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Niharika, Ureka L, Roy A, Patra SK. Dissecting SOX2 expression and function reveals an association with multiple signaling pathways during embryonic development and in cancer progression. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2024; 1879:189136. [PMID: 38880162 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2024.189136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
SRY (Sex Determining Region) box 2 (SOX2) is an essential transcription factor that plays crucial roles in activating genes involved in pre- and post-embryonic development, adult tissue homeostasis, and lineage specifications. SOX2 maintains the self-renewal property of stem cells and is involved in the generation of induced pluripotency stem cells. SOX2 protein contains a particular high-mobility group domain that enables SOX2 to achieve the capacity to participate in a broad variety of functions. The information about the involvement of SOX2 with gene regulatory elements, signaling networks, and microRNA is gradually emerging, and the higher expression of SOX2 is functionally relevant to various cancer types. SOX2 facilitates the oncogenic phenotype via cellular proliferation and enhancement of invasive tumor properties. Evidence are accumulating in favor of three dimensional (higher order) folding of chromatin and epigenetic control of the SOX2 gene by chromatin modifications, which implies that the expression level of SOX2 can be modulated by epigenetic regulatory mechanisms, specifically, via DNA methylation and histone H3 modification. In view of this, and to focus further insights into the roles SOX2 plays in physiological functions, involvement of SOX2 during development, precisely, the advances of our knowledge in pre- and post-embryonic development, and interactions of SOX2 in this scenario with various signaling pathways in tumor development and cancer progression, its potential as a therapeutic target against many cancers are summarized and discussed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niharika
- Epigenetics and Cancer Research Laboratory, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Group, Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Lina Ureka
- Epigenetics and Cancer Research Laboratory, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Group, Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Ankan Roy
- Epigenetics and Cancer Research Laboratory, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Group, Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India
| | - Samir Kumar Patra
- Epigenetics and Cancer Research Laboratory, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Group, Department of Life Science, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela 769008, Odisha, India.
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2
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Nakamura K, Watanabe Y, Boitet C, Satake S, Iida H, Yoshihi K, Ishii Y, Kato K, Kondoh H. Wnt signal-dependent antero-posterior specification of early-stage CNS primordia modeled in EpiSC-derived neural stem cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 11:1260528. [PMID: 38405136 PMCID: PMC10884098 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1260528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The specification of the embryonic central nervous system (CNS) into future brain (forebrain, midbrain, or hindbrain) and spinal cord (SC) regions is a critical step of CNS development. A previous chicken embryo study indicated that anterior epiblast cells marked by Sox2 N2 enhancer activity are specified to the respective brain regions during the transition phase of the epiblast to the neural plate-forming neural primordium. The present study showed that the SC precursors positioned posterior to the hindbrain precursors in the anterior epiblast migrated posteriorly in contrast to the anterior migration of brain precursors. The anteroposterior specification of the CNS precursors occurs at an analogous time (∼E7.5) in mouse embryos, in which an anterior-to-posterior incremental gradient of Wnt signal strength was observed. To examine the possible Wnt signal contribution to the anteroposterior CNS primordium specification, we utilized mouse epiblast stem cell (EpiSC)-derived neurogenesis in culture. EpiSCs maintained in an activin- and FGF2-containing medium start neural development after the removal of activin, following a day in a transitory state. We placed activin-free EpiSCs in EGF- and FGF2-containing medium to arrest neural development and expand the cells into neural stem cells (NSCs). Simultaneously, a Wnt antagonist or agonist was added to the culture, with the anticipation that different levels of Wnt signals would act on the transitory cells to specify CNS regionality; then, the Wnt-treated cells were expanded as NSCs. Gene expression profiles of six NSC lines were analyzed using microarrays and single-cell RNA-seq. The NSC lines demonstrated anteroposterior regional specification in response to increasing Wnt signal input levels: forebrain-midbrain-, hindbrain-, cervical SC-, and thoracic SC-like lines. The regional coverage of these NSC lines had a range; for instance, the XN1 line expressed Otx2 and En2, indicating midbrain characteristics, but additionally expressed the SC-characteristic Hoxa5. The ranges in the anteroposterior specification of neural primordia may be narrowed as neural development proceeds. The thoracic SC is presumably the posterior limit of the contribution by anterior epiblast-derived neural progenitors, as the characteristics of more posterior SC regions were not displayed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kae Nakamura
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yusaku Watanabe
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Claire Boitet
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
- Université Joseph Fourier, Domaine Universitaire, Saint-Martin-d’Hères, France
| | - Sayaka Satake
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hideaki Iida
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Koya Yoshihi
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Yasuo Ishii
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
- Department of Biology, School of Medicine, Tokyo Women’s Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kagayaki Kato
- National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hisato Kondoh
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Kyoto Sangyo University, Kita-ku, Kyoto, Japan
- Biohistory Research Hall, Takatsuki, Osaka, Japan
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Salmina AB, Alexandrova OP, Averchuk AS, Korsakova SA, Saridis MR, Illarioshkin SN, Yurchenko SO. Current progress and challenges in the development of brain tissue models: How to grow up the changeable brain in vitro? J Tissue Eng 2024; 15:20417314241235527. [PMID: 38516227 PMCID: PMC10956167 DOI: 10.1177/20417314241235527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
In vitro modeling of brain tissue is a promising but not yet resolved problem in modern neurobiology and neuropharmacology. Complexity of the brain structure and diversity of cell-to-cell communication in (patho)physiological conditions make this task almost unachievable. However, establishment of novel in vitro brain models would ultimately lead to better understanding of development-associated or experience-driven brain plasticity, designing efficient approaches to restore aberrant brain functioning. The main goal of this review is to summarize the available data on methodological approaches that are currently in use, and to identify the most prospective trends in development of neurovascular unit, blood-brain barrier, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, and neurogenic niche in vitro models. The manuscript focuses on the regulation of adult neurogenesis, cerebral microcirculation and fluids dynamics that should be reproduced in the in vitro 4D models to mimic brain development and its alterations in brain pathology. We discuss approaches that are critical for studying brain plasticity, deciphering the individual person-specific trajectory of brain development and aging, and testing new drug candidates in the in vitro models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alla B Salmina
- Brain Science Institute, Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga P Alexandrova
- Brain Science Institute, Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anton S Averchuk
- Brain Science Institute, Research Center of Neurology, Moscow, Russia
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Moscow, Russia
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Abatti LE, Lado-Fernández P, Huynh L, Collado M, Hoffman M, Mitchell J. Epigenetic reprogramming of a distal developmental enhancer cluster drives SOX2 overexpression in breast and lung adenocarcinoma. Nucleic Acids Res 2023; 51:10109-10131. [PMID: 37738673 PMCID: PMC10602899 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Enhancer reprogramming has been proposed as a key source of transcriptional dysregulation during tumorigenesis, but the molecular mechanisms underlying this process remain unclear. Here, we identify an enhancer cluster required for normal development that is aberrantly activated in breast and lung adenocarcinoma. Deletion of the SRR124-134 cluster disrupts expression of the SOX2 oncogene, dysregulates genome-wide transcription and chromatin accessibility and reduces the ability of cancer cells to form colonies in vitro. Analysis of primary tumors reveals a correlation between chromatin accessibility at this cluster and SOX2 overexpression in breast and lung cancer patients. We demonstrate that FOXA1 is an activator and NFIB is a repressor of SRR124-134 activity and SOX2 transcription in cancer cells, revealing a co-opting of the regulatory mechanisms involved in early development. Notably, we show that the conserved SRR124 and SRR134 regions are essential during mouse development, where homozygous deletion results in the lethal failure of esophageal-tracheal separation. These findings provide insights into how developmental enhancers can be reprogrammed during tumorigenesis and underscore the importance of understanding enhancer dynamics during development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis E Abatti
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Patricia Lado-Fernández
- Laboratory of Cell Senescence, Cancer and Aging, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Xerencia de Xestión Integrada de Santiago (XXIS/SERGAS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Department of Physiology and Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CiMUS), Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Linh Huynh
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Manuel Collado
- Laboratory of Cell Senescence, Cancer and Aging, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Xerencia de Xestión Integrada de Santiago (XXIS/SERGAS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Michael M Hoffman
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Vector Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jennifer A Mitchell
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Wang Y, Yang Z. METTL3 relieved the injury of SH-SY5Y cells treated with lipopolysaccharide and exposed to sevoflurane through regulating the m6A levels of Sox2. Brain Behav 2023; 13:e2936. [PMID: 36977205 PMCID: PMC10176003 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.2936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is a common complication of the central nervous system in elderly patients. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of methyltransferase 3 (METTL3) in the POCD progression. METHODS The SH-SY5Y cells were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and exposed to sevoflurane to establish a POCD cell model. The cell viability and proliferation were assessed with MTT and EdU assays. Besides, the cell apoptosis was determined with TUNEL staining and flow cytometry. Additionally, the inflammatory factors were measured with ELISA. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA Methylation Quantification Kit was used to detect the m6A levels. The relative expressions of methyltransferase 3 (METTL3) and Sex-determining region Y-box-2 (Sox2) was measured with RT-qPCR and western blot assays. RNA methylation immunoprecipitation-real-time quantitative PCR was performed to detect the RNA that was m6A modified. RESULTS After LPS treatment and sevoflurane exposure, the cell viability and proliferation were decreased and the cell apoptosis was elevated. The m6A and the METTL3 expression levels in the POCD cell model were declined. METTL3 overexpression promoted the cell growth and inhibited the cell apoptosis in the POCD cell model. Besides, the Sox2 levels were reduced in the POCD cell model. METTL3 silencing declined the m6A and mRNA levels of Sox2, while overexpression of METTL3 elevated it. The relationship between METTL3 and Sox2 was confirmed with double luciferase assay. Finally, Sox2 silencing neutralized the role of METTTL3 overexpression in the POCD cell model. CONCLUSION METTL3 relieved the injury of the SH-SY5Y cells induced by LPS treatment and sevoflurane exposure through regulating the m6A and mRNA levels of Sox2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilong Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical Specialty, Shanghai, China
| | - Zeyong Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, International Peace Maternity and Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical Specialty, Shanghai, China
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Fouani Y, Gholipour A, Oveisee M, Shahryari A, Saberi H, Mowla SJ, Malakootian M. Distinct gene expression patterns of SOX2 and SOX2OT variants in different types of brain tumours. J Genet 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s12041-023-01423-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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Bhat RA, Rafi H, Tardiolo G, Fazio F, Aragona F, Zumbo A, Coelho C, D'Alessandro E. The role of embryonic stem cells, transcription and growth factors in mammals: A review. Tissue Cell 2023; 80:102002. [PMID: 36549226 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2022.102002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mammals represent a relevant species in worldwide cultures with significant commercial value. These animals are considered an attractive large animal model for biomedical and biotechnology research. The development of large animal experimental models may open alternative strategies for investigating stem cells (SCs) physiology and potential application in the veterinary field. The embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are known to possess natural pluripotency that confers the ability to differentiate into various tissues in vivo and in vitro. These notable characteristics can be useful for research and innovative applications, including biomedicine, agriculture and industry. Transcription factors play a crucial role in preserving stem cell self-renewal, whereas growth factors are involved in both growth and differentiation. However, to date, many questions concerning pluripotency, cellular differentiation regulator genes, and other molecules such as growth factors and their interactions in many mammalian species remain unresolved. The purpose of this review is to provide an overall review regarding the study of ESCs in mammals and briefly discuss the role of transcription and growth factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayees Ahmad Bhat
- Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra 136119, India
| | - Humera Rafi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Gujrat, Pakistan
| | - Giuseppe Tardiolo
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Via Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy
| | - Francesco Fazio
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Via Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy.
| | - Francesca Aragona
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Via Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy
| | - Alessandro Zumbo
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Via Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy
| | - Clarisse Coelho
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias (ULHT), Campo Grande 376, Lisboa 1749-024, Portugal
| | - Enrico D'Alessandro
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Via Palatucci snc, Messina 98168, Italy
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Domingo-Muelas A, Morante-Redolat JM, Moncho-Amor V, Jordán-Pla A, Pérez-Villalba A, Carrillo-Barberà P, Belenguer G, Porlan E, Kirstein M, Bachs O, Ferrón SR, Lovell-Badge R, Fariñas I. The rates of adult neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis are linked to cell cycle regulation through p27-dependent gene repression of SOX2. Cell Mol Life Sci 2023; 80:36. [PMID: 36627412 PMCID: PMC9832098 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04676-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Cell differentiation involves profound changes in global gene expression that often has to occur in coordination with cell cycle exit. Because cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27 reportedly regulates proliferation of neural progenitor cells in the subependymal neurogenic niche of the adult mouse brain, but can also have effects on gene expression, we decided to molecularly analyze its role in adult neurogenesis and oligodendrogenesis. At the cell level, we show that p27 restricts residual cyclin-dependent kinase activity after mitogen withdrawal to antagonize cycling, but it is not essential for cell cycle exit. By integrating genome-wide gene expression and chromatin accessibility data, we find that p27 is coincidentally necessary to repress many genes involved in the transit from multipotentiality to differentiation, including those coding for neural progenitor transcription factors SOX2, OLIG2 and ASCL1. Our data reveal both a direct association of p27 with regulatory sequences in the three genes and an additional hierarchical relationship where p27 repression of Sox2 leads to reduced levels of its downstream targets Olig2 and Ascl1. In vivo, p27 is also required for the regulation of the proper level of SOX2 necessary for neuroblasts and oligodendroglial progenitor cells to timely exit cell cycle in a lineage-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Domingo-Muelas
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Smilow Center for Translational Research, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jose Manuel Morante-Redolat
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Verónica Moncho-Amor
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, NW1 1AT, UK
- IIS Biodonostia, 48013, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Antonio Jordán-Pla
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Ana Pérez-Villalba
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Pau Carrillo-Barberà
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine, 6500, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Germán Belenguer
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Eva Porlan
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (UAM), Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CSIC-UAM), Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Hospital Universitario La Paz (IdiPAZ), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Martina Kirstein
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Oriol Bachs
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Barcelona-IDIBAPS, CIBERONC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sacri R Ferrón
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Isabel Fariñas
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.
- Departamento de Biología Celular Biología Funcional y Antropología Física, Universidad de Valencia, 46100, Burjassot, Spain.
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Biomedicina (BioTecMed), Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
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Wysmolek PM, Kiessler FD, Salbaum KA, Shelton ER, Sonntag SM, Serwane F. A minimal-complexity light-sheet microscope maps network activity in 3D neuronal systems. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20420. [PMID: 36443413 PMCID: PMC9705530 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24350-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro systems mimicking brain regions, brain organoids, are revolutionizing the neuroscience field. However, characterization of their electrical activity has remained a challenge as it requires readout at millisecond timescale in 3D at single-neuron resolution. While custom-built microscopes used with genetically encoded sensors are now opening this door, a full 3D characterization of organoid neural activity has not been performed yet, limited by the combined complexity of the optical and the biological system. Here, we introduce an accessible minimalistic light-sheet microscope to the neuroscience community. Designed as an add-on to a standard inverted microscope it can be assembled within one day. In contrast to existing simplistic setups, our platform is suited to record volumetric calcium traces. We successfully extracted 4D calcium traces at high temporal resolution by using a lightweight piezo stage to allow for 5 Hz volumetric scanning combined with a processing pipeline for true 3D neuronal trace segmentation. As a proof of principle, we created a 3D connectivity map of a stem cell derived neuron spheroid by imaging its activity. Our fast, low complexity setup empowers researchers to study the formation of neuronal networks in vitro for fundamental and neurodegeneration research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina M. Wysmolek
- grid.414703.50000 0001 2202 0959Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Filippo D. Kiessler
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XFaculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Katja A. Salbaum
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XFaculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany ,Graduate School of Systemic Neuroscience (GSN), Munich, Germany
| | - Elijah R. Shelton
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XFaculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Selina M. Sonntag
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XFaculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Friedhelm Serwane
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XFaculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany ,Graduate School of Systemic Neuroscience (GSN), Munich, Germany ,grid.452617.3Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
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10
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Erkhembaatar M, Yamamoto I, Inoguchi F, Taki K, Yamagishi S, Delaney L, Nishibe M, Abe T, Kiyonari H, Hanashima C, Naka‐kaneda H, Ihara D, Katsuyama Y. Involvement of Strawberry Notch homologue 1 in neurite outgrowth of cortical neurons. Dev Growth Differ 2022; 64:379-394. [DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Munkhsoyol Erkhembaatar
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
| | - Iroha Yamamoto
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
| | - Fuduki Inoguchi
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
| | - Kosuke Taki
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
| | - Satoru Yamagishi
- Department of Anatomy & Neuroscience Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu Shizuoka Japan
- Preeminent Medical Photonics Education & Research Center Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Hamamatsu Shizuoka Japan
| | - Leanne Delaney
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology Dalhousie University, PO Box 15000 Halifax Nova Scotia Canada
| | - Mariko Nishibe
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
| | - Takaya Abe
- Animal Resource Development Unit, Biosystem Dynamics Group, Division of Bio‐Function Dynamics Imaging Center for Life Science Technologies CDB RIKEN Kobe Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kiyonari
- Animal Resource Development Unit, Biosystem Dynamics Group, Division of Bio‐Function Dynamics Imaging Center for Life Science Technologies CDB RIKEN Kobe Japan
| | - Carina Hanashima
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Education and Integrated Arts and Sciences Waseda University Tokyo Japan
| | - Hayato Naka‐kaneda
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
| | - Dai Ihara
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
| | - Yu Katsuyama
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy Shiga University of Medical Science Shiga Japan
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11
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Corales LG, Inada H, Hiraoka K, Araki S, Yamanaka S, Kikkawa T, Osumi N. The subcommissural organ maintains features of neuroepithelial cells in the adult mouse. J Anat 2022; 241:820-830. [PMID: 35638289 PMCID: PMC9358730 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The subcommissural organ (SCO) is a part of the circumventricular organs located in the dorsocaudal region of the third ventricle at the entrance of the aqueduct of Sylvius. The SCO comprises epithelial cells and produces high molecular weight glycoproteins, which are secreted into the third ventricle and become part of Reissner's fibre in the cerebrospinal fluid. Abnormal development of the SCO has been linked with congenital hydrocephalus, a condition characterized by excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain. In the present study, we characterized the SCO cells in the adult mouse brain to gain insights into the possible role of this brain region. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that expression of Pax6, a transcription factor essential for SCO differentiation during embryogenesis, is maintained in the SCO at postnatal stages from P0 to P84. SCO cells in the adult brain expressed known neural stem/progenitor cell (NSPC) markers, Sox2 and vimentin. The adult SCO cells also expressed proliferating marker PCNA, although expression of another proliferation marker Ki67, indicating a G2/M phase, was not detected. The SCO cells did not incorporate BrdU, a marker for DNA synthesis in the S phase. Therefore, the SCO cells have a potential for proliferation but are quiescent for cell division in the adult. The SCO cells also expressed GFAP, a marker for astrocytes or NSPCs, but not NeuN (for neurons). A few cells positive for Iba1 (microglia), Olig2 (for oligodendrocytes) and PDGFRα (oligodendrocyte progenitors) existed within or on the periphery of the SCO. These findings revealed that the SCO cells have a unique feature as secretory yet immature neuroepithelial cells in the adult mouse brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laarni Grace Corales
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Inada
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan.,Laboratory of Health and Sports Sciences, Division of Biomedical Engineering for Health and Welfare, Tohoku University Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Sendai, Japan
| | - Kotaro Hiraoka
- Division of Cyclotron Nuclear Medicine, Cyclotron and Radioisotope Center, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Shun Araki
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Shinya Yamanaka
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Takako Kikkawa
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Noriko Osumi
- Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
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12
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Inefficient development of syncytiotrophoblasts in the Atp11a-deficient mouse placenta. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2200582119. [PMID: 35476530 PMCID: PMC9170144 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2200582119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasma membranes are composed of a lipid bilayer in which phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) is confined to the inner leaflet by the action of flippase that translocates PtdSer from the outer to inner leaflets. Two P4-ATPases (ATP11A and ATP11C) work as flippase at plasma membranes. Here, we report that the mouse placenta expresses only ATP11A, and Atp11a-deficient mouse embryos die during embryogenesis due to inefficient formation of syncytiotrophoblasts in the placental labyrinth. The flippase-null mutation inactivates human choriocarcinoma BeWo cells to translocate PtdSer into the inner leaflet and undergo cell fusion. These findings highlight the importance of flippase to regulate the distribution of phospholipids for cell fusion, at least in trophoblast fusion. The P4-ATPases ATP11A and ATP11C function as flippases at the plasma membrane to translocate phosphatidylserine from the outer to the inner leaflet. We herein demonstrated that Atp11a-deficient mouse embryos died at approximately E14.5 with thin-walled heart ventricles. However, the cardiomyocyte- or epiblast-specific Atp11a deletion did not affect mouse development or mortality. ATP11C may have compensated for the function of ATP11A in most of the cell types in the embryo. On the other hand, Atp11a, but not Atp11c, was expressed in the mouse placenta, and the Atp11a-null mutation caused poor development of the labyrinthine layer with an increased number of TUNEL-positive foci. Immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy revealed a disorganized labyrinthine layer with unfused trophoblasts in the Atp11a-null placenta. Human placenta-derived choriocarcinoma BeWo cells expressed the ATP11A and ATP11C genes. A lack of ATP11A and ATP11C eliminated the ability of BeWo cells to flip phosphatidylserine and fuse when treated with forskolin. These results indicate that flippases at the plasma membrane play an important role in the formation of syncytiotrophoblasts in placental development.
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13
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Guida E, Tassinari V, Colopi A, Todaro F, Cesarini V, Jannini B, Pellegrini M, Botti F, Rossi G, Rossi P, Jannini EA, Dolci S. Mapk activation drives male and female mouse teratocarcinomas from late PGCs. J Cell Sci 2022; 135:274751. [PMID: 35297490 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.259375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Germ cell tumors (GCTs) are rare tumors that can develop in both sexes, peaking in adolescents. To understand the mechanisms that underlie germ cell transformation, we established a GCT mouse model carrying germ cell-specific BRafV600E mutation with or without heterozygous Pten deletion. Both male and female mice developed monolateral teratocarcinomas containing embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells that showed an aggressive phenotype and metastatic ability. Germ cell transformation started in fetal gonads and progressed after birth leading to gonadal invasion. Early postnatal testes showed foci of tumor transformation, while ovaries showed increased number of follicles, multi-ovular follicles (MOFs) and scattered metaphase I oocytes containing follicles. Our results indicate that Mapk over-activation in fetal germ cells of both sexes can expand their proliferative window leading to neoplastic transformation and metastatic behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugenia Guida
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Tassinari
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Ambra Colopi
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Federica Todaro
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeriana Cesarini
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Benedetto Jannini
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Pellegrini
- Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, IBBC-CNR, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - Flavia Botti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.,Pathology Department, S. Eugenio Hospital, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Rossi
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Pellegrino Rossi
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Susanna Dolci
- Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
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14
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Lohoff T, Ghazanfar S, Missarova A, Koulena N, Pierson N, Griffiths JA, Bardot ES, Eng CHL, Tyser RCV, Argelaguet R, Guibentif C, Srinivas S, Briscoe J, Simons BD, Hadjantonakis AK, Göttgens B, Reik W, Nichols J, Cai L, Marioni JC. Integration of spatial and single-cell transcriptomic data elucidates mouse organogenesis. Nat Biotechnol 2022; 40:74-85. [PMID: 34489600 PMCID: PMC8763645 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-021-01006-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Molecular profiling of single cells has advanced our knowledge of the molecular basis of development. However, current approaches mostly rely on dissociating cells from tissues, thereby losing the crucial spatial context of regulatory processes. Here, we apply an image-based single-cell transcriptomics method, sequential fluorescence in situ hybridization (seqFISH), to detect mRNAs for 387 target genes in tissue sections of mouse embryos at the 8-12 somite stage. By integrating spatial context and multiplexed transcriptional measurements with two single-cell transcriptome atlases, we characterize cell types across the embryo and demonstrate that spatially resolved expression of genes not profiled by seqFISH can be imputed. We use this high-resolution spatial map to characterize fundamental steps in the patterning of the midbrain-hindbrain boundary (MHB) and the developing gut tube. We uncover axes of cell differentiation that are not apparent from single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) data, such as early dorsal-ventral separation of esophageal and tracheal progenitor populations in the gut tube. Our method provides an approach for studying cell fate decisions in complex tissues and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Lohoff
- Wellcome-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Epigenetics Programme, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, UK
| | - S Ghazanfar
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - A Missarova
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - N Koulena
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - N Pierson
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - J A Griffiths
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Genomics Plc, Cambridge, UK
| | - E S Bardot
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - C-H L Eng
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - R C V Tyser
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - R Argelaguet
- Epigenetics Programme, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, UK
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - C Guibentif
- Wellcome-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Haematology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Sahlgrenska Center for Cancer Research, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - S Srinivas
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - J Briscoe
- The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - B D Simons
- Wellcome-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- The Wellcome/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - A-K Hadjantonakis
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - B Göttgens
- Wellcome-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Haematology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - W Reik
- Wellcome-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Epigenetics Programme, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, UK.
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK.
| | - J Nichols
- Wellcome-Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - L Cai
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - J C Marioni
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK.
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK.
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15
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Cheng AH, Fung SW, Hegazi S, Abdalla OHMH, Cheng HYM. SOX2 Regulates Neuronal Differentiation of the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23:ijms23010229. [PMID: 35008655 PMCID: PMC8745319 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) functions as the central circadian pacemaker, orchestrating behavioral and physiological rhythms in alignment to the environmental light/dark cycle. The neurons that comprise the SCN are anatomically and functionally heterogeneous, but despite their physiological importance, little is known about the pathways that guide their specification and differentiation. Here, we report that the stem/progenitor cell transcription factor, Sex determining region Y-box 2 (Sox2), is required in the embryonic SCN to control the expression of SCN-enriched neuropeptides and transcription factors. Ablation of Sox2 in the developing SCN leads to downregulation of circadian neuropeptides as early as embryonic day (E) 15.5, followed by a decrease in the expression of two transcription factors involved in SCN development, Lhx1 and Six6, in neonates. Thymidine analog-retention assays revealed that Sox2 deficiency contributed to reduced survival of SCN neurons during the postnatal period of cell clearance, but did not affect progenitor cell proliferation or SCN specification. Our results identify SOX2 as an essential transcription factor for the proper differentiation and survival of neurons within the developing SCN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur H. Cheng
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; (A.H.C.); (S.W.F.); (S.H.); (O.H.M.H.A.)
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Samuel W. Fung
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; (A.H.C.); (S.W.F.); (S.H.); (O.H.M.H.A.)
| | - Sara Hegazi
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; (A.H.C.); (S.W.F.); (S.H.); (O.H.M.H.A.)
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Osama Hasan Mustafa Hasan Abdalla
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; (A.H.C.); (S.W.F.); (S.H.); (O.H.M.H.A.)
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Hai-Ying Mary Cheng
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; (A.H.C.); (S.W.F.); (S.H.); (O.H.M.H.A.)
- Department of Cell & Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
- Correspondence:
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16
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Kwon JK, Choi DJ, Yang H, Ko DW, Jou I, Park SM, Joe EH. Kir4.1 is coexpressed with stemness markers in activated astrocytes in the injured brain and a Kir4.1 inhibitor BaCl 2 negatively regulates neurosphere formation in culture. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2021; 25:565-574. [PMID: 34697267 PMCID: PMC8552822 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2021.25.6.565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes are activated in response to brain damage. Here, we found that expression of Kir4.1, a major potassium channel in astrocytes, is increased in activated astrocytes in the injured brain together with upregulation of the neural stem cell markers, Sox2 and Nestin. Expression of Kir4.1 was also increased together with that of Nestin and Sox2 in neurospheres formed from dissociated P7 mouse brains. Using the Kir4.1 blocker BaCl2 to determine whether Kir4.1 is involved in acquisition of stemness, we found that inhibition of Kir4.1 activity caused a concentration-dependent increase in sphere size and Sox2 levels, but had little effect on Nestin levels. Moreover, induction of differentiation of cultured neural stem cells by withdrawing epidermal growth factor and fibroblast growth factor from the culture medium caused a sharp initial increase in Kir4.1 expression followed by a decrease, whereas Sox2 and Nestin levels continuously decreased. Inhibition of Kir4.1 had no effect on expression levels of Sox2 or Nestin, or the astrocyte and neuron markers glial fibrillary acidic protein and β-tubulin III, respectively. Taken together, these results indicate that Kir4.1 may control gain of stemness but not differentiation of stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Kyung Kwon
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Dong-Joo Choi
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Haijie Yang
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Dong Wan Ko
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Ilo Jou
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Sang Myun Park
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
| | - Eun-Hye Joe
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Chronic Inflammatory Disease Research Center, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea.,Department of Brain Science, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon 16499, Korea
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17
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Pagin M, Pernebrink M, Giubbolini S, Barone C, Sambruni G, Zhu Y, Chiara M, Ottolenghi S, Pavesi G, Wei CL, Cantù C, Nicolis SK. Sox2 controls neural stem cell self-renewal through a Fos-centered gene regulatory network. Stem Cells 2021; 39:1107-1119. [PMID: 33739574 DOI: 10.1002/stem.3373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Sox2 transcription factor is necessary for the long-term self-renewal of neural stem cells (NSCs). Its mechanism of action is still poorly defined. To identify molecules regulated by Sox2, and acting in mouse NSC maintenance, we transduced, into Sox2-deleted NSC, genes whose expression is strongly downregulated following Sox2 loss (Fos, Jun, Egr2), individually or in combination. Fos alone rescued long-term proliferation, as shown by in vitro cell growth and clonal analysis. Furthermore, pharmacological inhibition by T-5224 of FOS/JUN AP1 complex binding to its targets decreased cell proliferation and expression of the putative target Suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (Socs3). Additionally, Fos requirement for efficient long-term proliferation was demonstrated by the reduction of NSC clones capable of long-term expansion following CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Fos inactivation. Previous work showed that the Socs3 gene is strongly downregulated following Sox2 deletion, and its re-expression by lentiviral transduction rescues long-term NSC proliferation. Fos appears to be an upstream regulator of Socs3, possibly together with Jun and Egr2; indeed, Sox2 re-expression in Sox2-deleted NSC progressively activates both Fos and Socs3 expression; in turn, Fos transduction activates Socs3 expression. Based on available SOX2 ChIPseq and ChIA-PET data, we propose a model whereby Sox2 is a direct activator of both Socs3 and Fos, as well as possibly Jun and Egr2; furthermore, we provide direct evidence for FOS and JUN binding on Socs3 promoter, suggesting direct transcriptional regulation. These results provide the basis for developing a model of a network of interactions, regulating critical effectors of NSC proliferation and long-term maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Pagin
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Mattias Pernebrink
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine (WCMM) and Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Health Science, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Division of Molecular Medicine and Virology, Faculty of Health Science, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Simone Giubbolini
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Cristiana Barone
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Gaia Sambruni
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Yanfen Zhu
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Matteo Chiara
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Sergio Ottolenghi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulio Pavesi
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Chia-Lin Wei
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Claudio Cantù
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine (WCMM) and Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Health Science, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Division of Molecular Medicine and Virology, Faculty of Health Science, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Silvia K Nicolis
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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18
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Brockman AA, Mobley BC, Ihrie RA. Histological Studies of the Ventricular-Subventricular Zone as Neural Stem Cell and Glioma Stem Cell Niche. J Histochem Cytochem 2021; 69:819-834. [PMID: 34310246 DOI: 10.1369/00221554211032003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural stem cell niche of the ventricular-subventricular zone supports the persistence of stem and progenitor cells in the mature brain. This niche has many notable cytoarchitectural features that affect the activity of stem cells and may also support the survival and growth of invading tumor cells. Histochemical studies of the niche have revealed many proteins that, in combination, can help to reveal stem-like cells in the normal or cancer context, although many caveats persist in the quest to consistently identify these cells in the human brain. Here, we explore the complex relationship between the persistent proliferative capacity of the neural stem cell niche and the malignant proliferation of brain tumors, with a special focus on histochemical identification of stem cells and stem-like tumor cells and an eye toward the potential application of high-dimensional imaging approaches to the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asa A Brockman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Bret C Mobley
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Rebecca A Ihrie
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee.,Departments of Neurological Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
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19
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Batool S, Kayani MA, Valis M, Kuca K. Neural Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells-An in vitro Approach to Profile DNA Methylation of Reprogramming Factor Sox2-SRR2. Front Genet 2021; 12:641095. [PMID: 33828585 PMCID: PMC8019947 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.641095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Sox2 is one of the core transcription factors maintaining the embryonic stem cells (ES) pluripotency and, also indispensable for cellular reprogramming. However, limited data is available about the DNA methylation of pluripotency genes during lineage-specific differentiations. This study investigated the DNA methylation of Sox2 regulatory region 2 (SRR2) during directed differentiation of mouse ES into neural lineage. ES cells were first grown to form embryoid bodies in suspension which were then dissociated, and cultured in defined medium to promote neural differentiation. Typical neuronal morphology together with the up-regulation of Pax6, neuroepithelial stem cell intermediate filament and β-tubulin III and, down-regulation of pluripotency genes Oct4, Nanog and Sox2 showed the existence of neural phenotype in cells undergoing differentiation. Three CpGs in the core enhancer region of neural-specific SRR2 were individually investigated by direct DNA sequencing post-bisulfite treatment and, found to be unmethylated in differentiated cells at time-points chosen for analysis. This analysis does not limit the possibility of methylation at other CpG sites than those profiled here and/or transient methylation. Hence, similar analyses exploring the DNA methylation at other regions of the Sox2 gene could unravel the onset and transitions of epigenetic signatures influencing the outcome of differentiation pathways and neural development. The data presented here shows that in vitro neural differentiation of embryonic stem cells can be employed to study and characterize molecular regulatory mechanisms governing neurogenesis by applying diverse pharmacological and toxicological agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajida Batool
- Cancer Genetics and Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Mahmood Akhtar Kayani
- Cancer Genetics and Epigenetics Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Martin Valis
- Department of Neurology of the Medical Faculty of Charles University and University Hospital in Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czechia
| | - Kamil Kuca
- Department of Chemistry, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czechia
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20
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Sox2 knockdown in the neonatal retina causes cell fate to switch from amacrine to bipolar. Brain Res 2021; 1752:147265. [PMID: 33422527 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Transcription factor Sox2 is widely recognized for its critical roles in the nervous system, including the neural retina. Here, we aimed to reveal the function of Sox2 in the process of mouse postnatal development. After the suppression of Sox2 at P0, there was an increase number in bipolar cells but a decrease in amacrine cells. Inhibited Sox2 expression also led to decreased visual function. Furthermore, we found a distinctive type of retinal cells expressing the characteristic proteins of both bipolar cells and amacrine cells at P6, which may be an intermediate state in which amacrine cells were transforming into bipolar cells. Transcription factors associated with the development of bipolar cells and amacrine cells also support those changes. Our work indicated that inhibition of Sox2 could change cell fate by affecting transcription factors in the development of bipolar cells and amacrine cells, may provide new directions for the study and treatment of retinal genetic diseases and retinal dysplasia.
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21
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Decimo I, Dolci S, Panuccio G, Riva M, Fumagalli G, Bifari F. Meninges: A Widespread Niche of Neural Progenitors for the Brain. Neuroscientist 2020; 27:506-528. [PMID: 32935634 PMCID: PMC8442137 DOI: 10.1177/1073858420954826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence highlights the several roles that meninges play in
relevant brain functions as they are a protective membrane for the
brain, produce and release several trophic factors important for
neural cell migration and survival, control cerebrospinal fluid
dynamics, and embrace numerous immune interactions affecting neural
parenchymal functions. Furthermore, different groups have identified
subsets of neural progenitors residing in the meninges during
development and in the adulthood in different mammalian species,
including humans. Interestingly, these immature neural cells are able
to migrate from the meninges to the neural parenchyma and
differentiate into functional cortical neurons or oligodendrocytes.
Immature neural cells residing in the meninges promptly react to brain
disease. Injury-induced expansion and migration of meningeal neural
progenitors have been observed following experimental demyelination,
traumatic spinal cord and brain injury, amygdala lesion, stroke, and
progressive ataxia. In this review, we summarize data on the function
of meninges as stem cell niche and on the presence of immature neural
cells in the meninges, and discuss their roles in brain health and
disease. Furthermore, we consider the potential exploitation of
meningeal neural progenitors for the regenerative medicine to treat
neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Decimo
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Sissi Dolci
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Gabriella Panuccio
- Enhanced Regenerative Medicine, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Marco Riva
- Unit of Neurosurgery, Fondazione IRCCS Ca'Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Guido Fumagalli
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Francesco Bifari
- Laboratory of Cell Metabolism and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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22
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Functional characterization of SOX2 as an anticancer target. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2020; 5:135. [PMID: 32728033 PMCID: PMC7391717 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-020-00242-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
SOX2 is a well-characterized pluripotent factor that is essential for stem cell self-renewal, reprogramming, and homeostasis. The cellular levels of SOX2 are precisely regulated by a complicated network at the levels of transcription, post-transcription, and post-translation. In many types of human cancer, SOX2 is dysregulated due to gene amplification and protein overexpression. SOX2 overexpression is associated with poor survival of cancer patients. Mechanistically, SOX2 promotes proliferation, survival, invasion/metastasis, cancer stemness, and drug resistance. SOX2 is, therefore, an attractive anticancer target. However, little progress has been made in the efforts to discover SOX2 inhibitors, largely due to undruggable nature of SOX2 as a transcription factor. In this review, we first briefly introduced SOX2 as a transcription factor, its domain structure, normal physiological functions, and its involvement in human cancers. We next discussed its role in embryonic development and stem cell-renewal. We then mainly focused on three aspects of SOX2: (a) the regulatory mechanisms of SOX2, including how SOX2 level is regulated, and how SOX2 cross-talks with multiple signaling pathways to control growth and survival; (b) the role of SOX2 in tumorigenesis and drug resistance; and (c) current drug discovery efforts on targeting SOX2, and the future perspectives to discover specific SOX2 inhibitors for effective cancer therapy.
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23
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Bertolini JA, Favaro R, Zhu Y, Pagin M, Ngan CY, Wong CH, Tjong H, Vermunt MW, Martynoga B, Barone C, Mariani J, Cardozo MJ, Tabanera N, Zambelli F, Mercurio S, Ottolenghi S, Robson P, Creyghton MP, Bovolenta P, Pavesi G, Guillemot F, Nicolis SK, Wei CL. Mapping the Global Chromatin Connectivity Network for Sox2 Function in Neural Stem Cell Maintenance. Cell Stem Cell 2020; 24:462-476.e6. [PMID: 30849367 PMCID: PMC6506828 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The SOX2 transcription factor is critical for neural stem cell (NSC) maintenance and brain development. Through chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and chromatin interaction analysis (ChIA-PET), we determined genome-wide SOX2-bound regions and Pol II-mediated long-range chromatin interactions in brain-derived NSCs. SOX2-bound DNA was highly enriched in distal chromatin regions interacting with promoters and carrying epigenetic enhancer marks. Sox2 deletion caused widespread reduction of Pol II-mediated long-range interactions and decreased gene expression. Genes showing reduced expression in Sox2-deleted cells were significantly enriched in interactions between promoters and SOX2-bound distal enhancers. Expression of one such gene, Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling 3 (Socs3), rescued the self-renewal defect of Sox2-ablated NSCs. Our work identifies SOX2 as a major regulator of gene expression through connections to the enhancer network in NSCs. Through the definition of such a connectivity network, our study shows the way to the identification of genes and enhancers involved in NSC maintenance and neurodevelopmental disorders. Sox2-bound enhancers are enriched within long-range interactions in neural stem cells SOX2 loss decreases chromatin interactivity genome-wide Sox2-bound enhancers from interactions activate reporter genes in zebrafish forebrain Socs3, a gene downregulated in Sox2 mutant NSCs, rescues their self-renewal
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Bertolini
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Rebecca Favaro
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Yanfen Zhu
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Miriam Pagin
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Chew Yee Ngan
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Chee Hong Wong
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Harianto Tjong
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Marit W Vermunt
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht 3584CT, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ben Martynoga
- The Francis Crick Institute, Midland Road, London NW 1AT, UK
| | - Cristiana Barone
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Jessica Mariani
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Marcos Julián Cardozo
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and Ciber de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII Madrid, Spain
| | - Noemi Tabanera
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and Ciber de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII Madrid, Spain
| | - Federico Zambelli
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Sara Mercurio
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Sergio Ottolenghi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy
| | - Paul Robson
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA; Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Genome Institute of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Menno P Creyghton
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht 3584CT, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Paola Bovolenta
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Universidad Autónoma de Madrid and Ciber de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), ISCIII Madrid, Spain
| | - Giulio Pavesi
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | | | - Silvia K Nicolis
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milano, Italy.
| | - Chia-Lin Wei
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA.
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24
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Metastatic Phosphatase PRL-3 Induces Ovarian Cancer Stem Cell Sub-population through Phosphatase-Independent Deacetylation Modulations. iScience 2019; 23:100766. [PMID: 31887658 PMCID: PMC6941878 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.100766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are responsible for tumor initiation, chemoresistance, metastasis, and relapse, but the underlying molecular origin of CSCs remains elusive. Here we identified that metastatic phosphatase of regenerating liver 3 (PRL-3) transcriptionally upregulates SOX2 in the expansion of CSC sub-population from normal cancer cells. Mechanistically, SOX2 upregulation is attributed to the binding of the acetylated myocyte enhancer factor 2A (MEF2A) to SOX2 promoter in tumor cells. In parallel, PRL-3 competitively binds to Class IIa histone deacetylase 4 (HDAC4) to facilitate HDAC4 translocation, leading to the disassociation of HDAC4 from MEF2A and histones. The released MEF2A and histones thus remain acetylated and render the subsequent accessibility of the acetylated MEF2A to SOX2 promoter region. Clinical relevance among PRL-3, SOX2, and HDAC4 is validated in ovary cancer samples. Therefore, this PRL-3-HDAC4-MEF2A/histones-SOX2 signaling axis would be a potential therapeutic target in inhibiting ovarian cancer metastasis and relapse. PRL-3 promotes the expansion of CSC-like cells via transcriptional SOX2 upregulation Binding of MEF2A to SOX2 promoter bridges the PRL-3-induced SOX2 upregulation PRL-3 competitively binds HDAC4 to cause the disassociation of HDAC4 from MEF2A Acetylated histones render the accessibility of SOX2 promoter region to MEF2A
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25
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More than just Stem Cells: Functional Roles of the Transcription Factor Sox2 in Differentiated Glia and Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184540. [PMID: 31540269 PMCID: PMC6769708 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The Sox2 transcription factor, encoded by a gene conserved in animal evolution, has become widely known because of its functional relevance for stem cells. In the developing nervous system, Sox2 is active in neural stem cells, and important for their self-renewal; differentiation to neurons and glia normally involves Sox2 downregulation. Recent evidence, however, identified specific types of fully differentiated neurons and glia that retain high Sox2 expression, and critically require Sox2 function, as revealed by functional studies in mouse and in other animals. Sox2 was found to control fundamental aspects of the biology of these cells, such as the development of correct neuronal connectivity. Sox2 downstream target genes identified within these cell types provide molecular mechanisms for cell-type-specific Sox2 neuronal and glial functions. SOX2 mutations in humans lead to a spectrum of nervous system defects, involving vision, movement control, and cognition; the identification of neurons and glia requiring Sox2 function, and the investigation of Sox2 roles and molecular targets within them, represents a novel perspective for the understanding of the pathogenesis of these defects.
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26
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Ogawa Y, Sasanuma Y, Shitara S, Koshizuka A, Okada R, Sakuraba H, Oishi K. Abnormal organization during neurodevelopment in a mouse model of Sandhoff disease. Neurosci Res 2019; 155:12-19. [PMID: 31340161 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2019.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Sandhoff disease (SD) is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation of HEXB, which is the β-subunit gene of β-hexosaminidase A and B (HexA and HexB) in humans. HEXB mutation reduces HexA and HexB enzymatic activities, and results in the massive accumulation of ganglioside GM2 in the nervous system. Severe phenotypes of SD show progressive neurodegeneration in human infants, and lysosomal dysfunction that may affect the early development of the nervous system. In a previous study, neural stem cells (NSCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells derived from SD model mice, which are Hexb-deficient (Hexb-/-), demonstrated impaired neuronal differentiation. This study investigated early neurodevelopment in vivo using Hexb-/- mice. The structure of adult cerebral cortices of Hexb-/- mice was normal. However, the expression of Sox2, an NSC-related gene, was reduced in the embryonic cerebral cortices of Hexb-/- mice. Moreover, a reduction of early neuronal migration and differentiation was observed in the embryonic cerebral cortices of Hexb-/- mice. In addition, we showed that the production of layer-specific neurons was delayed in somatosensory cerebral cortices of Hexb-/- mice. These findings suggest that the alterations observed in embryonic Hexb-/- mice may contribute to deficits in neurodevelopment of SD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Ogawa
- Department of Pharmacology, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Yayoi Sasanuma
- Department of Pharmacology, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shuhei Shitara
- Department of Pharmacology, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Asuna Koshizuka
- Department of Pharmacology, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Rieko Okada
- Department of Pharmacology, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Sakuraba
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhiko Oishi
- Department of Pharmacology, Meiji Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan
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27
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Yang SC, Liu JJ, Wang CK, Lin YT, Tsai SY, Chen WJ, Huang WK, Tu PWA, Lin YC, Chang CF, Cheng CL, Lin H, Lai CY, Lin CY, Lee YH, Chiu YC, Hsu CC, Hsu SC, Hsiao M, Schuyler SC, Lu FL, Lu J. Down-regulation of ATF1 leads to early neuroectoderm differentiation of human embryonic stem cells by increasing the expression level of SOX2. FASEB J 2019; 33:10577-10592. [PMID: 31242772 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201800220rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
We reveal by high-throughput screening that activating transcription factor 1 (ATF1) is a novel pluripotent regulator in human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). The knockdown of ATF1 expression significantly up-regulated neuroectoderm (NE) genes but not mesoderm, endoderm, and trophectoderm genes. Of note, down-regulation or knockout of ATF1 with short hairpin RNA (shRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), or clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) was sufficient to up-regulate sex-determining region Y-box (SOX)2 and paired box 6 (PAX6) expression under the undifferentiated or differentiated conditions, whereas overexpression of ATF1 suppressed NE differentiation. Endogenous ATF1 was spontaneously down-regulated after d 1-3 of neural induction. By double-knockdown experiments, up-regulation of SOX2 was critical for the increase of PAX6 and SOX1 expression in shRNA targeting Atf1 hESCs. Using the luciferase reporter assay, we identified ATF1 as a negative transcriptional regulator of Sox2 gene expression. A novel function of ATF1 was discovered, and these findings contribute to a broader understanding of the very first steps in regulating NE differentiation in hESCs.-Yang, S.-C., Liu, J.-J., Wang, C.-K., Lin, Y.-T., Tsai, S.-Y., Chen, W.-J., Huang, W.-K., Tu, P.-W. A., Lin, Y.-C., Chang, C.-F., Cheng, C.-L., Lin, H., Lai, C.-Y., Lin, C.-Y., Lee, Y.-H., Chiu, Y.-C., Hsu, C.-C., Hsu, S.-C., Hsiao, M., Schuyler, S. C., Lu, F. L., Lu, J. Down-regulation of ATF1 leads to early neuroectoderm differentiation of human embryonic stem cells by increasing the expression level of SOX2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shang-Chih Yang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jan-Jan Liu
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Kai Wang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Tsen Lin
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Su-Yi Tsai
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ju Chen
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Kai Huang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Po-Wen A Tu
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chen Lin
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Chih-Lun Cheng
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsuan Lin
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Ying Lai
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Yu Lin
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsuan Lee
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Chun Chiu
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Shu-Ching Hsu
- National Institute of Infectious Diseases and Vaccinology, Zhunan, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Michael Hsiao
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Scott C Schuyler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan.,Division of Head and Neck Surgery, Department of Otolaryngology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Frank Leigh Lu
- Department of Pediatrics, National Taiwan University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jean Lu
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.,RNAi Core, National Core Facility, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Life Science, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
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28
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Lzts1 controls both neuronal delamination and outer radial glial-like cell generation during mammalian cerebral development. Nat Commun 2019; 10:2780. [PMID: 31239441 PMCID: PMC6592889 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-10730-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In the developing central nervous system, cell departure from the apical surface is the initial and fundamental step to form the 3D, organized architecture. Both delamination of differentiating cells and repositioning of progenitors to generate outer radial glial cells (oRGs) contribute to mammalian neocortical expansion; however, a comprehensive understanding of their mechanisms is lacking. Here, we demonstrate that Lzts1, a molecule associated with microtubule components, promotes both cell departure events. In neuronally committed cells, Lzts1 functions in apical delamination by altering apical junctional organization. In apical RGs (aRGs), Lzts1 expression is variable, depending on Hes1 expression levels. According to its differential levels, Lzts1 induces diverse RG behaviors: planar division, oblique divisions of aRGs that generate oRGs, and their mitotic somal translocation. Loss-of-function of lzts1 impairs all these cell departure processes. Thus, Lzts1 functions as a master modulator of cellular dynamics, contributing to increasing complexity of the cerebral architecture during evolution. Outer radial glial cells (oRGs) are undifferentiated cells that divide in the subventricular zone during neurodevelopment, but the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Here the authors show that Lzts1 positively controls both neuronal delamination and generation of oRG-like cell types.
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29
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Alexander JM, Guan J, Li B, Maliskova L, Song M, Shen Y, Huang B, Lomvardas S, Weiner OD. Live-cell imaging reveals enhancer-dependent Sox2 transcription in the absence of enhancer proximity. eLife 2019; 8:e41769. [PMID: 31124784 PMCID: PMC6534382 DOI: 10.7554/elife.41769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhancers are important regulatory elements that can control gene activity across vast genetic distances. However, the underlying nature of this regulation remains obscured because it has been difficult to observe in living cells. Here, we visualize the spatial organization and transcriptional output of the key pluripotency regulator Sox2 and its essential enhancer Sox2 Control Region (SCR) in living embryonic stem cells (ESCs). We find that Sox2 and SCR show no evidence of enhanced spatial proximity and that spatial dynamics of this pair is limited over tens of minutes. Sox2 transcription occurs in short, intermittent bursts in ESCs and, intriguingly, we find this activity demonstrates no association with enhancer proximity, suggesting that direct enhancer-promoter contacts do not drive contemporaneous Sox2 transcription. Our study establishes a framework for interrogation of enhancer function in living cells and supports an unexpected mechanism for enhancer control of Sox2 expression that uncouples transcription from enhancer proximity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M Alexander
- Cardiovascular Research InstituteUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Juan Guan
- Department of Pharmaceutical ChemistryUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Bingkun Li
- Institute for Human GeneticsUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Lenka Maliskova
- Institute for Human GeneticsUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Michael Song
- Institute for Human GeneticsUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacogenomics Graduate ProgramUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Yin Shen
- Institute for Human GeneticsUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
- Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmacogenomics Graduate ProgramUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
- Department of NeurologyUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Bo Huang
- Department of Pharmaceutical ChemistryUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and BiophysicsUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
- Chan Zuckerberg BiohubSan FranciscoUnited States
| | - Stavros Lomvardas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiophysicsColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
- Mortimer B Zuckerman Mind Brain and Behavior InstituteColumbia UniversityNew York CityUnited States
| | - Orion D Weiner
- Cardiovascular Research InstituteUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
- Department of Biochemistry and BiophysicsUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoUnited States
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30
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Ando H, Sato T, Ito T, Yamamoto J, Sakamoto S, Nitta N, Asatsuma-Okumura T, Shimizu N, Mizushima R, Aoki I, Imai T, Yamaguchi Y, Berk AJ, Handa H. Cereblon Control of Zebrafish Brain Size by Regulation of Neural Stem Cell Proliferation. iScience 2019; 15:95-108. [PMID: 31055217 PMCID: PMC6501120 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Thalidomide is a teratogen that causes multiple malformations in the developing baby through its interaction with cereblon (CRBN), a substrate receptor subunit of the CRL4 E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. CRBN was originally reported as a gene associated with autosomal recessive non-syndromic mild mental retardation. However, the function of CRBN during brain development remains largely unknown. Here we demonstrate that CRBN promotes brain development by facilitating the proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs). Knockdown of CRBN in zebrafish embryos impaired brain development and led to small brains, as did treatment with thalidomide. By contrast, overexpression of CRBN resulted in enlarged brains, leading to the expansion of NSC regions and increased cell proliferation in the early brain field and an expanded expression of brain region-specific genes and neural and glial marker genes. These results demonstrate that CRBN functions in the determination of brain size by regulating the proliferation of NSCs during development. CRBN is a determinant of head and brain size during zebrafish development Thalidomide causes a reduction in head and brain size by binding to CRBN CRBN prevents apoptosis and promotes NSC proliferation during brain development crbn overexpression results in a concomitant increase in neurons and glial cells
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Ando
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
| | - Tomomi Sato
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
| | - Takumi Ito
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan; PRESTO, JST, 4-1-8, Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012 Japan
| | - Junichi Yamamoto
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
| | - Satoshi Sakamoto
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Nobuhiro Nitta
- National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Tomoko Asatsuma-Okumura
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Shimizu
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
| | - Ryota Mizushima
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan
| | - Ichio Aoki
- National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Takeshi Imai
- National Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology (NCGG), Aichi 474-8511, Japan
| | - Yuki Yamaguchi
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama 226-8501, Japan
| | - Arnold J Berk
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, and Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles 90095, USA
| | - Hiroshi Handa
- Department of Nanoparticle Translational Research, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan.
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Nakatani Y, Kiyonari H, Kondo T. Ecrg4 deficiency extends the replicative capacity of neural stem cells in a Foxg1-dependent manner. Development 2019; 146:dev.168120. [PMID: 30745428 DOI: 10.1242/dev.168120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The self-renewal activity of neural stem cells (NSCs) has been suggested to decrease with aging, resulting in age-dependent declines in brain function, such as presbyopia and memory loss. The molecular mechanisms underlying decreases in NSC proliferation with age need to be elucidated in more detail to develop treatments that promote brain function. We have previously reported that the expression of esophageal cancer-related gene 4 (Ecrg4) was upregulated in aged NSCs, whereas its overexpression decreased NSC proliferation, suggesting a functional relationship between Ecrg4 and NSC aging. Using Ecrg4-deficient mice in which the Ecrg4 locus was replaced with the lacZ gene, we here show that Ecrg4 deficiency recovered the age-dependent decline in NSC proliferation and enhanced spatial learning and memory in the Morris water-maze paradigm. We demonstrate that the proliferation of Ecrg4-deficient NSCs was partly maintained by the increased expression of Foxg1. Collectively, these results determine Ecrg4 as a NSC aging factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Nakatani
- Division of Bio-Function Dynamics Imaging, Center for Life Science Technology, RIKEN, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kiyonari
- Animal Resource Development Unit and Genetic Engineering Team, Center for Life Science Technology, RIKEN, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan
| | - Toru Kondo
- Division of Stem Cell Biology, Institute for Genetic Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0815, Japan
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32
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Identification and expression of transcription factor sox2 in large yellow croaker Larimichthys crocea. Theriogenology 2018; 120:123-137. [PMID: 30118947 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2018.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 07/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
As an important transcription and pluripotency factor, Sox2 plays its functions essentially in the regulation of self-renewal and pluripotency of embryonic and neural stem cells, as well as embryogenesis, organogenesis, neurogenesis and regeneration. The data is lacking on Sox2 in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) (Lc-Sox2) which is a limitation on the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). In this study, Lc-sox2 was cloned by RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends) and analyzed by Bioinformatics. The quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and whole mount in situ hybridization (WISH) were used to detect the expression of Lc-sox2. The full-length cDNA sequence of Lc-sox2 is 2135 bp and encodes a 322-aa (amino acids). Lc-Sox2 possesses a highly conserved HMG-box as DNA-binding domain, maintains highly conserved with vertebrates, particularly with teleosts. In tissues, Lc-sox2 was expressed with gender difference in brain and eye (female > male), in embryos, Lc-sox2 was expressed with a zygotic type that the high level expression began to appear in the gastrula stage. The spatio-temporal expression patterns of Lc-sox2 suggested the potential involvement in embryogenesis, neurogenesis, gametogenesis and adult physiological processes of large yellow croaker. Our results contributed to better understanding of Sox2 from large yellow croaker.
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33
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Knauss JL, Miao N, Kim SN, Nie Y, Shi Y, Wu T, Pinto HB, Donohoe ME, Sun T. Long noncoding RNA Sox2ot and transcription factor YY1 co-regulate the differentiation of cortical neural progenitors by repressing Sox2. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:799. [PMID: 30038234 PMCID: PMC6056501 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-0840-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are emerging as key regulators of crucial cellular processes. However, the molecular mechanisms of many lncRNA functions remain uncharacterized. Sox2ot is an evolutionarily conserved lncRNA that transcriptionally overlaps the pluripotency gene Sox2, which maintains the stemness of embryonic stem cells and tissue-specific stem cells. Here, we show that Sox2ot is expressed in the developing mouse cerebral cortex, where it represses neural progenitor (NP) proliferation and promotes neuronal differentiation. Sox2ot negatively regulates self-renewal of neural stem cells, and is predominately expressed in the nucleus and inhibits Sox2 levels. Sox2ot forms a physical interaction with a multifunctional transcriptional regulator YY1, which binds several CpG islands in the Sox2 locus in a Sox2ot-dependent manner. Similar to Sox2ot, YY1 represses NP expansion in vivo. These results demonstrate a regulatory role of Sox2ot in promoting cortical neurogenesis, possibly by repressing Sox2 expression in NPs, through interacting with YY1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Knauss
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Cornell University Weill Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, Box 60, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Nan Miao
- Center for Precision Medicine, School of Medicine and School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, China, 361021
| | - Seung-Nam Kim
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Cornell University Weill Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, Box 60, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- College of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, Ilsandonggu, Goyangsi, 10326, Gyeonggido, Korea
| | - Yanzhen Nie
- School of Life Sciences and Technology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China, 200240
| | - Yuelin Shi
- School of Life Sciences and Technology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China, 200240
| | - Tao Wu
- Burke Medical Research Institute, 785 Mamaroneck Avenue, White Plains, NY, 10605, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Cornell University Weill Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Hugo Borges Pinto
- Burke Medical Research Institute, 785 Mamaroneck Avenue, White Plains, NY, 10605, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Cornell University Weill Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Mary E Donohoe
- Burke Medical Research Institute, 785 Mamaroneck Avenue, White Plains, NY, 10605, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Cornell University Weill Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Tao Sun
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Cornell University Weill Medical College, 1300 York Avenue, Box 60, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
- Center for Precision Medicine, School of Medicine and School of Biomedical Sciences, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, China, 361021.
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34
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Cerrato V, Mercurio S, Leto K, Fucà E, Hoxha E, Bottes S, Pagin M, Milanese M, Ngan CY, Concina G, Ottolenghi S, Wei CL, Bonanno G, Pavesi G, Tempia F, Buffo A, Nicolis SK. Sox2 conditional mutation in mouse causes ataxic symptoms, cerebellar vermis hypoplasia, and postnatal defects of Bergmann glia. Glia 2018; 66:1929-1946. [PMID: 29732603 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Sox2 is a transcription factor active in the nervous system, within different cell types, ranging from radial glia neural stem cells to a few specific types of differentiated glia and neurons. Mutations in the human SOX2 transcription factor gene cause various central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities, involving hippocampus and eye defects, as well as ataxia. Conditional Sox2 mutation in mouse, with different Cre transgenes, previously recapitulated different essential features of the disease, such as hippocampus and eye defects. In the cerebellum, Sox2 is active from early embryogenesis in the neural progenitors of the cerebellar primordium; Sox2 expression is maintained, postnatally, within Bergmann glia (BG), a differentiated cell type essential for Purkinje neurons functionality and correct motor control. By performing Sox2 Cre-mediated ablation in the developing and postnatal mouse cerebellum, we reproduced ataxia features. Embryonic Sox2 deletion (with Wnt1Cre) leads to reduction of the cerebellar vermis, known to be commonly related to ataxia, preceded by deregulation of Otx2 and Gbx2, critical regulators of vermis development. Postnatally, BG is progressively disorganized, mislocalized, and reduced in mutants. Sox2 postnatal deletion, specifically induced in glia (with GLAST-CreERT2), reproduces the BG defect, and causes (milder) ataxic features. Our results define a role for Sox2 in cerebellar function and development, and identify a functional requirement for Sox2 within postnatal BG, of potential relevance for ataxia in mouse mutants, and in human patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Cerrato
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10, Orbassano, (Torino), 10043, Italy
| | - Sara Mercurio
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, Milano, 20126, Italy
| | - Ketty Leto
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10, Orbassano, (Torino), 10043, Italy
| | - Elisa Fucà
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10, Orbassano, (Torino), 10043, Italy
| | - Eriola Hoxha
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10, Orbassano, (Torino), 10043, Italy
| | - Sara Bottes
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, Milano, 20126, Italy
| | - Miriam Pagin
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, Milano, 20126, Italy
| | - Marco Milanese
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genova, Viale Cembrano 4, Genoa, 16148, Italy
| | - Chew-Yee Ngan
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut
| | - Giulia Concina
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10, Orbassano, (Torino), 10043, Italy
| | - Sergio Ottolenghi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, Milano, 20126, Italy
| | - Chia-Lin Wei
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, Connecticut
| | - Giambattista Bonanno
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Toxicology Unit and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genova, Viale Cembrano 4, Genoa, 16148, Italy
| | - Giulio Pavesi
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, 20100, Italy
| | - Filippo Tempia
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10, Orbassano, (Torino), 10043, Italy
| | - Annalisa Buffo
- Department of Neuroscience Rita Levi-Montalcini, University of Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavalieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Regione Gonzole, 10, Orbassano, (Torino), 10043, Italy
| | - Silvia K Nicolis
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, piazza della Scienza 2, Milano, 20126, Italy
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35
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Wuebben EL, Rizzino A. The dark side of SOX2: cancer - a comprehensive overview. Oncotarget 2018; 8:44917-44943. [PMID: 28388544 PMCID: PMC5546531 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.16570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The pluripotency-associated transcription factor SOX2 is essential during mammalian embryogenesis and later in life, but SOX2 expression can also be highly detrimental. Over the past 10 years, SOX2 has been shown to be expressed in at least 25 different cancers. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the roles of SOX2 in cancer and focuses on two broad topics. The first delves into the expression and function of SOX2 in cancer focusing on the connection between SOX2 levels and tumor grade as well as patient survival. As part of this discussion, we address the developing connection between SOX2 expression and tumor drug resistance. We also call attention to an under-appreciated property of SOX2, its levels in actively proliferating tumor cells appear to be optimized to maximize tumor growth - too little or too much SOX2 dramatically alters tumor growth. The second topic of this review focuses on the exquisite array of molecular mechanisms that control the expression and transcriptional activity of SOX2. In addition to its complex regulation at the transcriptional level, SOX2 expression and activity are controlled carefully by microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and post-translational modifications. In the Conclusion and Future Perspectives section, we point out that there are still important unanswered questions. Addressing these questions is expected to lead to new insights into the functions of SOX2 in cancer, which will help design novels strategies for more effectively treating some of the most deadly cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Wuebben
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Angie Rizzino
- Eppley Institute for Research in Cancer and Allied Diseases, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
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36
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Yoshimura A, Adachi N, Matsuno H, Kawamata M, Yoshioka Y, Kikuchi H, Odaka H, Numakawa T, Kunugi H, Ochiya T, Tamai Y. The Sox2 promoter-driven CD63-GFP transgenic rat model allows tracking of neural stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles. Dis Model Mech 2018; 11:dmm.028779. [PMID: 29208635 PMCID: PMC5818070 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.028779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can modulate microenvironments by transferring biomolecules, including RNAs and proteins derived from releasing cells, to target cells. To understand the molecular mechanisms maintaining the neural stem cell (NSC) niche through EVs, a new transgenic (Tg) rat strain that can release human CD63-GFP-expressing EVs from the NSCs was established. Human CD63-GFP expression was controlled under the rat Sox2 promoter (Sox2/human CD63-GFP), and it was expressed in undifferentiated fetal brains. GFP signals were specifically observed in in vitro cultured NSCs obtained from embryonic brains of the Tg rats. We also demonstrated that embryonic NSC (eNSC)-derived EVs were labelled by human CD63-GFP. Furthermore, when we examined the transfer of EVs, eNSC-derived EVs were found to be incorporated into astrocytes and eNSCs, thus implying an EV-mediated communication between different cell types around NSCs. This new Sox2/human CD63-GFP Tg rat strain should provide resources to analyse the cell-to-cell communication via EVs in NSC microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Yoshimura
- Division of Laboratory Animals Resources, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.,Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.,Education and Research Facility of Animal Models for Human Diseases, Center for Research Promotion and Support, Fujita Health University, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake-cho, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
| | - Naoki Adachi
- Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.,Department of Biomedical Chemistry, School of Science and Technology, Kwansei Gakuin University, 2-1 Gakuen, Sanda, Hyogo 669-1337, Japan
| | - Hitomi Matsuno
- Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
| | - Masaki Kawamata
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, National Cancer Center Research Institute (NCC), 1-1 Tsukiji 5-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Yusuke Yoshioka
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, National Cancer Center Research Institute (NCC), 1-1 Tsukiji 5-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Hisae Kikuchi
- Department of Degenerative Neurological Diseases, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
| | - Haruki Odaka
- Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.,Department of Life Science and Medical Bioscience, School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan.,Department of Cell Modulation, Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, 2-2-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Tadahiro Numakawa
- Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.,Department of Cell Modulation, Institute of Molecular Embryology and Genetics, Kumamoto University, 2-2-1 Honjo, Chuo-ku, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kunugi
- Department of Mental Disorder Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, NCNP, 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
| | - Takahiro Ochiya
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, National Cancer Center Research Institute (NCC), 1-1 Tsukiji 5-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Tamai
- Division of Laboratory Animals Resources, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), 4-1-1 Ogawa-Higashi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan.,Chromocenter Inc., 6-7-4 Minatojima-minami, Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan
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37
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Panaliappan TK, Wittmann W, Jidigam VK, Mercurio S, Bertolini JA, Sghari S, Bose R, Patthey C, Nicolis SK, Gunhaga L. Sox2 is required for olfactory pit formation and olfactory neurogenesis through BMP restriction and Hes5 upregulation. Development 2018; 145:145/2/dev153791. [PMID: 29352015 PMCID: PMC5825848 DOI: 10.1242/dev.153791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The transcription factor Sox2 is necessary to maintain pluripotency of embryonic stem cells, and to regulate neural development. Neurogenesis in the vertebrate olfactory epithelium persists from embryonic stages through adulthood. The role Sox2 plays for the development of the olfactory epithelium and neurogenesis within has, however, not been determined. Here, by analysing Sox2 conditional knockout mouse embryos and chick embryos deprived of Sox2 in the olfactory epithelium using CRISPR-Cas9, we show that Sox2 activity is crucial for the induction of the neural progenitor gene Hes5 and for subsequent differentiation of the neuronal lineage. Our results also suggest that Sox2 activity promotes the neurogenic domain in the nasal epithelium by restricting Bmp4 expression. The Sox2-deficient olfactory epithelium displays diminished cell cycle progression and proliferation, a dramatic increase in apoptosis and finally olfactory pit atrophy. Moreover, chromatin immunoprecipitation data show that Sox2 directly binds to the Hes5 promoter in both the PNS and CNS. Taken together, our results indicate that Sox2 is essential to establish, maintain and expand the neuronal progenitor pool by suppressing Bmp4 and upregulating Hes5 expression. Summary: Analysis of Sox2 mutant mouse and Sox2 CRISPR-targeted chick embryos reveals that Sox2 controls the establishment of sensory progenitors in the olfactory epithelium by suppressing Bmp4 and upregulating Hes5 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Walter Wittmann
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Vijay K Jidigam
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sara Mercurio
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Jessica A Bertolini
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Soufien Sghari
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Raj Bose
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Cedric Patthey
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Silvia K Nicolis
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Lena Gunhaga
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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38
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Cells Expressing Prominin-1 in Neonatal Murine Inferior Colliculus Differentiate into Neurons and Glia. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:4998-5005. [PMID: 28795331 PMCID: PMC5948249 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0701-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Inferior colliculus (IC) is a major center for the integration and processing of acoustic information from ascending auditory pathways. Damage to the IC as well as normal aging can impair auditory function. Novel strategies such as stem cell (SC)-based regenerative therapy are required for functional recovery because mature neural cells have a minimal regenerative capacity after an injury. However, it is not known if there are neural stem cells (NSCs) in the IC. Herein, we screened for NSCs by surface marker analysis using flow cytometry. Isolated IC cells expressing prominin-1 (CD133) exhibited the cardinal NSC properties self-renewal capacity, expression of known NSC markers (SOX2 and nestin), and multipotency. Prominin-1-expressing cells from neonatal IC generated neurospheres, and culture of these neurospheres in differentiation-conditioned medium gave rise to gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic (GABAergic) neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. The presence of NSC-like cells in the IC has important implications for understanding IC development and for potential regenerative therapy.
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39
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Cyclin-Dependent Kinase-Dependent Phosphorylation of Sox2 at Serine 39 Regulates Neurogenesis. Mol Cell Biol 2017; 37:MCB.00201-17. [PMID: 28584195 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00201-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Sox2 is known to be important for neuron formation, but the precise mechanism through which it activates a neurogenic program and how this differs from its well-established function in self-renewal of stem cells remain elusive. In this study, we identified a highly conserved cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) phosphorylation site on serine 39 (S39) in Sox2. In neural stem cells (NSCs), phosphorylation of S39 enhances the ability of Sox2 to negatively regulate neuronal differentiation, while loss of phosphorylation is necessary for chromatin retention of a truncated form of Sox2 generated during neurogenesis. We further demonstrated that nonphosphorylated cleaved Sox2 specifically induces the expression of proneural genes and promotes neurogenic commitment in vivo Our present study sheds light on how the level of Cdk kinase activity directly regulates Sox2 to tip the balance between self-renewal and differentiation in NSCs.
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40
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Martín-Ibáñez R, Guardia I, Pardo M, Herranz C, Zietlow R, Vinh NN, Rosser A, Canals JM. Insights in spatio-temporal characterization of human fetal neural stem cells. Exp Neurol 2017; 291:20-35. [PMID: 28131724 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Primary human fetal cells have been used in clinical trials of cell replacement therapy for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's disease (HD). However, human fetal primary cells are scarce and difficult to work with and so a renewable source of cells is sought. Human fetal neural stem cells (hfNSCs) can be generated from human fetal tissue, but little is known about the differences between hfNSCs obtained from different developmental stages and brain areas. In the present work we characterized hfNSCs, grown as neurospheres, obtained from three developmental stages: 4-5, 6-7 and 8-9weeks post conception (wpc) and four brain areas: forebrain, cortex, whole ganglionic eminence (WGE) and cerebellum. We observed that, as fetal brain development proceeds, the number of neural precursors is diminished and post-mitotic cells are increased. In turn, primary cells obtained from older embryos are more sensitive to the dissociation process, their viability is diminished and they present lower proliferation ratios compared to younger embryos. However, independently of the developmental stage of derivation proliferation ratios were very low in all cases. Improvements in the expansion rates were achieved by mechanical, instead of enzymatic, dissociation of neurospheres but not by changes in the seeding densities. Regardless of the developmental stage, neurosphere cultures presented large variability in the viability and proliferation rates during the initial 3-4 passages, but stabilized achieving significant expansion rates at passage 5 to 6. This was true also for all brain regions except cerebellar derived cultures that did not expand. Interestingly, the brain region of hfNSC derivation influences the expansion potential, being forebrain, cortex and WGE derived cells the most expandable compared to cerebellar. Short term expansion partially compromised the regional identity of cortical but not WGE cultures. Nevertheless, both expanded cultures were multipotent and kept the ability to differentiate to region specific mature neuronal phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Martín-Ibáñez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Rosselló 149-153, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; Networked Biomedical Research Centre for NeuroDegenerative Disorders (CIBERNED), Spain; Research and Development Unit, Cell Therapy Program, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Inés Guardia
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Rosselló 149-153, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; Networked Biomedical Research Centre for NeuroDegenerative Disorders (CIBERNED), Spain.
| | - Mónica Pardo
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Rosselló 149-153, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; Networked Biomedical Research Centre for NeuroDegenerative Disorders (CIBERNED), Spain.
| | - Cristina Herranz
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Rosselló 149-153, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; Networked Biomedical Research Centre for NeuroDegenerative Disorders (CIBERNED), Spain; Research and Development Unit, Cell Therapy Program, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Rike Zietlow
- Cardiff University Brain Repair Group, Schools of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Cardiff, UK.
| | - Ngoc-Nga Vinh
- Cardiff University Brain Repair Group, Schools of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Cardiff, UK.
| | - Anne Rosser
- Cardiff University Brain Repair Group, Schools of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Cardiff, UK.
| | - Josep M Canals
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; August Pi i Sunyer Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBAPS), Rosselló 149-153, 08036 Barcelona, Spain; Networked Biomedical Research Centre for NeuroDegenerative Disorders (CIBERNED), Spain; Research and Development Unit, Cell Therapy Program, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Barcelona, Casanova 143, 08036 Barcelona, Spain.
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Gu J, Bao Y, Chen J, Huang C, Zhang X, Jiang R, Liu Q, Liu Y, Xu X, Shi W. The Expression of NP847 and Sox2 after TBI and Its Influence on NSCs. Front Cell Neurosci 2016; 10:282. [PMID: 28066182 PMCID: PMC5177638 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) is important for neural regeneration after cerebral injury. Here, for the first time, we show that phosphorylated (p)-ser847-nNOS (NP847), rather than nNOS, may play a major role in NSC proliferation after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Western blot results demonstrated that the expression of NP847 and Sox2 in the hippocampus is up-regulated after TBI, and they both peak 3 days after brain injury. In addition, an immunofluorescence experiment indicated that NP847 and Sox2 partly co-localize in the nuclei of NSCs after TBI. Further immunoprecipitation experiments found that NP847 and Sox2 can directly interact with each other in NSCs. Moreover, in an OGD model of NSCs, NP847 expression is decreased, which is followed by the down-regulation of Sox2. Interestingly, in this study, we did not observe changes in the expression of nNOS in the OGD model. Further research data suggest that the NP847-Sox2 complex may play a major role in NSCs through the Shh/Gli signaling pathway in a CaMKII-dependent manner after brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Gu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong UniversityNantong, China; Department of Neurosurgery, Yancheng Third People's HospitalYancheng, China
| | - Yifeng Bao
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Nantong University Nantong, China
| | - Jian Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University Nantong, China
| | - Chuanjun Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First People's Hospital of Wujiang Soochow, China
| | - Xinghua Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Nantong University Nantong, China
| | - Rui Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University Nantong, China
| | - Qianqian Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University Nantong, China
| | - Yonghua Liu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Inflammation and Molecular Drug Target, Nantong University Nantong, China
| | - Xide Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University Nantong, China
| | - Wei Shi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University Nantong, China
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Hattermann K, Flüh C, Engel D, Mehdorn HM, Synowitz M, Mentlein R, Held-Feindt J. Stem cell markers in glioma progression and recurrence. Int J Oncol 2016; 49:1899-1910. [PMID: 27600094 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2016.3682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Aggressive cancer cells show histological similarities to embryonic stem cells. As differentiated cells can re-acquire pluripotency and self-renewal by transfection with the transcription factors OCT4, SOX2, KLF4 and MYC, with Nanog as readout for success, we comprehensively investigated their occurrence and frequency in human astrocytomas of different malignancy grades, primary and matched recurrent glioblastomas, short- and long-term glioblastoma cultures and glioma cell lines. Among astrocytomas, mRNA expression of OCT4, MYC and (less robust) KLF4 increased with malignancy, while in recurrent glioblastomas MYC expression slightly decreased. Correlation analysis revealed distinct positive correlation between distinct stem cell markers, and this effect was most prominent in the recurrent glioblastoma cohort. In situ, embryonic stem cell factors were found also in more differentiated tumor regions. Respective cells were rarely actively proliferating and showed single or combined expression signatures, which, at least in parts, corresponded to observed positive correlations of mRNA expression. However, a 'master-marker' defining the complete glioma stem cell subset could not be confirmed. In glioma cell lines, long- and short-term cultures, embryonic markers were detected at comparable levels. Upon exposure to temozolomide, increased expression of KLF4 (and lesser Nanog and OCT4) was observed. Experimental intrinsic overexpression of SOX2, KLF4 or OCT4 did not affect the other stem cell factors. The embryonic stem cell factors comprehensively investigated in this project can control self-renewal and pluripotency, and therefore tumorigenicity. They should be considered for the development of future diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Charlotte Flüh
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein UKSH, Campus Kiel, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Dorothee Engel
- Department of Anatomy, University of Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - H Maximilian Mehdorn
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein UKSH, Campus Kiel, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Michael Synowitz
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein UKSH, Campus Kiel, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
| | - Rolf Mentlein
- Department of Anatomy, University of Kiel, D-24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Janka Held-Feindt
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein UKSH, Campus Kiel, D-24105 Kiel, Germany
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Mandalos NP, Remboutsika E. Sox2: To crest or not to crest? Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 63:43-49. [PMID: 27592260 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Precise control of neural progenitor transformation into neural crest stem cells ensures proper craniofacial and head development. In the neural progenitor pool, SoxB factors play an essential role as cell fate determinants of neural development, whereas during neural crest stem cell formation, Sox2 plays a predominant role as a guardian of the developmental clock that ensures precision of cell flow in the developing head.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Panagiotis Mandalos
- National University of Athens Medical School, Department of Pediatrics, 75 Mikras Asias Str., 115 27, Athens, Greece; Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Biomedical Sciences Research Centre "Alexander Fleming", 34 Fleming Str., 16672 Vari-Attica, Greece; Adjunct Faculty, The Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Basic Sciences Division, Johns Hopkins Medical Campus, 855 North Wolfe Str., Suite 300, 3rd Floor, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Eumorphia Remboutsika
- National University of Athens Medical School, Department of Pediatrics, 75 Mikras Asias Str., 115 27, Athens, Greece; Stem Cell Biology Laboratory, Biomedical Sciences Research Centre "Alexander Fleming", 34 Fleming Str., 16672 Vari-Attica, Greece; Adjunct Faculty, The Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Basic Sciences Division, Johns Hopkins Medical Campus, 855 North Wolfe Str., Suite 300, 3rd Floor, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Naruse M, Ishizaki Y, Ikenaka K, Tanaka A, Hitoshi S. Origin of oligodendrocytes in mammalian forebrains: a revised perspective. J Physiol Sci 2016; 67:63-70. [PMID: 27573166 PMCID: PMC5368213 DOI: 10.1007/s12576-016-0479-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) appear in the late embryonic brain, mature into oligodendrocytes (OLs), and form myelin in the postnatal brain. It has been proposed that early born OPCs derived from the ventral forebrain are eliminated postnatally and late-born OLs predominate in the adult mouse cortex. However, the temporal and regional niche for cortical OL generation, which persists throughout life in adult mammals, remains to be determined. Our recent study provides new insight into self-renewing and multipotent neural stem cells (NSCs). Our results, together with previous studies, suggest that NSCs at the dorsoventral boundary are uniquely specialized to produce myelin-forming OLs in the cortex during a restricted temporal window. These findings may help identify transcription factors or gene expression patterns which confer neural precursors with the characteristic ability of dorsoventral boundary NSCs to differentiate into OLs, and facilitate the development of new strategies for regenerative medicine of the damaged brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masae Naruse
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Yasuki Ishizaki
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Ikenaka
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan
| | - Aoi Tanaka
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Seiji Hitoshi
- Division of Neurobiology and Bioinformatics, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan.
- Department of Integrative Physiology, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Shiga, Japan.
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Rushing G, Ihrie RA. Neural stem cell heterogeneity through time and space in the ventricular-subventricular zone. FRONTIERS IN BIOLOGY 2016; 11:261-284. [PMID: 28367160 PMCID: PMC5371406 DOI: 10.1007/s11515-016-1407-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The origin and classification of neural stem cells (NSCs) has been a subject of intense investigation for the past two decades. Efforts to categorize NSCs based on their location, function and expression have established that these cells are a heterogeneous pool in both the embryonic and adult brain. The discovery and additional characterization of adult NSCs has introduced the possibility of using these cells as a source for neuronal and glial replacement following injury or disease. To understand how one could manipulate NSC developmental programs for therapeutic use, additional work is needed to elucidate how NSCs are programmed and how signals during development are interpreted to determine cell fate. OBJECTIVE This review describes the identification, classification and characterization of NSCs within the large neurogenic niche of the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ). METHODS A literature search was conducted using Pubmed including the keywords "ventricular-subventricular zone," "neural stem cell," "heterogeneity," "identity" and/or "single cell" to find relevant manuscripts to include within the review. A special focus was placed on more recent findings using single-cell level analyses on neural stem cells within their niche(s). RESULTS This review discusses over 20 research articles detailing findings on V-SVZ NSC heterogeneity, over 25 articles describing fate determinants of NSCs, and focuses on 8 recent publications using distinct single-cell analyses of neural stem cells including flow cytometry and RNA-seq. Additionally, over 60 manuscripts highlighting the markers expressed on cells within the NSC lineage are included in a chart divided by cell type. CONCLUSIONS Investigation of NSC heterogeneity and fate decisions is ongoing. Thus far, much research has been conducted in mice however, findings in human and other mammalian species are also discussed here. Implications of NSC heterogeneity established in the embryo for the properties of NSCs in the adult brain are explored, including how these cells may be redirected after injury or genetic manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle Rushing
- Program in Neuroscience, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
| | - Rebecca A. Ihrie
- Departments of Cancer Biology and Neurological Surgery, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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Chang HF, Lee YS, Tang TK, Cheng JY. Pulsed DC Electric Field-Induced Differentiation of Cortical Neural Precursor Cells. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158133. [PMID: 27352251 PMCID: PMC4924866 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
We report the differentiation of neural stem and progenitor cells solely induced by direct current (DC) pulses stimulation. Neural stem and progenitor cells in the adult mammalian brain are promising candidates for the development of therapeutic neuroregeneration strategies. The differentiation of neural stem and progenitor cells depends on various in vivo environmental factors, such as nerve growth factor and endogenous EF. In this study, we demonstrated that the morphologic and phenotypic changes of mouse neural stem and progenitor cells (mNPCs) could be induced solely by exposure to square-wave DC pulses (magnitude 300 mV/mm at frequency of 100-Hz). The DC pulse stimulation was conducted for 48 h, and the morphologic changes of mNPCs were monitored continuously. The length of primary processes and the amount of branching significantly increased after stimulation by DC pulses for 48 h. After DC pulse treatment, the mNPCs differentiated into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes simultaneously in stem cell maintenance medium. Our results suggest that simple DC pulse treatment could control the fate of NPCs. With further studies, DC pulses may be applied to manipulate NPC differentiation and may be used for the development of therapeutic strategies that employ NPCs to treat nervous system disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Fang Chang
- Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ying-Shan Lee
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tang K. Tang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ji-Yen Cheng
- Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biophotonics, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Biophotonics and Molecular Imaging Research Center (BMIRC), National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Mechanical and Mechantronic Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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Semerci F, Maletic-Savatic M. Transgenic mouse models for studying adult neurogenesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 11:151-167. [PMID: 28473846 DOI: 10.1007/s11515-016-1405-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The mammalian hippocampus shows a remarkable capacity for continued neurogenesis throughout life. Newborn neurons, generated by the radial neural stem cells (NSCs), are important for learning and memory as well as mood control. During aging, the number and responses of NSCs to neurogenic stimuli diminish, leading to decreased neurogenesis and age-associated cognitive decline and psychiatric disorders. Thus, adult hippocampal neurogenesis has garnered significant interest because targeting it could be a novel potential therapeutic strategy for these disorders. However, if we are to use neurogenesis to halt or reverse hippocampal-related pathology, we need to understand better the core molecular machinery that governs NSC and their progeny. In this review, we summarize a wide variety of mouse models used in adult neurogenesis field, present their advantages and disadvantages based on specificity and efficiency of labeling of different cell types, and review their contribution to our understanding of the biology and the heterogeneity of different cell types found in adult neurogenic niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatih Semerci
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mirjana Maletic-Savatic
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA.,Department of Pediatrics-Neurology, Department of Neuroscience, and Structural and Computational Biology and Molecular Biophysics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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48
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Yagi H, Kato K. Functional roles of glycoconjugates in the maintenance of stemness and differentiation process of neural stem cells. Glycoconj J 2016; 34:757-763. [PMID: 27350557 DOI: 10.1007/s10719-016-9707-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) possess a high proliferative potential and capacity for self-renewal with retention of multipotency to differentiate into brain-forming cells. NSCs have gained a considerable attention because of their potential application in treatment strategies on the basis of transplantation for neurodegenerative disorders and nerve injuries. Although several signaling pathways have been reportedly involved in the fate determination process of NSCs, the molecular mechanisms underlying the maintenance of neural cell stemness and differentiation process remain largely unknown. Glycoconjugates expressed in the NSC niche in the brain offer markers of NSCs; moreover, they serve as cell regulators, which are actively involved in the modulation of signal transduction. The glycans function on NCS surfaces by recruiting growth factor receptors to specific microdomains as components of glycolipids, thereby mediating the ligand-receptor interactions both indirectly and directly as components of proteoglycans and interacting with specific lectin-type receptors as components of ligand glycoproteins. In this review, we outline current knowledge of the possible functional mechanisms of glycoconjugates to determine cell fates, which are associated with their expression pattern and structural characteristic features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Yagi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan
| | - Koichi Kato
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya City University, 3-1 Tanabe-dori, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan. .,Institute for Molecular Science, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki Institute for Integrative Bioscience, 5-1 Higashiyama Myodaiji, Okazaki, 444-8787, Japan.
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Hayashi S, Lewis P, Pevny L, McMahon AP. Efficient gene modulation in mouse epiblast using a Sox2Cre transgenic mouse strain. Mech Dev 2016; 119 Suppl 1:S97-S101. [PMID: 14516668 DOI: 10.1016/s0925-4773(03)00099-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 330] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We have generated a transgenic line that expresses the Cre gene product under the regulation of a 12.5 kb upstream regulatory sequence from the Sox2 gene. Using a R26R reporter line, we show that this transgenic line induces recombination in all epiblast cells by embryonic day (E) 6.5 but little or no activity in other extraembryonic cell types at this time. When crossed to a conditional allele of the Sonic hedgehog gene (Shhc), all Sox2Cre;Shhn/Shhc embryos displayed a phenotype indistinguishable from that of the Shh null mutant. Sox2Cre functioned more efficiently in epiblast-mediated recombination than the Mox2Cre (MORE) transgenic line, which has also been shown to drive Cre-mediated recombination exclusively in the embryonic component of the early mouse embryo. Although most MORE; shhh/shhc embryos have a shh hull phenotype, 33% displayed a milder skeletal phenotype, most likely result of incomplete recombination at egg cylinder stages. In agreement with these findings, Sox2Cre was active earlier and Sox2Cre-mediated recombination was more advanced than MORE-mediated recombination at early gastrulation stages. The Sox2Cre line is likely to be more effective in generating complete, epiblast-specific removal of gene activity, and the mosaic activity of the MORE line will be helpful in generating partial loss-of-function phenotypes in the embryo-proper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigemi Hayashi
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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50
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Cell-cycle-independent transitions in temporal identity of mammalian neural progenitor cells. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11349. [PMID: 27094546 PMCID: PMC4842982 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
During cerebral development, many types of neurons are sequentially generated by self-renewing progenitor cells called apical progenitors (APs). Temporal changes in AP identity are thought to be responsible for neuronal diversity; however, the mechanisms underlying such changes remain largely unknown. Here we perform single-cell transcriptome analysis of individual progenitors at different developmental stages, and identify a subset of genes whose expression changes over time but is independent of differentiation status. Surprisingly, the pattern of changes in the expression of such temporal-axis genes in APs is unaffected by cell-cycle arrest. Consistent with this, transient cell-cycle arrest of APs in vivo does not prevent descendant neurons from acquiring their correct laminar fates. Analysis of cultured APs reveals that transitions in AP gene expression are driven by both cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic mechanisms. These results suggest that the timing mechanisms controlling AP temporal identity function independently of cell-cycle progression and Notch activation mode.
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