian and bilaterian animals

Apoptosis, a major form of programmed cell death, is an essential component of host defense against invading intracellular pathogens. Viruses encode inhibitors of apoptosis to evade host responses during infection, and to support their own replication and survival. Therefore, hosts and their viruses are entangled in a constant evolutionary arms race to control apoptosis. Until now, apoptosis in the context of the antiviral immune system has been almost exclusively studied in vertebrates. This limited phyletic sampling makes it impossible to determine whether a similar mechanism existed in the last common ancestor of animals. Here, we established assays to probe apoptosis in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, a model species of Cnidaria, a phylum that diverged approximately 600 million years ago from the rest of animals. We show that polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), a synthetic long double-stranded RNA mimicking viral RNA and a primary ligand for the vertebrate RLR melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA5), is sufficient to induce apoptosis in N. vectensis. Furthermore, at the transcriptomic level, apoptosis related genes are significantly enriched upon poly(I:C) exposure in N. vectensis as well as bilaterian invertebrates. Our phylogenetic analysis of caspase family genes in N. vectensis reveals conservation of all four caspase genes involved in apoptosis in mammals and revealed a cnidarian-specific caspase gene which was strongly upregulated. Altogether, our findings suggest that apoptosis in response to a viral challenge is a functionally conserved mechanism that can be traced back to the last common ancestor of Bilateria and Cnidaria.

Mucus carbohydrate composition correlates with scleractinian coral phylogeny

The mucus surface layer serves vital functions for scleractinian corals and consists mainly of carbohydrates. Its carbohydrate composition has been suggested to be influenced by environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, nutrients) and microbial pressures (e.g., microbial degradation, microbial coral symbionts), yet to what extend the coral mucus composition is determined by phylogeny remains to be tested. To investigate the variation of mucus carbohydrate compositions among coral species, we analyzed the composition of mucosal carbohydrate building blocks (i.e., monosaccharides) for five species of scleractinian corals, supplemented with previously reported data, to discern overall patterns using cluster analysis. Monosaccharide composition from a total of 23 species (belonging to 14 genera and 11 families) revealed significant differences between two phylogenetic clades that diverged early in the evolutionary history of scleractinian corals (i.e., complex and robust; p = 0.001, R2 = 0.20), mainly driven by the absence of arabinose in the robust clade. Despite considerable differences in environmental conditions and sample analysis protocols applied, coral phylogeny significantly correlated with monosaccharide composition (Mantel test: p < 0.001, R2 = 0.70). These results suggest that coral mucus carbohydrates display phylogenetic dependence and support their essential role in the functioning of corals.

Single-cell phylotranscriptomics of developmental and cell type evolution

Single-cell phylotranscriptomics is an emerging tool to reveal the molecular and cellular mechanisms of evolution. We summarize its utility in studying the hourglass pattern of ontogenetic evolution and for understanding the evolutionary history of cell types. The developmental hourglass model suggests that the mid-embryonic stage is the most conserved period of development across species, which is supported by morphological and molecular studies. Single-cell phylotranscriptomic analysis has revealed previously underappreciated heterogeneity in transcriptome ages among lineages and cell types throughout development, and has identified the lineages and tissues that drive the whole-organism hourglass pattern. Single-cell transcriptome age analyses also provide important insights into the origin of germ layers, the different selective forces on tissues during adaptation, and the evolutionary relationships between cell types.

Breaking the neural code of a cnidarian: Learning principles of neuroscience from the "vulgar" Hydra

The cnidarian Hydra vulgaris is a small polyp with a nervous system of few hundred neurons belonging to a dozen cell types, organized in two nerve nets without cephalization or ganglia. Using this simple neural "chassis", Hydra can maintain a stable repertoire of behaviors, even performing complex fixed-action patterns, such as somersaulting and feeding. The ability to image the activity of Hydra's entire neural and muscle tissue has revealed that Hydra's nerve nets are divided into coactive ensembles of neurons, associated with specific movements. These ensembles can be activated by neuropeptides and interact using cross-inhibition circuits and implement integrate-to-threshold algorithms. In addition, Hydra's nervous system can self-assemble from dissociated cells in a stepwise modular architecture. Studies of Hydra and other cnidarians could enable the systematic deciphering of the neural basis of its behavior and help provide perspective on basic principles of neuroscience.

Origin and development of primary animal epithelia

Epithelia are the first organized tissues that appear during development. In many animal embryos, early divisions give rise to a polarized monolayer, the primary epithelium, rather than a random aggregate of cells. Here, we review the mechanisms by which cells organize into primary epithelia in various developmental contexts. We discuss how cells acquire polarity while undergoing early divisions. We describe cases where oriented divisions constrain cell arrangement to monolayers including organization on top of yolk surfaces. We finally discuss how epithelia emerge in embryos from animals that branched early during evolution and provide examples of epithelia-like arrangements encountered in single-celled eukaryotes. Although divergent and context-dependent mechanisms give rise to primary epithelia, here we trace the unifying principles underlying their formation.

Evolutionarily conserved Wnt/Sp5 signaling is critical for anterior-posterior axis patterning in sea urchin embryos

Studies across a diverse group of metazoan embryos indicate that Wnt signaling often activates the transcription factor Sp5, forming a signaling 'cassette' that plays critical roles in many developmental processes. This study explores the role of Wnt/Sp5 signaling during the specification and patterning of the primary germ layers during early anterior-posterior axis formation in the deuterostome sea urchin embryo. Our functional analyses show that Sp5 is critical for endomesoderm specification downstream of Wnt/β-catenin in posterior cells as well as anterior neuroectoderm patterning downstream of non-canonical Wnt/JNK signaling in anterior cells. Interestingly, expression and functional data comparisons show that Wnt/Sp5 signaling often plays similar roles in posterior endomesoderm as well as neuroectoderm patterning along the AP axis of several deuterostome embryos, including vertebrates. Thus, our findings provide strong support for the idea that Wnt-Sp5 signaling cassettes were critical for the establishment of early germ layers in the common deuterostome ancestor.

SABER-FISH in Hydractinia

In situ hybridization allows the detection of nucleic acid sequences in fixed cells and tissues. The gelatinous nature of cnidarians and Hydractinia demands extensive and exhausting protocols to detect RNA transcripts with traditional methods (e.g., colorimetric in situ hybridization). Signal amplification by exchange reaction (SABER) fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) enables simplifying and multiplex imaging of RNA targets in a rapid and cost-effective manner. In one enzymatic reaction, SABER-FISH uses a strand-displacing polymerase and catalytic DNA hairpin to generate FISH probes with adjustable signal amplification, allowing highly sensitive detection of nucleic acids and reducing the number of required probes. Here I describe the methodology to detect transcripts within the cells of Hydractinia by SABER-FISH in whole-mount samples.

Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization as a Tool for Studying the Specification and Differentiation of Cell Types in Nematostella vectensis

The sea anemone Nematostella vectensis is a genetically tractable cnidarian species that has become a model organism for studying the evolution of developmental processes and genome regulation, resilience to fluctuations in environmental conditions, and the response to pollutants. Gene expression analyses are central to many of these studies, and in situ hybridization has been an important method for obtaining spatial information, in particular during embryonic development. Like other cnidarians, Nematostella embryos are of comparably low morphological complexity, but they possess many cell types that are dispersed throughout the tissue and originate from broad and overlapping areas. These features have made two-color fluorescence in situ hybridization an important method to determine potential co-expression of genes and to generate hypotheses for their functions in cell fate specification. We here share protocols for single and double fluorescence in situ hybridization in Nematostella and for the combination of fluorescence in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence.

Topological structures and syntenic conservation in sea anemone genomes

There is currently little information about the evolution of gene clusters, genome architectures and karyotypes in early branching animals. Slowly evolving anthozoan cnidarians can be particularly informative about the evolution of these genome features. Here we report chromosome-level genome assemblies of two related anthozoans, the sea anemones Nematostella vectensis and Scolanthus callimorphus. We find a robust set of 15 chromosomes with a clear one-to-one correspondence between the two species. Both genomes show chromosomal conservation, allowing us to reconstruct ancestral cnidarian and metazoan chromosomal blocks, consisting of at least 19 and 16 ancestral linkage groups, respectively. We show that, in contrast to Bilateria, the Hox and NK clusters of investigated cnidarians are largely disintegrated, despite the presence of staggered hox/gbx expression in Nematostella. This loss of microsynteny conservation may be facilitated by shorter distances between cis-regulatory sequences and their cognate transcriptional start sites. We find no clear evidence for topologically associated domains, suggesting fundamental differences in long-range gene regulation compared to vertebrates. These data suggest that large sets of ancestral metazoan genes have been retained in ancestral linkage groups of some extant lineages; yet, higher order gene regulation with associated 3D architecture may have evolved only after the cnidarian-bilaterian split.

Distinct stem-like cell populations facilitate functional regeneration of the Cladonema medusa tentacle

Blastema formation is a crucial process that provides a cellular source for regenerating tissues and organs. While bilaterians have diversified blastema formation methods, its mechanisms in non-bilaterians remain poorly understood. Cnidarian jellyfish, or medusae, represent early-branching metazoans that exhibit complex morphology and possess defined appendage structures highlighted by tentacles with stinging cells (nematocytes). Here, we investigate the mechanisms of tentacle regeneration, using the hydrozoan jellyfish Cladonema pacificum. We show that proliferative cells accumulate at the tentacle amputation site and form a blastema composed of cells with stem cell morphology. Nucleoside pulse-chase experiments indicate that most repair-specific proliferative cells (RSPCs) in the blastema are distinct from resident stem cells. We further demonstrate that resident stem cells control nematogenesis and tentacle elongation during both homeostasis and regeneration as homeostatic stem cells, while RSPCs preferentially differentiate into epithelial cells in the newly formed tentacle, analogous to lineage-restricted stem/progenitor cells observed in salamander limbs. Taken together, our findings propose a regeneration mechanism that utilizes both resident homeostatic stem cells (RHSCs) and RSPCs, which in conjunction efficiently enable functional appendage regeneration, and provide novel insight into the diversification of blastema formation across animal evolution.

Cell contractility in early animal evolution

Tissue deformation mediated by collective cell contractility is a signature characteristic of animals. In most animals, fast and reversible contractions of muscle cells mediate behavior, while slow and irreversible contractions of epithelial or mesenchymal cells play a key role in morphogenesis. Animal tissue contractility relies on the activity of the actin/myosin II complex (together referred to as 'actomyosin'), an ancient and versatile molecular machinery that performs a broad range of functions in development and physiology. This review synthesizes emerging insights from morphological and molecular studies into the evolutionary history of animal contractile tissue. The most ancient functions of actomyosin are cell crawling and cytokinesis, which are found in a wide variety of unicellular eukaryotes and in individual metazoan cells. Another contractile functional module, apical constriction, is universal in metazoans and shared with choanoflagellates, their closest known living relatives. The evolution of animal contractile tissue involved two key innovations: firstly, the ability to coordinate and integrate actomyosin assembly across multiple cells, notably to generate supracellular cables, which ensure tissue integrity but also allow coordinated morphogenesis and movements at the organism scale; and secondly, the evolution of dedicated contractile cell types for adult movement, belonging to two broad categories respectively defined by the expression of the fast (striated-type) and slow (smooth/non-muscle-type) myosin II paralogs. Both contractile cell types ancestrally resembled generic contractile epithelial or mesenchymal cells and might have played a versatile role in both behavior and morphogenesis. Modern animal contractile cells span a continuum between unspecialized contractile epithelia (which underlie behavior in modern placozoans), epithelia with supracellular actomyosin cables (found in modern sponges), epitheliomuscular tissues (with a concentration of actomyosin cables in basal processes, for example in sea anemones), and specialized muscle tissue that has lost most or all epithelial properties (as in ctenophores, jellyfish and bilaterians). Recent studies in a broad range of metazoans have begun to reveal the molecular basis of these transitions, powered by the elaboration of the contractile apparatus and the evolution of 'core regulatory complexes' of transcription factors specifying contractile cell identity.

Cnidofest 2022: hot topics in cnidarian research

The second annual Cnidarian Model Systems Meeting, aka "Cnidofest", took place in Davis, California from 7 to 10th of September, 2022. The meeting brought together scientists using cnidarians to study molecular and cellular biology, development and regeneration, evo-devo, neurobiology, symbiosis, physiology, and comparative genomics. The diversity of topics and species represented in presentations highlighted the importance and versatility of cnidarians in addressing a wide variety of biological questions. In keeping with the spirit of the first meeting (and its predecessor, Hydroidfest), almost 75% of oral presentations were given by early career researchers (i.e., graduate students and postdocs). In this review, we present research highlights from the meeting.

Parallels and contrasts between the cnidarian and bilaterian maternal-to-zygotic transition are revealed in Hydractinia embryos

Embryogenesis requires coordinated gene regulatory activities early on that establish the trajectory of subsequent development, during a period called the maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT). The MZT comprises transcriptional activation of the embryonic genome and post-transcriptional regulation of egg-inherited maternal mRNA. Investigation into the MZT in animals has focused almost exclusively on bilaterians, which include all classical models such as flies, worms, sea urchin, and vertebrates, thus limiting our capacity to understand the gene regulatory paradigms uniting the MZT across all animals. Here, we elucidate the MZT of a non-bilaterian, the cnidarian Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus. Using parallel poly(A)-selected and non poly(A)-dependent RNA-seq approaches, we find that the Hydractinia MZT is composed of regulatory activities similar to many bilaterians, including cytoplasmic readenylation of maternally contributed mRNA, delayed genome activation, and separate phases of maternal mRNA deadenylation and degradation that likely depend on both maternally and zygotically encoded clearance factors, including microRNAs. But we also observe massive upregulation of histone genes and an expanded repertoire of predicted H4K20 methyltransferases, aspects thus far particular to the Hydractinia MZT and potentially underlying a novel mode of early embryonic chromatin regulation. Thus, similar regulatory strategies with taxon-specific elaboration underlie the MZT in both bilaterian and non-bilaterian embryos, providing insight into how an essential developmental transition may have arisen in ancestral animals.

Parallels and contrasts between the cnidarian and bilaterian maternal-to-zygotic transition are revealed in Hydractinia embryos

Embryogenesis requires coordinated gene regulatory activities early on that establish the trajectory of subsequent development, during a period called the maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT). The MZT comprises transcriptional activation of the embryonic genome and post-transcriptional regulation of egg-inherited maternal mRNA. Investigation into the MZT in animals has focused almost exclusively on bilaterians, which include all classical models such as flies, worms, sea urchin, and vertebrates, thus limiting our capacity to understand the gene regulatory paradigms uniting the MZT across all animals. Here, we elucidate the MZT of a non-bilaterian, the cnidarian Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus . Using parallel poly(A)-selected and non poly(A)-dependent RNA-seq approaches, we find that the Hydractinia MZT is composed of regulatory activities analogous to many bilaterians, including cytoplasmic readenylation of maternally contributed mRNA, delayed genome activation, and separate phases of maternal mRNA deadenylation and degradation that likely depend on both maternally and zygotically encoded clearance factors, including microRNAs. But we also observe massive upregulation of histone genes and an expanded repertoire of predicted H4K20 methyltransferases, aspects thus far unique to the Hydractinia MZT and potentially underlying a novel mode of early embryonic chromatin regulation. Thus, similar regulatory strategies with taxon-specific elaboration underlie the MZT in both bilaterian and non-bilaterian embryos, providing insight into how an essential developmental transition may have arisen in ancestral animals.

The Hydra stem cell system - Revisited

Cnidarians are >600 million years old and are considered the sister group of Bilateria based on numerous molecular phylogenetic studies. Apart from Hydra, the genomes of all major clades of Cnidaria have been uncovered (e.g. Aurelia, Clytia, Nematostella and Acropora) and they reveal a remarkable completeness of the metazoan genomic toolbox. Of particular interest is Hydra, a model system of aging research, regenerative biology, and stem cell biology. With the knowledge gained from scRNA research, it is now possible to characterize the expression profiles of all cell types with great precision. In functional studies, our picture of the Hydra stem cell biology has changed, and we are in the process of obtaining a clear picture of the homeostasis and properties of the different stem cell populations. Even though Hydra is often compared to plant systems, the new data on germline and regeneration, but also on the dynamics and plasticity of the nervous system, show that Hydra with its simple body plan represents in a nutshell the prototype of an animal with stem cell lineages, whose properties correspond in many ways to Bilateria. This review provides an overview of the four stem cell lineages, the two epithelial lineages that constitute the ectoderm and the endoderm, as well as the multipotent somatic interstitial lineage (MPSC) and the germline stem cell lineage (GSC), also known as the interstitial cells of Hydra.

A complete biomechanical model of Hydra contractile behaviors, from neural drive to muscle to movement

How does neural activity drive muscles to produce behavior? The recent development of genetic lines in Hydra that allow complete calcium imaging of both neuronal and muscle activity, as well as systematic machine learning quantification of behaviors, makes this small cnidarian an ideal model system to understand and model the complete transformation from neural firing to body movements. To achieve this, we have built a neuromechanical model of Hydra's fluid-filled hydrostatic skeleton, showing how drive by neuronal activity activates distinct patterns of muscle activity and body column biomechanics. Our model is based on experimental measurements of neuronal and muscle activity and assumes gap junctional coupling among muscle cells and calcium-dependent force generation by muscles. With these assumptions, we can robustly reproduce a basic set of Hydra's behaviors. We can further explain puzzling experimental observations, including the dual timescale kinetics observed in muscle activation and the engagement of ectodermal and endodermal muscles in different behaviors. This work delineates the spatiotemporal control space of Hydra movement and can serve as a template for future efforts to systematically decipher the transformations in the neural basis of behavior.

Small RNAs in Cnidaria: A review

As fundamental components of RNA silencing, small RNA (sRNA) molecules ranging from 20 to 32 nucleotides in length have been found as potent regulators of gene expression and genome stability in many biological processes of eukaryotes. Three major small RNAs are active in animals, including the microRNA (miRNA), short interfering RNA (siRNA), and PIWI-interacting RNA (piRNA). Cnidarians, the sister group to bilaterians, are at a critical phylogenetic node to better model eukaryotic small RNA pathway evolution. To date, most of our understanding of sRNA regulation and its potential contribution to evolution has been limited to a few triploblastic bilaterian and plant models. The diploblastic nonbilaterians, including the cnidarians, are understudied in this regard. Therefore, this review will present the current-known small RNA information in cnidarians to enhance our understanding of the development of the small RNA pathways in early branch animals.

Endogenous tagging of multiple cellular components in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis

The cnidarian Nematostella vectensis has developed into a powerful model system to study the mechanisms underlying animal development, regeneration, and evolution. However, despite the significant progress in the molecular and genetic approaches in this sea anemone, endogenous protein tagging is still challenging. Here, we report a robust method for knock in for Nematostella using CRISPR/Cas9. As an outcome, we generate endogenously tagged proteins that label core molecular components of several cellular apparatus, including the nuclear envelope, cytoskeleton, cell adhesion, endoplasmic reticulum, cell trafficking, and extracellular matrix. Using live imaging, we monitor the dynamics of vesicular trafficking and endoplasmic reticulum in embryos, as well as cell contractility during the peristaltic wave of a primary polyp. This advancement in gene editing expands the molecular tool kit of Nematostella and enables experimental avenues to interrogate the cell biology of cnidarians.

From injury to patterning—MAPKs and Wnt signaling in Hydra

Hydra has a regenerative capacity that is not limited to individual organs but encompasses the entire body. Various global and integrative genome, transcriptome and proteome approaches have shown that many of the signaling pathways and transcription factors present in vertebrates are already present in Cnidaria, the sister group of Bilateria, and are also activated in regeneration. It is now possible to investigate one of the central questions of regeneration biology, i.e., how does the patterning system become activated by the injury signals that initiate regeneration. This review will present the current data obtained in Hydra and draw parallels with regeneration in Bilateria. Important findings of this global analysis are that the Wnt signaling pathway has a dual function in the regeneration process. In the early phase Wnt is activated generically and in a second phase of pattern formation it is activated in a position specific manner. Thus, Wnt signaling is part of the generic injury response, in which mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are initially activated via calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The MAPKs, p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) are essential for Wnt activation in Hydra head and foot regenerates. Furthermore, the antagonism between the ERK signaling pathway and stress-induced MAPKs results in a balanced induction of apoptosis and mitosis. However, the early Wnt genes are activated by MAPK signaling rather than apoptosis. Early Wnt gene activity is differentially integrated with a stable, β-Catenin-based gradient along the primary body axis maintaining axial polarity and activating further Wnts in the regenerating head. Because MAPKs and Wnts are highly evolutionarily conserved, we hypothesize that this mechanism is also present in vertebrates but may be activated to different degrees at the level of early Wnt gene integration.

Cell polarity signalling at the birth of multicellularity: What can we learn from the first animals

The innovation of multicellularity has driven the unparalleled evolution of animals (Metazoa). But how is a multicellular organism formed and how is its architecture maintained faithfully? The defining properties and rules required for the establishment of the architecture of multicellular organisms include the development of adhesive cell interactions, orientation of division axis, and the ability to reposition daughter cells over long distances. Central to all these properties is the ability to generate asymmetry (polarity), coordinated by a highly conserved set of proteins known as cell polarity regulators. The cell polarity complexes, Scribble, Par and Crumbs, are considered to be a metazoan innovation with apicobasal polarity and adherens junctions both believed to be present in all animals. A better understanding of the fundamental mechanisms regulating cell polarity and tissue architecture should provide key insights into the development and regeneration of all animals including humans. Here we review what is currently known about cell polarity and its control in the most basal metazoans, and how these first examples of multicellular life can inform us about the core mechanisms of tissue organisation and repair, and ultimately diseases of tissue organisation, such as cancer.

Cellular adaptations leading to coral fragment attachment on artificial substrates in Acropora millepora (Am-CAM)

Reproductive propagation by asexual fragmentation in the reef-building coral Acropora millepora depends on (1) successful attachment to the reef substrate through modification of soft tissues and (2) a permanent bond with skeletal encrustation. Despite decades of research examining asexual propagation in corals, the initial response, cellular reorganisation, and development leading to fragment substrate attachment via a newly formed skeleton has not been documented in its entirety. Here, we establish the first "coral attachment model" for this species ("Am-CAM") by developing novel methods that allow correlation of fluorescence and electron microscopy image data with in vivo microscopic time-lapse imagery. This multi-scale imaging approach identified three distinct phases involved in asexual propagation: (1) the contact response of the coral fragment when contact with the substrate, followed by (2) fragment stabilisation through anchoring by the soft tissue, and (3) formation of a "lappet-like appendage" structure leading to substrate bonding of the tissue for encrustation through the onset of skeletal calcification. In developing Am-CAM, we provide new biological insights that can enable reef researchers, managers and coral restoration practitioners to begin evaluating attachment effectiveness, which is needed to optimise species-substrate compatibility and achieve effective outplanting.

siRNA-mediated gene knockdown via electroporation in hydrozoan jellyfish embryos

As the sister group to bilaterians, cnidarians stand in a unique phylogenetic position that provides insight into evolutionary aspects of animal development, physiology, and behavior. While cnidarians are classified into two types, sessile polyps and free-swimming medusae, most studies at the cellular and molecular levels have been conducted on representative polyp-type cnidarians and have focused on establishing techniques of genetic manipulation. Recently, gene knockdown by delivery of short hairpin RNAs into eggs via electroporation has been introduced in two polyp-type cnidarians, Nematostella vectensis and Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus, enabling systematic loss-of-function experiments. By contrast, current methods of genetic manipulation for most medusa-type cnidarians, or jellyfish, are quite limited, except for Clytia hemisphaerica, and reliable techniques are required to interrogate function of specific genes in different jellyfish species. Here, we present a method to knock down target genes by delivering small interfering RNA (siRNA) into fertilized eggs via electroporation, using the hydrozoan jellyfish, Clytia hemisphaerica and Cladonema paciificum. We show that siRNAs targeting endogenous GFP1 and Wnt3 in Clytia efficiently knock down gene expression and result in known planula phenotypes: loss of green fluorescence and defects in axial patterning, respectively. We also successfully knock down endogenous Wnt3 in Cladonema by siRNA electroporation, which circumvents the technical difficulty of microinjecting small eggs. Wnt3 knockdown in Cladonema causes gene expression changes in axial markers, suggesting a conserved Wnt/β-catenin-mediated pathway that controls axial polarity during embryogenesis. Our gene-targeting siRNA electroporation method is applicable to other animals, including and beyond jellyfish species, and will facilitate the investigation and understanding of myriad aspects of animal development.

GNL3 is an evolutionarily conserved stem cell gene influencing cell proliferation, animal growth and regeneration in the hydrozoan Hydractinia

Nucleostemin (NS) is a vertebrate gene preferentially expressed in stem and cancer cells, which acts to regulate cell cycle progression, genome stability and ribosome biogenesis. NS and its paralogous gene, GNL3-like (GNL3L), arose in the vertebrate clade after a duplication event from their orthologous gene, G protein Nucleolar 3 (GNL3). Research on invertebrate GNL3, however, has been limited. To gain a greater understanding of the evolution and functions of the GNL3 gene, we have performed studies in the hydrozoan cnidarian Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus, a colonial hydroid that continuously generates pluripotent stem cells throughout its life cycle and presents impressive regenerative abilities. We show that Hydractinia GNL3 is expressed in stem and germline cells. The knockdown of GNL3 reduces the number of mitotic and S-phase cells in Hydractinia larvae of different ages. Genome editing of Hydractinia GNL3 via CRISPR/Cas9 resulted in colonies with reduced growth rates, polyps with impaired regeneration capabilities, gonadal morphological defects, and low sperm motility. Collectively, our study shows that GNL3 is an evolutionarily conserved stem cell and germline gene involved in cell proliferation, animal growth, regeneration and sexual reproduction in Hydractinia, and sheds new light into the evolution of GNL3 and of stem cell systems.

Sea Anemones, Actinoporins, and Cholesterol

Spanish or Spanish-speaking scientists represent a remarkably populated group within the scientific community studying pore-forming proteins. Some of these scientists, ourselves included, focus on the study of actinoporins, a fascinating group of metamorphic pore-forming proteins produced within the venom of several sea anemones. These toxic proteins can spontaneously transit from a water-soluble fold to an integral membrane ensemble because they specifically recognize sphingomyelin in the membrane. Once they bind to the bilayer, they subsequently oligomerize into a pore that triggers cell-death by osmotic shock. In addition to sphingomyelin, some actinoporins are especially sensible to some other membrane components such as cholesterol. Our group from Universidad Complutense of Madrid has focused greatly on the role played by sterols in this water–membrane transition, a question which still remains only partially solved and constitutes the main core of the article below.

The Repertoire of Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteases: Evolution, Regulation of Extracellular Matrix Proteolysis, Engineering and Therapeutic Challenges

Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteases (TIMPs) belong to a fascinating protein family expressed in all Metazoa. They act as regulators of the turnover of the extracellular matrix, and they are consistently involved in essential processes. Herein, we recapitulate the main activities of mammalian TIMPs (TIMP1-4) in the control of extracellular-matrix degradation and pathologies associated with aberrant proteostasis. We delineate the activity of TIMPs in the control of extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis and discuss the diversity of TIMPs across metazoans taking into account the emergence of the components of the ECM during evolution. Thus, the TIMP repertoire herein analysed includes the homologues from cnidarians, which are coeval with the origins of ECM components; protostomes (molluscs, arthropods and nematodes); and deuterostomes (echinoderms and vertebrates). Several questions, including the maintenance of the structure despite low sequence similarity and the strategies for TIMP engineering, shed light on the possibility to use recombinant TIMPs integrating unique features and binding selectivity for therapeutic applications in the treatment of inflammatory pathologies.

Neural Cell Type Diversity in Cnidaria

Neurons are the fundamental building blocks of nervous systems. It appears intuitive that the human brain is made up of hundreds, if not thousands different types of neurons. Conversely, the seemingly diffuse nerve net of Cnidaria is often assumed to be simple. However, evidence that the Cnidaria nervous system is indeed simple is sparse. Recent technical advances make it possible to assess the diversity and function of neurons with unprecedented resolution. Transgenic animals expressing genetically encoded Calcium sensors allow direct physiological assessments of neural responses within the nerve net and provide insight into the spatial organization of the nervous system. Moreover, response and activity patterns allow the characterization of cell types on a functional level. Molecular and genetic identities on the other hand can be assessed combining single-cell transcriptomic analysis with correlations of gene expression in defined neurons. Here I review recent advances on these two experimental strategies focusing on Hydra, Nematostella, and Clytia.

Disentangling compartment functions in sessile marine invertebrates

Sessile invertebrates are frequently sampled and processed whole for downstream analyses. However, their apparent structural simplicity is deceptive as these organisms often harbour discrete compartments. These compartments have physicochemical conditions that differ markedly from neighbouring tissues, and that have likely evolved to support specific functions. Here, we argue that such compartments should be specifically targeted when characterising sessile invertebrate biology and we use the coral gastrovascular cavity to support our argument. This complex compartment displays steep and dynamic chemical gradients, harbours distinct microorganisms, and presumably plays a key role in coral biology. Disentangling the functions played by (and amongst) compartments will likely provide transformative insight into the biology of sessile invertebrates and their future under environmental change.

Insm1-expressing neurons and secretory cells develop from a common pool of progenitors in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis

Neurons are highly specialized cells present in nearly all animals, but their evolutionary origin and relationship to other cell types are not well understood. We use here the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis as a model system for early-branching animals to gain fresh insights into the evolutionary history of neurons. We generated a transgenic reporter line to show that the transcription factor NvInsm1 is expressed in postmitotic cells that give rise to various types of neurons and secretory cells. Expression analyses, double transgenics, and gene knockdown experiments show that the NvInsm1-expressing neurons and secretory cells derive from a common pool of NvSoxB(2)-positive progenitor cells. These findings, together with the requirement for Insm1 for the development of neurons and endocrine cells in vertebrates, support a close evolutionary relationship of neurons and secretory cells.

Gene Manipulation in Hydractinia

The ability to regenerate lost body parts is irregularly distributed among animals, with substantial differences in regenerative potential between and within metazoan phyla. It is widely believed that regenerative animal clades inherited some aspects of their capacity to regenerate from their common ancestors but have also evolved new mechanisms that are not shared with other regenerative animals. Therefore, to gain a broad understanding of animal regenerative mechanisms and evolution, a broad sampling approach is necessary. Unfortunately, only few regenerative animals have been established as laboratory models with protocols for functional gene studies. Here, we describe the methods to establish transgenic individuals of the marine cnidarian Hydractinia. We also provide methods for transient gene expression manipulation without modifying the genome of the animals.

Emerging Cnidarian Models for the Study of Epithelial Polarity

Epithelial tissues are vital to the function of most organs, providing critical functions such as secretion, protection, and absorption. Cells within an epithelial layer must coordinate to create functionally distinct apical, lateral, and basal surfaces in order to maintain proper organ function and organism viability. This is accomplished through the careful targeting of polarity factors to their respective locations within the cell, as well as the strategic placement of post-mitotic cells within the epithelium during tissue morphogenesis. The process of establishing and maintaining epithelial tissue integrity is conserved across many species, as important polarity factors and spindle orientation mechanisms can be found in many phyla. However, most of the information gathered about these processes and players has been investigated in bilaterian organisms such as C. elegans, Drosophila, and vertebrate species. This review discusses the advances made in the field of epithelial polarity establishment from more basal organisms, and the advantages to utilizing these simpler models. An increasing number of cnidarian model organisms have been sequenced in recent years, such as Hydra vulgaris and Nematostella vectensis. It is now feasible to investigate how polarity is established and maintained in basal organisms to gain an understanding of the most basal requirements for epithelial tissue morphogenesis.

Hydra and the hair follicle - An unconventional comparative biology approach to exploring the human holobiont

The microbiome of human hair follicles (HFs) has emerged as an important player in different HF and skin pathologies, yet awaits in-depth exploration. This raises questions regarding the tightly linked interactions between host environment, nutrient dependency of host-associated microbes, microbial metabolism, microbe-microbe interactions and host immunity. The use of simple model systems facilitates addressing generally important questions and testing overarching, therapeutically relevant principles that likely transcend obvious interspecies differences. Here, we evaluate the potential of the freshwater polyp Hydra, to dissect fundamental principles of microbiome regulation by the host, that is the human HF. In particular, we focus on therapeutically targetable host-microbiome interactions, such as nutrient dependency, microbial interactions and host defence. Offering a new lens into the study of HF - microbiota interactions, we argue that general principles of how Hydra manages its microbiota can inform the development of novel, microbiome-targeting therapeutic interventions in human skin disease.

Studying of Molecular Regulation of Developmental Processes of Lower Metazoans Exemplified by Cnidaria Using High-Throughput Sequencing

A unique set of features and characteristics of species of the Cnidaria phylum is the one reason that makes them a model for a various studies. The plasticity of a life cycle and the processes of cell differentiation and development of an integral multicellular organism associated with it are of a specific scientific interest. A new stage of development of molecular genetic methods, including methods for high-throughput genome, transcriptome, and epigenome sequencing, both at the level of the whole organism and at the level of individual cells, makes it possible to obtain a detailed picture of the development of these animals. This review examines some modern approaches and advances in the reconstruction of the processes of ontogenesis of cnidarians by studying the regulatory signal transduction pathways and their interactions.

Manipulation of Gene Activity in the Regenerative Model Sea Anemone, Nematostella vectensis

With a surprisingly complex genome and an ever-expanding genetic toolkit, the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis has become a powerful model system for the study of both development and whole-body regeneration. Here we provide the most current protocols for short-hairpin RNA (shRNA )-mediated gene knockdown and CRISPR/Cas9-targeted mutagenesis in this system. We further show that a simple Klenow reaction followed by in vitro transcription allows for the production of gene-specific shRNAs and single guide RNAs (sgRNAs) in a fast, affordable, and readily scalable manner. Together, shRNA knockdown and CRISPR/Cas9-targeted mutagenesis allow for rapid screens of gene function as well as the production of stable mutant lines that enable functional genetic analysis throughout the Nematostella life cycle.

Hypoxia as a physiological cue and pathological stress for coral larvae

Ocean deoxygenation events are intensifying worldwide and can rapidly drive adult corals into a state of metabolic crisis and bleaching-induced mortality, but whether coral larvae are subject to similar stress remains untested. We experimentally exposed apo-symbiotic coral larvae of Acropora selago to deoxygenation stress with subsequent reoxygenation aligned to their night-day light cycle, and followed their gene expression using RNA-Seq. After 12 h of deoxygenation stress (~2 mg O₂ /L), coral planulae demonstrated a low expression of HIF-targeted hypoxia response genes concomitant with a significantly high expression of PHD2 (a promoter of HIFα proteasomal degradation), similar to corresponding adult corals. Despite exhibiting a consistent swimming phenotype compared to control samples, the differential gene expression observed in planulae exposed to deoxygenation-reoxygenation suggests a disruption of pathways involved in developmental regulation, mitochondrial activity, lipid metabolism, and O₂ -sensitive epigenetic regulators. Importantly, we found that treated larvae exhibited a disruption in the expression of conserved HIF-targeted developmental regulators, for example, Homeobox (HOX) genes, corroborating how changes in external oxygen levels can affect animal development. We discuss how the observed deoxygenation responses may be indicative of a possible acclimation response or alternatively may imply negative latent impacts for coral larval fitness.

Nematostella vectensis, an Emerging Model for Deciphering the Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms Underlying Whole-Body Regeneration

The capacity to regenerate lost or injured body parts is a widespread feature within metazoans and has intrigued scientists for centuries. One of the most extreme types of regeneration is the so-called whole body regenerative capacity, which enables regeneration of fully functional organisms from isolated body parts. While not exclusive to this habitat, whole body regeneration is widespread in aquatic/marine invertebrates. Over the past decade, new whole-body research models have emerged that complement the historical models Hydra and planarians. Among these, the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis has attracted increasing interest in regard to deciphering the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the whole-body regeneration process. This manuscript will present an overview of the biological features of this anthozoan cnidarian as well as the available tools and resources that have been developed by the scientific community studying Nematostella. I will further review our current understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying whole-body regeneration in this marine organism, with emphasis on how comparing embryonic development and regeneration in the same organism provides insight into regeneration specific elements.

"Indirect development" increases reproductive plasticity and contributes to the success of scyphozoan jellyfish in the oceans

Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have been looking for the key(s) to the success of scyphomedusae through their long evolutionary history in multiple habitats. Their ability to generate young medusae (ephyrae) via two distinct reproductive strategies, strobilation or direct development from planula into ephyra without a polyp stage, has been a potential explanation. In addition to these reproductive modes, here we provide evidence of a third ephyral production which has been rarely observed and often confused with direct development from planula into ephyra. Planulae of Aurelia relicta Scorrano et al. 2017 and Cotylorhiza tuberculata (Macri 1778) settled and formed fully-grown polyps which transformed into ephyrae within several days. In distinction to monodisk strobilation, the basal polyp of indirect development was merely a non-tentaculate stalk that dissolved shortly after detachment of the ephyra. We provide a fully detailed description of this variant that increases reproductive plasticity within scyphozoan life cycles and is different than either true direct development or the monodisk strobilation. Our observations of this pattern in co-occurrence with mono- and polydisk strobilation in Aurelia spp. suggest that this reproductive mode may be crucial for the survival of some scyphozoan populations within the frame of a bet-hedging strategy and contribute to their long evolutionary success throughout the varied conditions of past and future oceans.

The Tentacular Spectacular: Evolution of Regeneration in Sea Anemones

Sea anemones vary immensely in life history strategies, environmental niches and their ability to regenerate. While the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis is the starlet of many key regeneration studies, recent work is emerging on the diverse regeneration strategies employed by other sea anemones. This manuscript will explore current molecular mechanisms of regeneration employed by non-model sea anemones Exaiptasia diaphana (an emerging model species for coral symbiosis studies) and Calliactis polypus (a less well-studied species) and examine how these species compare to the model sea anemone N. vectensis. We summarize the field of regeneration within sea anemones, within the greater context of phylum Cnidaria and in other invertebrate models of regeneration. We also address the current knowledge on two key systems that may be implemented in regeneration: the innate immune system and developmental pathways, including future aspects of work and current limitations.

Two Distinct Bacterial Biofilm Components Trigger Metamorphosis in the Colonial Hydrozoan Hydractinia echinata

In marine environments, the bacterially induced metamorphosis of larvae is a widespread cross-kingdom communication phenomenon that is critical for the persistence of many marine invertebrates. However, the majority of inducing bacterial signals and underlying cellular mechanisms remain enigmatic. The marine hydroid Hydractinia echinata is a well-known model system for investigating bacterially stimulated larval metamorphosis, as larvae transform into the colonial adult stage within 24 h of signal detection. Although H. echinata has served as a cell biological model system for decades, the identity and influence of bacterial signals on the morphogenic transition remained largely unexplored. Using a bioassay-guided analysis, we first determined that specific bacterial (lyso)phospholipids, naturally present in bacterial membranes and vesicles, elicit metamorphosis in Hydractinia larvae in a dose-response manner. Lysophospholipids, as single compounds or in combination (50 μM), induced metamorphosis in up to 50% of all larvae within 48 h. Using fluorescence-labeled bacterial phospholipids, we demonstrated that phospholipids are incorporated into the larval membranes, where interactions with internal signaling cascades are proposed to occur. Second, we identified two structurally distinct exopolysaccharides of bacterial biofilms, the new Rha-Man polysaccharide from Pseudoalteromonas sp. strain P1-9 and curdlan from Alcaligenes faecalis, to induce metamorphosis in up to 75% of tested larvae. We also found that combinations of (lyso)phospholipids and curdlan induced transformation within 24 h, thereby exceeding the morphogenic activity observed for single compounds and bacterial biofilms. Our results demonstrate that two structurally distinct, bacterium-derived metabolites converge to induce high transformation rates of Hydractinia larvae and thus may help ensure optimal habitat selection. IMPORTANCE Bacterial biofilms profoundly influence the recruitment and settlement of marine invertebrates, critical steps for diverse marine processes such as the formation of coral reefs, the maintenance of marine fisheries, and the fouling of submerged surfaces. However, the complex composition of biofilms often makes the characterization of individual signals and regulatory mechanisms challenging. Developing tractable model systems to characterize these coevolved interactions is the key to understanding fundamental processes in evolutionary biology. Here, we characterized two types of bacterial signaling molecules, phospholipids and polysaccharides, that induce the morphogenic transition. We then analyzed their abundance and combinatorial activity. This study highlights the general importance of multiple bacterial signal converging activity in development-related cross-kingdom signaling and poses the question of whether complex lipids and polysaccharides are general metamorphic cues for cnidarian larvae.

Functional characterization of the cnidarian antiviral immune response reveals ancestral complexity

Animals evolved a broad repertoire of innate immune sensors and downstream effector cascades for defense against RNA viruses. Yet, this system varies greatly among different bilaterian animals, masking its ancestral state. In this study, we aimed to characterize the antiviral immune response of the cnidarian Nematostella vectensis and decipher the function of the retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs) known to detect viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in bilaterians but activate different antiviral pathways in vertebrates and nematodes. We show that polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), a mimic of long viral dsRNA and a primary ligand for the vertebrate RLR melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA5), triggers a complex antiviral immune response bearing features distinctive for both vertebrate and invertebrate systems. Importantly, a well-characterized agonist of the vertebrate RIG-I receptor does not induce a significant transcriptomic response that bears signature of the antiviral immune response, which experimentally supports the results of a phylogenetic analysis indicating clustering of the two N. vectensis RLR paralogs (NveRLRa and NveRLRb) with MDA5. Furthermore, the results of affinity assays reveal that NveRLRb binds poly(I:C) and long dsRNA and its knockdown impairs the expression of putative downstream effector genes including RNA interference components. Our study provides for the first time the functional evidence for the conserved role of RLRs in initiating immune response to dsRNA that originated before the cnidarian–bilaterian split and lay a strong foundation for future research on the evolution of the immune responses to RNA viruses.

Mesoglea Extracellular Matrix Reorganization during Regenerative Process in Anemonia viridis (Forskål, 1775)

Given the anatomical simplicity and the extraordinary ability to regenerate missing parts of the body, Cnidaria represent an excellent model for the study of the mechanisms regulating regenerative processes. They possess the mesoglea, an amorphous and practically acellular extracellular matrix (ECM) located between the epidermis and the gastrodermis of the body and tentacles and consists of the same molecules present in the ECM of vertebrates, such as collagen, laminin, fibronectin and proteoglycans. This feature makes cnidarians anthozoans valid models for understanding the ECM role during regenerative processes. Indeed, it is now clear that its role in animal tissues is not just tissue support, but instead plays a key role during wound healing and tissue regeneration. This study aims to explore regenerative events after tentacle amputation in the Mediterranean anemone Anemonia viridis, focusing in detail on the reorganization of the ECM mesoglea. In this context, both enzymatic, biometric and histological experiments reveal how this gelatinous connective layer plays a fundamental role in the correct restoration of the original structures by modifying its consistency and stiffness. Indeed, through the deposition of collagen I, it might act as a scaffold and as a guide for the reconstruction of missing tissues and parts, such as amputated tentacles.

A stony coral cell atlas illuminates the molecular and cellular basis of coral symbiosis, calcification, and immunity

Stony corals are colonial cnidarians that sustain the most biodiverse marine ecosystems on Earth: coral reefs. Despite their ecological importance, little is known about the cell types and molecular pathways that underpin the biology of reef-building corals. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, we define over 40 cell types across the life cycle of Stylophora pistillata. We discover specialized immune cells, and we uncover the developmental gene expression dynamics of calcium-carbonate skeleton formation. By simultaneously measuring the transcriptomes of coral cells and the algae within them, we characterize the metabolic programs involved in symbiosis in both partners. We also trace the evolution of these coral cell specializations by phylogenetic integration of multiple cnidarian cell type atlases. Overall, this study reveals the molecular and cellular basis of stony coral biology.

Regeneration Potential of Jellyfish: Cellular Mechanisms and Molecular Insights

Medusozoans, the Cnidarian subphylum, have multiple life stages including sessile polyps and free-swimming medusae or jellyfish, which are typically bell-shaped gelatinous zooplanktons that exhibit diverse morphologies. Despite having a relatively complex body structure with well-developed muscles and nervous systems, the adult medusa stage maintains a high regenerative ability that enables organ regeneration as well as whole body reconstitution from the part of the body. This remarkable regeneration potential of jellyfish has long been acknowledged in different species; however, recent studies have begun dissecting the exact processes underpinning regeneration events. In this article, we introduce the current understanding of regeneration mechanisms in medusae, particularly focusing on cellular behaviors during regeneration such as wound healing, blastema formation by stem/progenitor cells or cell fate plasticity, and the organism-level patterning that restores radial symmetry. We also discuss putative molecular mechanisms involved in regeneration processes and introduce a variety of novel model jellyfish species in the effort to understand common principles and diverse mechanisms underlying the regeneration of complex organs and the entire body.

[The sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, an emerging model for biomedical research: Mechano-sensitivity, extreme regeneration and longevity]

Nematostella has fascinating features such as whole-body regeneration, the absence of signs of aging and importantly, the absence of age-related diseases. Easy to culture and spawn, this little sea anemone in spite of its "simple" aspect, displays interesting morphological characteristics similar to vertebrates and an unexpected similarity in gene content/genome organization. Importantly, the scientific community working on Nematostella is developing a variety of functional genomics tools that enable scientists to use this anemone in the field of regenerative medicine, longevity and mecano-sensory diseases. As a complementary research model to vertebrates, this marine invertebrate is emerging and promising to dig deeper into those fields of research in an integrative manner (entire organism) and provides new opportunities for scientists to lift specific barriers that can be encountered with other commonly used animal models.

Insights into how development and life-history dynamics shape the evolution of venom

Venomous animals are a striking example of the convergent evolution of a complex trait. These animals have independently evolved an apparatus that synthesizes, stores, and secretes a mixture of toxic compounds to the target animal through the infliction of a wound. Among these distantly related animals, some can modulate and compartmentalize functionally distinct venoms related to predation and defense. A process to separate distinct venoms can occur within and across complex life cycles as well as more streamlined ontogenies, depending on their life-history requirements. Moreover, the morphological and cellular complexity of the venom apparatus likely facilitates the functional diversity of venom deployed within a given life stage. Intersexual variation of venoms has also evolved further contributing to the massive diversity of toxic compounds characterized in these animals. These changes in the biochemical phenotype of venom can directly affect the fitness of these animals, having important implications in their diet, behavior, and mating biology. In this review, we explore the current literature that is unraveling the temporal dynamics of the venom system that are required by these animals to meet their ecological functions. These recent findings have important consequences in understanding the evolution and development of a convergent complex trait and its organismal and ecological implications.