Predictive models of implicit and explicit attitudes

BMI and explicit-implicit cues on food choice: The fake food buffet in the United Kingdom and Indonesia

We examined whether people with high BMI sampled from two different countries were more susceptible to behavioural change via an implicit, rather than explicit, intervention. We measured BMI and used three types of cue interventions (implicit vs explicit healthy lifestyle cue vs neutral cue) to examine their impact on our participants' food choice using the Fake Food Buffet. Healthiness of the meal chosen was measured by the percentage of healthy food items in the meal. Portion size of their chosen meal was operationalised by the total number of food items chosen and its total calorie content was also estimated. Participants were recruited from the United Kingdom (N = 264) and Indonesia (N = 264). Our results indicated that while explicit food cues were overall more effective, implicit cues were a more effective strategy to change food choice behaviours among individuals with high BMI. Participants with high BMI were more likely to regulate the healthiness of their meal and less likely to regulate its portion size or calorie content. The efficacy of our healthy eating interventions was cross-culturally generalizable. Our study supports previous research that implicit cues of a healthy lifestyle might be a more effective behavioural change strategy for individuals with high BMI.

Beyond stereotypes: The role of exposure in reshaping Children's biases towards women as coaches in sports

The underrepresentation of women in sports coaching, linked to discrimination and bias may, according to contact theory, be mitigated by increasing the visibility of women coaches, especially among children. Our study examined whether young athletes exposed to women coaches affected their explicit and implicit biases compared to unexposed peers. Seventy-five children aged between 4 and 17 years were evaluated using two explicit attitude measures and an Implicit Association Task. Results indicated that participants with women coach experience were more explicitly satisfied with woman coaches, preferred them more as potential coaches, and associated men with sports less than those without such exposure. Whilst exposure and implicit bias significantly predicted explicit satisfaction, exposure did not moderate the bias relationship. This suggests that exposure to women coaches reduces negative attitudes in young athletes but does not significantly affect the underlying influence of implicit biases, indicating a need for more comprehensive strategies to address gender inequalities in sports coaching.

Choosing human over AI doctors? How comparative trust associations and knowledge relate to risk and benefit perceptions of AI in healthcare

The development of artificial intelligence (AI) in healthcare is accelerating rapidly. Beyond the urge for technological optimization, public perceptions and preferences regarding the application of such technologies remain poorly understood. Risk and benefit perceptions of novel technologies are key drivers for successful implementation. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the factors that condition these perceptions. In this study, we draw on the risk perception and human-AI interaction literature to examine how explicit (i.e., deliberate) and implicit (i.e., automatic) comparative trust associations with AI versus physicians, and knowledge about AI, relate to likelihood perceptions of risks and benefits of AI in healthcare and preferences for the integration of AI in healthcare. We use survey data (N = 378) to specify a path model. Results reveal that the path for implicit comparative trust associations on relative preferences for AI over physicians is only significant through risk, but not through benefit perceptions. This finding is reversed for AI knowledge. Explicit comparative trust associations relate to AI preference through risk and benefit perceptions. These findings indicate that risk perceptions of AI in healthcare might be driven more strongly by affect-laden factors than benefit perceptions, which in turn might depend more on reflective cognition. Implications of our findings and directions for future research are discussed considering the conceptualization of trust as heuristic and dual-process theories of judgment and decision-making. Regarding the design and implementation of AI-based healthcare technologies, our findings suggest that a holistic integration of public viewpoints is warranted.

Testing the moderative role of automatic-reflective affect divergence in predicting physical activity

Dual process theories postulate that behaviour is the product of two distinct cognitive systems, the automatic and reflective, and that congruence/divergence between the two types of cognitions can influence the predictive strength of either system on behaviour. However, the congruence/divergence hypothesis has yet to experience strong empirical support. The aim of this study was to test a novel dual process model to determine the moderating effect of affect divergence on the relationship between automatic affective evaluations-affective judgements, and physical activity. A sample of 315 university students recruited from an undergraduate research pool completed the Affective Misattribution Procedure and Affective Exercise Experiences Questionnaire, followed by a measure of physical activity behaviour one week later. A path analysis revealed a significant moderation effect such that the predictive strength of affective judgements was stronger when participants' automatic affective evaluations and affective judgements were congruent. Findings support current dual process theory and contributes to calls for more interventions, such as evaluative conditioning that target automatic processes alongside consciously held beliefs.

Mentalizing in and out of awareness: A meta-analytic review of implicit and explicit mentalizing

BACKGROUND

Mentalizing, making sense of mental states, is hypothesized to have a central role in self-organization and social learning. Findings support this notion, but the extent of the association between mentalizing and various correlates has not been meta-analyzed. Furthermore, mentalizing presumably occurs with (explicit) and without (implicit) awareness but few studies have attempted to disentangle these aspects. We conducted a meta-analysis of implicit and explicit mentalizing in relation to the domains of attachment security, personality, affect, psychopathology, and functioning.

METHODS

We searched for studies of adult mentalizing in PsycINFO and in related reviews. Overall, 511 studies (N = 78,733) met criteria and were analyzed using multi-level meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Implicit (r = 0.19-0.29) and explicit (r = 0.26-0.40) mentalizing were moderately correlated with psychopathology, functioning, personality, affect, and attachment security. The correlations of implicit mentalizing were stronger with more objectively measured correlates (b = 0.02, p < .001) while the correlations of explicit mentalizing were not (b = -0.07, p = .21).

CONCLUSIONS

Mentalizing is associated with better intra- and interpersonal functioning. Implicit mentalizing is more strongly associated with objectively measured correlates. These findings underscore the importance of an integrative approach considering both implicit and explicit mentalizing.

Individual Differences in Implicit Bias Can Be Measured Reliably by Administering the Same Implicit Association Test Multiple Times

The use of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) as a measure of individual differences is stymied by insufficient test-retest reliability for assessing trait-level constructs. We assess the degree to which the IAT measures individual differences and test a method to improve its validity as a "trait" measure: aggregating across IATs. Across three studies, participants (total n = 960) completed multiple IATs in the same session or across multiple sessions. Using latent-variable models, we found that half of the variance in IAT scores reflects individual differences. Aggregating across multiple IATs approximately doubled the variance explained with explicit measures compared with a single IAT D-score. These findings show that IAT scores contain considerable noise and that a single IAT is inadequate to estimate trait bias. However, aggregation across multiple administrations can correct this and better estimate individual differences in implicit attitudes.

Creating Implicit Measure Stimulus Sets Using a Multi-Step Piloting Method

The effect of arbitrary stimulus selection is a persistent concern when employing implicit measures. The current study tests a data-driven multi-step procedure to create stimulus items using a combination of free-recall and survey data. Six sets of stimulus items were created, representing healthy food and high sugar items in children, adolescents, and adults. Selected items were highly representative of the target concepts, in frequent use, and of near equal length. Tests of the piloted items in two samples showed slightly higher implicit measure-behavior relations compared to a previously used measure, providing preliminary support for the value in empirically based stimulus selection. Further, the items reported as being the most associated with their target concepts differed notably from what one may expect from the guidelines or population consumption patterns, highlighting the importance of informed stimulus selection.

An EMG-based approach toward the assessment of implicit self-esteem

An important aspect of implicit self-esteem is the positivity of peoples spontaneous affective reactions to the self. In this study, we developed and validated a physiology-based measure that captures such positive reactions. We presented participants (N = 256) self-related stimuli (i.e., pictures of themselves) and used electromyography (EMG) to record changes in facial muscular activity that are indicative of subtle smiling. EMG responses were on average positive, which matches with previous research findings on positively biased self-evaluations. Individual differences in EMG responses were moderately reliable and positively associated with explicit self-esteem and self- and peer-rated likability (but not consistently with measures of well-being and agentic behavior). The relations between the EMG responses and likability indicators largely held when we controlled for explicit self-esteem, indicating that the novel measure possessed incremental validity over self-reports. The results thus indicated that the EMG approach might be fruitful for the assessment of implicit self-esteem.

Endorsement and embodiment of cautiousness-related age stereotypes

Endorsement of implicit age stereotypes was assessed with the propositional evaluation paradigm (PEP) in a high-powered, preregistered study, comprising samples of young (n = 89) and older (n = 125) adults. To investigate whether implicit age stereotypes shape the behavior via self-stereotyping ("embodiment"), we examined whether implicit endorsement of the belief of older (young) people being cautious (reckless) predicts older (young) individuals' spontaneous behavior in a speeded response time task. In both age groups, we found significant implicit endorsement effects of age stereotypical beliefs. However, implicit endorsement effects of the cautiousness-related age stereotypes were unrelated to our indicators of spontaneous cautious/reckless behavior in the speeded RT task (as assessed with the parameter a of a diffusion model analysis) for both age groups. The same pattern of results (endorsement of age stereotypic beliefs but no relation with behavioral indicators) was found for explicit measures of age stereotypes. Replicating previous findings, implicit and explicit measures of cautiousness-related age stereotypes were uncorrelated. In sum, our findings provide evidence for the implicit and explicit endorsement of cautiousness-related stereotypical beliefs about old and young people; individual differences in belief endorsement, however, did not predict differences in spontaneous cautiousness-related behavior in a speeded RT task.

Filling the gap between implicit associations and behavior: A linear mixed-effects Rasch analysis of the Implicit Association Test

The measure obtained from the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464) is often used to predict people’s behaviors. However, it has shown poor predictive ability potentially because of its typical scoring method (the D score), which is affected by the across-trial variability in the IAT data and might provide biased estimates of the construct. Linear Mixed-Effects Models (LMMs) can address this issue while providing a Rasch-like parametrization of accuracy and time responses. In this study, the predictive abilities of D scores and LMM estimates were compared. The LMMs estimates showed better predictive ability than the D score, and allowed for in-depth analyses at the stimulus level that helped in reducing the across-trial variability. Implications of the results and limitations of the study are discussed.

Adolescents’ implicit attitudes towards people with immigrant background: Differences and correlates

People with an immigrant background can be affected by stereotypes and discrimination. As adolescence is an important developmental stage, this study investigated whether adolescents hold (negative) implicit attitudes towards people with Turkish immigrant background and whether adolescents differ in the extent of attitudes. Additionally, the relevance of perceived discrimination, identification with culture of residence, motivation to act without predjudice, and quality and quantity of contact to people with Turkish immigrant background for the extent of implicit attitudes was analysed. Analyses are based on 244 adolescents (60.7% female, 1.6% diverse; 13.1% with Turkish immigrant background, 16.8% with immigrant background other than Turkish) who participated in an online study. An implicit association test revealed that negative implicit attitudes towards people with a Turkish immigrant background were present among adolescents. Unlike adolescents with a Turkish immigrant background, adolescents without immigrant background and with immigrant background other than Turkish hold negative implicit attitudes on average. For the total sample, it was found that low perceived discrimination was related to negative implicit attitudes. The results are discussed with respect to substantive and methodological aspects. Implications for research and practice are derived.

Unconscious associations between stressor type and ability to cope: An experimental approach using ancient and modern sources of stress

Objectives

Work has emerged that suggests it is salient and feasible to include a chronological approach to the taxonomy of stress. The ability to make an explicit distinction between ancient stressors (AS) and modern stressors (MS) has been reported in young and older adults; AS have been associated with greater ability to cope and MS with poorer health outcomes. Whether these explicit distinctions exist at an implicit, unconscious level, has yet to be determined.

Design

A quantitative design employed a computer‐based Implicit Association Test (IAT) to examine implicit associations between AS/MS and coping appraisal.

Methods

One hundred adults (75 females) aged 18–58 years (M = 28.27 years, SD = 10.02) completed the AS/MS IAT, to compare reaction time (RT) and accuracy between consistent pairs (AS/ability to cope; MS/inability to cope) and inconsistent pair responses (AS/inability to cope; MS/ability to cope); followed by an explicit self‐report questionnaire.

Results

Repeated measures ANCOVAs, controlling for sex and age, revealed significant main effects of faster RT and higher accuracy in responses for consistent than inconsistent pairs. Adult participants made implicit associations indicating an unconscious AS and MS distinction. Using the D algorithm, a univariate ANCOVA and independent t‐tests found that males, compared to females, showed a stronger implicit preference for consistent than inconsistent pairs.

Conclusions

Findings suggest an implicit association between ancient and modern stressors and perceived coping ability. Utilizing a chronological taxonomy for understanding evolutionary origins that drive individual’s responses to stress has implications for developing effective coping strategies to improve health outcomes.

Meet your meat: The effect of imagined intergroup contact on wanting and liking of meat

Increased global meat consumption has negative impacts on animal welfare, the environment, as well as health. The current study is the first to investigate whether imagined intergroup contact with a farmed animal changes wanting and liking of beef and reduces willingness to consume meat. Collegians [N = 100, 67% female] imagined having a positive experience with either a calf (n = 36), kitten (n = 33), or child (n = 31). Following the imagined interaction, they completed the Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire to measure implicit and explicit wanting and explicit liking of beef and other types of meat relative to other food categories. Participants also indicated their willingness to reduce meat consumption. Results revealed that there were no significant differences between groups in explicit wanting or liking of beef or meat, nor in willingness to reduce future meat consumption. Nevertheless, compared to the kitten and child conditions, participants who imagined interacting with a calf experienced lower levels of implicit wanting and relative preference for beef and other meat products. Our findings suggest that imagined intergroup contact may be an effective manipulation to reduce meat consumption as a part of a broader intervention program.

Review of factors affecting consumer acceptance of cultured meat

Concerns about animal welfare and sustainable meat production are growing among consumers. The awareness of carbon emissions linked to livestock and ethical concerns have triggered interest in more sustainable meat alternatives, among which cultured meat (also known as laboratory grown meat) is a recent entry. Like any new food, the ultimate success of cultured meat depends on consumer acceptance. This study analyses the peer-reviewed literature on consumer attitudes towards cultured meat to synthesize the existing evidence and identify priorities for future research. A systematic literature review was undertaken using the Web of Science, Science Direct and Scopus databases over 2008-2020, resulting in a final number of 43 articles meeting our selection criteria. The most important factors influencing consumer acceptance/rejection of cultured meat include public awareness, perceived naturalness, and food-related risk perception. Ethical and environmental concerns prompted consumers to be willing to pay a premium price for purchasing meat substitutes, but not necessarily cultured meat. Also, food neophobia and uncertainties about safety and health seem to be important barriers to uptake of this technology. Availability of other alternatives such as plant-based meat substitutes and product features, such as price and sensory appeal, are considered determinants of consumer reception of this technology. The effect of demographic factors is mixed. More research on the interrelationships between livestock production, food security, and alternative meat products is recommended.

The Influence of Implicit Math Anxiety on Math Achievement

Previous work has noted that math anxiety may have a profound effect on math performance; however extant research has relied on measures that explicitly assess math anxiety. This study examined the effects of implicit math anxiety on the performance of a math achievement task. We hypothesized that combined measure of implicit anxiety and explicit anxiety would better predict math achievement than measures of explicit math anxiety alone. In addition, we hypothesized that an individuals' measured implicit anxiety and measured explicit anxiety would share only a modest correlation. To test these hypotheses, 175 participants completed measures of explicit anxiety, an implicit associations test designed to measure implicit anxiety, and a measure of math achievement. As expected, math achievement was better predicted when implicit anxiety was combined with explicit anxiety. Furthermore, scores on the implicit and explicit anxiety measures were not significantly correlated. These results suggest that implicit and explicit math anxiety are two distinct constructs, thus traditional methods for helping students deal with math anxiety may not be entirely successful if the implicit component is ignored.

Medication Adherence: Expanding the Conceptual Framework

Interventions targeting traditional barriers to antihypertensive medication adherence have been developed and evaluated, with evidence of modest improvements in adherence. Translation of these interventions into population-level improvements in adherence and clinical outcomes among older adults remains suboptimal. From the Cohort Study of Medication Adherence among Older adults (CoSMO), we evaluated traditional barriers to antihypertensive medication adherence among older adults with established hypertension (N = 1,544; mean age = 76.2 years, 59.5% women, 27.9% Black, 24.1% and 38.9% low adherence by proportion of days covered (i.e., PDC <0.80) and the 4-item Krousel-Wood Medication Adherence Scale (i.e., K-Wood-MAS-4 ≥1), respectively), finding that they explained 6.4% and 14.8% of variance in pharmacy refill and self-reported adherence, respectively. Persistent low adherence rates, coupled with low explanatory power of traditional barriers, suggest that other factors warrant attention. Prior research has investigated explicit attitudes toward medications as a driver of adherence; the roles of implicit attitudes and time preferences (e.g., immediate vs. delayed gratification) as mechanisms underlying adherence behavior are emerging. Similarly, while associations of individual-level social determinants of health (SDOH) and medication adherence are well reported, there is growing evidence about structural SDOH and specific pathways of effect. Building on published conceptual models and recent evidence, we propose an expanded conceptual framework that incorporates implicit attitudes, time preferences, and structural SDOH, as emerging determinants that may explain additional variation in objectively and subjectively measured adherence. This model provides guidance for design, implementation, and assessment of interventions targeting sustained improvement in implementation medication adherence and clinical outcomes among older women and men with hypertension.

Patient, family, and visitor hand hygiene knowledge, attitudes, and practices at pediatric and maternity hospitals: A descriptive study

BACKGROUND

Patient, family, and visitor hand hygiene can prevent health care-associated infections, but little is known about their hand hygiene knowledge, attitudes, and practices. We aimed to assess patient, family, and visitor hand hygiene knowledge, attitudes, and practices at a pediatric and maternity hospital in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

METHODS

Surveys based on the Theoretical Domains Framework were distributed to patients, families, and visitors to provide cross-sectional qualitative and quantitative data. This was supplemented with covert observations by trained medical students to determine patient, family, and visitor hand hygiene rates.

RESULTS

Of 348 survey respondents, there was a clear preference for hand washing with soap and water over use of alcohol-based hand rub. Beliefs about consequences were the main driver for hand hygiene. Self-reported hand hygiene rates were higher than observed rates. The overall hand hygiene rate was observed to be 10.3% (72/701), with soap and water used for 75% of hand hygiene events.

CONCLUSION

There are misconceptions regarding hand hygiene practices and low hand hygiene rates among patients, families, and visitors. Development of interventions to improve hand hygiene should focus on correcting misconceptions and emphasizing consequences of failing to perform hand hygiene in the health care setting.

Measures of explicit and implicit in motor learning: what we know and what we don't

Adaptation tasks are a key tool in characterizing the contribution of explicit and implicit processes to sensorimotor learning. However, different assumptions and ideas underlie methods used to measure these processes, leading to inconsistencies between studies. For instance, it is still unclear explicit and implicit combine additively. Cognitive studies of explicit and implicit processes show how non-additivity and bias in measurement can distort results. We argue that to understand explicit and implicit processes in visuomotor adaptation, we need a stronger characterization of the phenomenology and a richer set of models to test it on.

Implizite Einstellungen von Kindern im Grundschulalter gegenüber Menschen mit Migrationshintergrund

Zusammenfassung. Erwachsene und Jugendliche ohne Migrationshintergrund (MIG) schreiben Personen mit türkischem MIG, der größten Migrationsgruppe in Deutschland, geringere Kompetenzen und Leistungen zu. Inwiefern bereits bei Kindern solche (negativen) impliziten Einstellungen gegenüber Menschen mit türkischem MIG vorliegen, ist bislang ungeklärt und wurde daher in dieser Studie überprüft. Auch wurde analysiert, ob sich Grundschulkinder mit türkischem und ohne MIG in ihren Einstellungen unterscheiden. Zudem wurde geprüft, ob die soziale Integration, die wahrgenommene Diskriminierung sowie die Identifikation mit der Aufnahme- und Herkunftskultur mit impliziten Einstellungen in Zusammenhang standen. Datengrundlage bildeten Angaben von 240 Viertklässlerinnen und -klässlern (44.6% weiblich, 18.3% mit türkischem MIG). Zur Messung impliziter Einstellungen bearbeiteten die Kinder einen Impliziten Assoziationstest. Des Weiteren beantworteten sie Fragen zu den interessierenden Variablen. Bei den Grundschulkindern lagen negative implizite Einstellungen vor ( d = 0.21). Konkret verfügten Kinder ohne MIG im Gegensatz zu Kindern mit türkischem MIG im Mittel über negative implizite Einstellungen ( d = 0.39). Für die Gesamtstichprobe zeigte sich, dass eine stärkere Identifikation mit Deutschland (ß = .14), der Aufnahmekultur, in Zusammenhang mit negativen impliziten Einstellungen stand ( R2 = .03). Die Ergebnisse werden sowohl inhaltlich als auch hinsichtlich methodischer Gesichtspunkte diskutiert. Implikationen für Forschung und Praxis werden vorgestellt.

Effects of pairing health warning labels with energy-dense snack foods on food choice and attitudes: Online experimental study

BACKGROUND

There is limited evidence concerning the potential effectiveness of health warning labels (HWLs) using images and text to depict possible negative health consequences of consumption, for reducing selection of energy-dense snack foods. Furthermore, the underlying mechanisms have received little attention; particularly effects on implicit attitudes, which previous work has shown may mediate the effect of aversive images on food choice.

AIM

To assess the impact of pairing image- and text-based HWLs with energy-dense snack foods on a) the selection of, and b) implicit and explicit attitudes towards, those foods.

METHODS

Online experimental study with a representative UK sample (n = 1185), using a 2(Image/No Image) x 2(Text/No Text) factorial between-subjects design. Participants were randomised to one of four study arms, viewing snack food images paired with either: image-only HWLs, text-only HWLs, image-and-text HWLs, or no HWLs (control). HWLs concerned various negative health consequences of excess energy intake, such as heart disease and type 2 diabetes. The primary outcome was hypothetical food choice (energy-dense snack foods versus fruit), assessed post-intervention. Secondary outcomes were implicit and explicit attitudes.

RESULTS

Neither food choice nor explicit attitudes were changed significantly by any type of HWL. Implicit attitudes towards energy-dense snack foods were more negative after exposure to text-only or image-and-text HWLs. Both implicit and explicit attitudes predicted unique variance in food choice.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that short-term repeated exposure to HWLs paired with energy-dense snack foods may not consistently alter food choices, but can change implicit attitudes associated with food choices. Further laboratory and field studies are needed to more definitively assess the impact of HWLs on food selection and consumption in applied contexts and over time, as well as delineate underlying mechanisms.

Evidence That Habit Moderates the Implicit Belief-Behavior Relationship in Health Behaviors

BACKGROUND

Theory suggests that implicit beliefs are more likely to be associated with spontaneous, impulsive health behaviors (e.g., smoking, snacking), while controlled, consciously accessible beliefs are more likely to be associated with behaviors that require deliberation and reasoned decision-making (e.g., physical activity, healthy food selection). Consistent with these predictions, we proposed that as behaviors become habitual, they require less deliberation to enact and are thus more likely to be controlled by non-conscious processes, as indicated by stronger associations with implicit beliefs. The present study tested the moderating effect of habit on the effects of implicit beliefs on two health behaviors.

METHOD

Two samples of university students completed measures of attitude, habit, and implicit beliefs for free-sugar intake (sample 1) and heavy episodic drinking (sample 2) at an initial time point, with follow-up behavioral measures taken at 2 and 4 weeks later, respectively.

RESULTS

Path analyses indicated that attitude and habit predicted behavior in both samples, and habit moderated the implicit belief-behavior relationship in both samples. The effect of implicit beliefs on behavior was larger among participants reporting strong habits. Implicit beliefs did not moderate the effect of explicit attitudes on behavior.

CONCLUSION

Findings provide preliminary evidence that experiencing health behaviors as habitual is associated with a stronger implicit beliefs-health behavior relationship.

Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Antihypertensive Medications Explain Variation in Pharmacy Refill and Self-Reported Adherence Beyond Traditional Risk Factors: Potential Novel Mechanism Underlying Adherence

Background In pursuit of novel mechanisms underlying persistent low medication adherence rates, we assessed contributions of implicit and explicit attitudes, beyond traditional risk factors, in explaining variation in objective and subjective antihypertensive medication adherence. Methods and Results Implicit and explicit attitudes were assessed using the difference scores from the computer-based Single Category Implicit Association Test and the Necessity and Concerns subscales of the Beliefs about Medicines Questionnaire, respectively. Antihypertensive medication adherence was measured using pharmacy refill proportion of days covered (PDC: mean PDC, low PDC <0.8) and the self-report 4-item Krousel-Wood Medication Adherence Scale (K-Wood-MAS-4: mean K-Wood-MAS-4, low adherence via K-Wood-MAS-4 ≥1). Hierarchical logistic and linear regression models controlled for traditional risk factors including social determinants of health, explicit, and implicit attitudes in a stepwise fashion. Community-dwelling insured participants (n=85: 44.7% female; 20.0% Black; mean age, 62.3 years; 43.5% low PDC, and 31.8% low adherence via K-Wood-MAS-4) had mean (SD) explicit and implicit attitude scores of 7.188 (5.683) and 0.035 (0.334), respectively. Low PDC was inversely associated with more positive explicit (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.87; 95% CI, 0.78-0.98; P=0.022) and implicit (aOR, 0.12; 95% CI, 0.02-0.80; P=0.029) attitudes, which accounted for an additional 8.6% (P=0.016) and 6.5% (P=0.029) of variation in low PDC, respectively. Lower mean K-Wood-MAS-4 scores (better adherence) were associated only with more positive explicit attitudes (adjusted β, -0.04; 95% CI, -0.07 to -0.01; P=0.026); explicit attitudes explained an additional 5.6% (P=0.023) of K-Wood-MAS-4 variance. Conclusions Implicit and explicit attitudes explained significantly more variation in medication adherence beyond traditional risk factors, including social determinants of health, and should be explored as potential mechanisms underlying adherence behavior.

Safety culture transformation-The impact of training on explicit and implicit safety attitudes

The present paper investigates the changeability of safety culture elements such as explicit and implicit safety attitudes by training. Therefore, three studies with different time frames, training durations, and settings will be presented. In the first study, the short-term attitude change of students from an international environmental sciences study program was measured after safety training in a chemical laboratory. In the second study, the medium-term attitude change was assessed after a Crew Resource Management training for German production workers in the automotive industry. In the third study, the long-term attitude changes were measured after safety ethics training in a sample of German occupational psychology and business students. Different self-report measures were used to evaluate the training effectiveness of explicit safety attitudes. The change of implicit safety attitudes was assessed by Implicit Association Tests. The results of all three studies revealed a significant training effect on the explicit safety attitudes, but not on the implicit ones. Besides the training effect on the explicit attitudes, there was no effect of time frame (short-, medium-, long-term), training duration (2 h, 2 days, 12 weeks), and setting (chemical laboratory, automotive industry, safety ethics study program) on the attitude change. Based on the results, conceptual, methodological, and practical implications for training effectiveness and safety culture transformation are discussed.

Studying Implicit Attitudes Towards Smoking: Event-Related Potentials in the Go/NoGo Association Task

Cigarette smoking and other addictive behaviors are among the main preventable risk factors for several severe and potentially fatal diseases. It has been argued that addictive behavior is controlled by an automatic-implicit cognitive system and by a reflective-explicit cognitive system, that operate in parallel to jointly drive human behavior. The present study addresses the formation of implicit attitudes towards smoking in both smokers and non-smokers, using a Go/NoGo association task (GNAT), and behavioral and electroencephalographic (EEG) measures. The GNAT assesses, via quantifying participants’ reaction times, the strength of association between a target category and either pole of an evaluative dimension (positive or negative). EEG analysis is performed to determine the temporal course of the event-related potential (ERP) components underlying Go/NoGo decisions and implicit attitude formation. Both smokers and non-smokers showed prolonged reaction times to smoking-related pictures when the pictures were coupled with positive evaluative words (“incongruent condition”). This indicates negative implicit attitudes towards smoking in both groups alike at the time point of the behavioral response (600–700 ms post-stimulus). However, only the non-smokers, not the smokers, were found to show a delay of the N200 component in the incongruent condition. This is interpreted as reflecting ambivalent or even positive implicit attitudes towards smoking in the smoker group at the time point of the N200 (300–400 ms post-stimulus). Our study thus provides evidence for the hypothesis that implicit attitudes are subject to changes within several hundred milliseconds after stimulus presentation, and can be altered in the course of their formation.

The Implicit Component of Moral Disengagement: Applying the Relational Responding Task to Investigate Its Relationship With Cheating Behavior

This article aims to conceptualize, for the first time, an implicit form of moral disengagement and investigate its role in relation to cheating behavior. In line with the implicit social-cognition models, we argue that the implicit moral disengagement would represent an unintentional, automatic, and less accessible form of the mechanisms bypassing the moral self-regulatory system. We anticipate that in situations implying on-the-spot decisions and where individuals might suffer no consequences for the misconduct, the implicit moral disengagement would predict the actual behavior while the explicit moral disengagement would predict self-reported conduct. The results of three empirical studies provide support for the theorization of an implicit moral disengagement and its assessment through a newly developed implicit measurement procedure using the relational responding task. Results of the structural equation models, including both implicit and explicit moral disengagement, demonstrated that only the implicit one was associated with the actual misconduct.

Assessing Implicit Cognitive Motivation: Developing and Testing An Implicit Association Test to Measure Need for Cognition

The personality trait need for cognition (NFC) refers to individual differences in cognitive motivation and has proven to be an extraordinarily useful descriptor and predictor in the context of information processing. So far, NFC has been assessed via self–report. More recent research, however, accentuates the value of indirect measures, as they tap into implicit aspects of the personality self–concept and are assumed to provide incremental validity especially in predicting automatic aspects of behaviour. Therefore, in the present research, different NFC–Implicit Association Tests (IATs) were developed and pretested for psychometric properties. The final version was systematically tested for its predictive validity over and above the direct NFC measure based on a latent variable approach. The results provide evidence for a double dissociation model and suggest the NFC–IAT to exert its predictive value regarding the more spontaneous aspects of NFC–related behaviour, whereas the NFC scale was rather predictive for the more reflective aspects of behaviour. Moreover, the present research contributes to the understanding of construct–unrelated variance in personality IATs and offers valuable information for test development in the realm of personality IATs. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Emotional Eating Moderates the Relationship between Implicit Measures of Attitudes and Chocolate Consumption

Emotional eaters tend to eat more when emotionally aroused and their food–related actions are associated with lack of control. Two studies tested the hypothesis that implicit measures of attitudes would be more strongly associated with the dietary behaviour of emotional eaters. In both Study 1 ( N = 32) and Study 2 ( N = 101), participants completed the DEBQ sub–scale of emotional eating and implicit measures of attitude, explicit attitude and behaviour measures concerning chocolate consumption. In both studies, high emotional eaters were more likely than low emotional eaters to eat in line with their implicit measures of attitudes. The relationship between implicit measures of attitudes and food intake varies as a function of emotional eating style. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The moderator role of intuitive versus deliberative decision making for the predictive validity of implicit and explicit measures

The Preference for Intuition and Deliberation (PID) scale aims at capturing stable general individual differences in terms of intuitive versus deliberative preferences in decision making. A study examined the psychometric properties of the English version of the PID, investigated whether the two subscales moderate the validity of implicit and explicit measures for incidental and deliberative evaluations and behaviours concerning fizzy soft drinks, and compared the predictive validity of two new implicit measures (ST‐IAT and ID‐EAST) and an explicit measure. Results showed an asymmetric weak double dissociation pattern only for behaviours. Additionally, a moderation effect suggested that the ST‐IAT better predicted sensory evaluation for people high in intuition and explicit attitudes better predicted benefit evaluation for people high in deliberation. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The gatekeeper: individual differences are key in the chain from perception to behaviour

A basic assumption in mainstream social cognition is that the path from perception to behaviour is often automatic and direct, as supported for example by several experimental studies showing that priming can lead directly to a congruent behaviour without any need of conscious awareness of the process. However, we argue that the priming of a goal or an object activates individual differences in automatic evaluations at the associative level that in turn are the key predictors of action (gatekeeper model). A study (n = 90) on the American stereotype is presented to support the model. The results show that individual differences of the American stereotype as assessed with the IAT predicts a relevant action (essay evaluation) but only under condition of priming. Broader implications for predictive validity of implicit measures are also discussed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A Systematic Review Of Implicit Attitudes And Their Neural Correlates In Eating Behaviour

An increasing number of studies suggests that implicit attitudes toward food and body shape predict eating behaviour and characterize patients with eating disorders (EDs). However, literature has not been previously analysed, thus differences between patients with EDs and healthy controls and the level of automaticity of the processes involved in implicit attitudes are still matters of debate. The present systematic review aimed to synthetize current evidence from papers investigating implicit attitudes towards food and body in healthy and EDs populations. PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), PsycINFO, Web of Science and Scopus were systematically screened and 183 studies using different indirect paradigms were included in the qualitative analysis. The majority of studies reported negative attitudes towards overweight/obese body images in healthy and EDs samples and weight bias as a diffuse stereotypical evaluation. Implicit food attitudes are consistently reported as valid predictors of eating behaviour. Few studies on the neurobiological correlates showed neurostimulation effects on implicit attitudes, but the automaticity at brain level of implicit evaluations remains an open area of research. In conclusion, implicit attitudes are relevant measures of eating behaviour in healthy and clinical settings, although evidence about their neural correlates is limited.

Preference for Intuition and Deliberation in Eating Decision-making: Scale validation and associations with eating behaviour and health

OBJECTIVES

Two distinct lines of research separately regard either deliberately regulated eating or intuitive eating as most beneficial for health. The present research aims to integrate these seemingly contradictory findings by investigating the relationships between Preference for Intuition and Deliberation in Eating Decision-making (E-PID) and subjective and objective health-related parameters using a newly developed scale.

DESIGN

Study 1: online survey; Study 2: cross-sectional community cohort sample.

METHODS

Study 1 (N = 699) assessed E-PID, intuitive, restrained, and external eating, motivation to eat healthily, domain-unspecific Preference for Intuition and Deliberation, and general self-control. Study 2 (N = 1,212) assessed E-PID, positive eating, intention to eat healthily, eating behaviour, and objective health risk factors (BMI, waist circumference, blood pressure, fasting serum glucose, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides).

RESULTS

Study 1 confirmed a two-factor structure and provided evidence for construct validity: A higher preference for intuition was positively related to intuitive eating, while a higher preference for deliberation was associated with increased dietary restraint. In Study 2, preference for deliberation was positively related to the intention to eat healthy, healthy eating behaviour, and health parameters. Preference for intuition was generally unrelated to health parameters, although a higher preference for intuition was related to a somewhat unhealthier eating pattern.

CONCLUSIONS

Preference for intuition and deliberation when making food choices are two distinct decision-making styles: The former focuses on internal cues, while the latter focuses on cognitive regulation of food intake. Despite these differences, neither decision-making style was shown to be detrimental.

Preliminary development of an implicit association test to measure body dissatisfaction and predict disordered eating behaviors

We conducted a preliminary test of a novel implicit association test for body dissatisfaction (BD-IAT). We predicted that BD-IAT would correlate with self-reported BD and predict later eating disorder (ED) attitudes. Female undergraduates (N = 145) self-reported BD and ED attitudes. In the BD-IAT, participants sorted words related to "satisfaction" and "dissatisfaction" to opposite sides of a computer screen. Participants categorized pictures of themselves to the side of the screen with the word "Me," which appeared with the "satisfied" or "dissatisfied" category in separate blocks. The BD-IAT measured the strength of the association between a participant's own body and dissatisfaction. The BD-IAT correlated positively with the EDI-BD (r = 0.21, p < 0.05), supporting its convergent validity. The BD-IAT predicted ED attitudes at one-week follow-up, controlling for explicit BD and baseline ED (b = 0.58, SE = 0.23, t = 2.57, p = .01); IAT scores uniquely accounted for 4.7 % of the variance in ED at one-week follow-up. These results provide preliminary evidence for the BD-IAT as an implicit measure of BD and suggest that it may predict future ED attitudes above and beyond explicit BD. Directions for future work aimed at continued development of this task are discussed.

Effects of a leaflet on breast cancer screening knowledge, explicit attitudes, and implicit associations

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effect of an information leaflet on knowledge, explicit attitudes, implicit associations, and attendance for breast cancer screening.

METHODS

Dutch women (aged 49-75 years) were approached three months before their breast cancer screening invitation. After providing informed consent, participants were randomised to receiving the information leaflet (intervention condition) or not (control condition). Screening knowledge, explicit attitudes, and implicit associations were assessed through web-based questionnaires, at baseline and two weeks later. Actual screening attendance data were collected.

RESULTS

In total, 988 women completed both questionnaires. Participants in the leaflet condition scored higher on knowledge (9.9 versus 9.6, p < 0.001, scale 0-11), and more often had positive explicit attitudes (97 % versus 95 %, p = 0.03), than those in the control condition. This contrast was bigger among first-time invitees. Implicit associations were not correlated with explicit attitudes or attendance. Explicit attitudes were moderately correlated with attendance (r=.30, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The information leaflet led to more knowledge and more positive explicit attitudes. Implicit associations towards breast cancer screening were not correlated with attendance.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Encouragement to learn about the screening programme can increase levels of knowledge of invitees and therefore support their decision-making about participation. This might be especially relevant for first-time invitees.

Predicting limiting 'free sugar' consumption using an integrated model of health behavior

Excess intake of 'free sugars' is a key predictor of chronic disease, obesity, and dental ill health. Given the importance of determining modifiable predictors of free sugar-related dietary behaviors, we applied the integrated behavior change model to predict free sugar limiting behaviors. The model includes constructs representing 'reasoned' or deliberative processes that lead to action (e.g., social cognition constructs, intentions), and constructs representing 'non-conscious' or implicit processes (e.g., implicit attitudes, behavioral automaticity) as predictors of behavior. Undergraduate students (N = 205) completed measures of autonomous and controlled motivation, the theory of planned behavior (TPB) measures of explicit attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and intentions, past behavior, implicit attitude, and behavioral automaticity at an initial point in time, and free sugar limiting behavior and behavioral automaticity two weeks later. A Bayesian structural equation model indicated that explicit attitude, subjective norms, and PBC predicted behavior via intention. Autonomous motivation predicted behavior indirectly through all TPB variables, while controlled motivation predicted behavior only via subjective norms. Implicit attitudes and behavioral automaticity predicted behavior directly and independently. Past behavior predicted behavior directly and indirectly through behavioral automaticity and intentions, but not implicit attitudes. Current findings suggest pervasive effects of constructs representing both reasoned and non-conscious processes and signpost potential targets for behavioral interventions aimed at minimizing free sugar consumption.

Effect of metabolic state on implicit and explicit responses to food in young healthy females

Recent neuroscience research has delineated key psychological components of reward: wanting, liking and learning. Each component is further divided into explicit and implicit processes. While explicit processes are consciously experienced, implicit processes are not always directly accessible to conscious inspection. In the present study, we investigated the effect of metabolic state on implicit and explicit responses and their relationship in food context, especially when foods and visually matched non-food items are contrasted, and when foods in a sole food context but differing in energy content (high-energy - low-energy) or taste (sweet - savoury) were contrasted. Sixty healthy non-obese females participated in the study in fasted and fed states. Three Implicit Association Tests were used to assess implicit associations. Explicit liking and wanting ratings were assessed by visual analogue scales. In the implicit food-non-food context, food was preferred over non-food items both in fasted and fed states, though the strength of implicit associations declined significantly from fasted to fed state. However, the direction or strength of implicit associations was not significantly different between the metabolic states when comparing concepts within food context only, differing in energy content or taste. Instead, explicit responses reflected the change in the metabolic state in a manner consistent with alliesthesia and sensory-specific satiety. The results of the present study suggest that implicit associations are relatively resistant to acute change in the metabolic condition compared to explicit ratings, which shift more readily according to the fasted-fed continuum. The shift in the prevailing metabolic state was, however, reflected in the strength of implicit responses towards food in relation to non-food items, yet in the sole food contexts implicit associations were comparable between the fasted and fed states.

Mindfulness is not associated with dissonant attitudes but enhances the ability to cope with them

Background

Explicit and implicit attitudes have been studied extensively, but there is less attention to reducing dissonance between them. This is relevant because this dissonance (IED) results in distress and has inconsistent effects on behavior, e.g. less physical activity but more smoking. Mindfulness decreases dissonance between self-related explicit and implicit constructs. This study investigates if, and which, specific mindfulness subskills are associated with decreased dissonance between explicit and implicit attitudes, and whether mindfulness subskills moderate the relationship between IED and intention/behavior.

Method

At baseline and one and three months thereafter, participants’ (N = 1476) explicit attitudes, implicit attitudes, red meat consumption (RMC), intention to reduce RMC as well as levels of trait mindfulness were assessed.

Results

Mindfulness subskills were not associated with decreased IED. IED was associated with lower RMC and a higher intention to reduce RMC. The mindfulness subskill acceptance buffered the effect of IED on intention, seemingly offering a skill to deal with dissonant attitudes, which was unidentified until now.

Conclusion

The mindfulness subskill accepting without judgment functions as a way to deal with dissonance. Future research should use this novel finding and investigate whether mindfulness can be used as a buffer in contexts where dissonance results in maladaptive behaviors.

Developing the implicit association test to uncover hidden preferences for sustainable drainage systems

Understanding public perceptions of Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) is critical for addressing barriers to their implementation. Perceptions are typically evaluated using explicit measures (e.g. questionnaires) that are subject to biases and may not fully capture attitudes towards SuDS. A novel image-based application of the Implicit Association Test is developed to investigate unconscious perceptions of SuDS in public greenspace and combined with explicit tests to evaluate perceptions of greenspace with and without SuDS, focusing on a sample population in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Greenspace with or without SuDS is perceived positively by the sample population. Overall, respondents implicitly and explicitly prefer greenspace without SuDS and perceive greenspace without SuDS as more attractive, tidier and safer. The wide distribution of scores for SuDS, nonetheless, suggests a range of opinions and illustrates the complex nature of preferences for the use of greenspace. That the strongly negative explicit scores were not reflected in the implicit tests may suggest that explicit attitudes towards tidiness and safety may not be deep-rooted and are subject to social bias. Combined explicit and implicit tests may help us to understand any disconnect between expressed positive attitudes to natural spaces and behaviours around them and inform SuDS design to increase public acceptance. This article is part of the theme issue 'Urban flood resilience'.

Psychometric Properties of the Suicide Acceptance Questionnaire

Only a few questionnaires are available for measuring attitude towards suicide as a unidimensional construct, i.e. emphasizing acceptance or disapproval of the suicidal act under a set of difficult life circumstances. The aim of this study was to develop the Suicide Acceptance Questionnaire (SAQ) and examine its psychometric properties. A group of 177 Psychology, Medicine and Law students completed the SAQ, Attitudes Towards Suicide questionnaire and a demographic survey. Exploratory factor analysis found the SAQ to have a single factor structure, explaining 55.49% of variance, with high goodness of fit. Owing to the nature of explicit attitudes, the SAQ may have limited power in predicting behavior. The findings indicate that the SAQ demonstrates appropriate reliability and concurrent validity for measuring the acceptance of suicide act. Future research with use of confirmatory factor analysis is needed for determining whether the proposed construct fits data.

Implicit attitudes and explicit cognitions jointly predict a reduced red meat intake: a three-wave longitudinal study

Background: Despite nutritional benefits, a high consumption of red meat is not without risks as it is linked to the development of certain types of cancer as well as to other non-communicable diseases, such as type II diabetes or cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, the production of meat has negative effects on the environment. Therefore, a transition to a less meat-based diet could be beneficial. It is unclear how explicit cognitions towards red meat consumption and implicit attitudes jointly influence intention and consumption. We tested the additive pattern (both types of cognitions explain unique variance) and interactive pattern (both types interact in the prediction).

Method: At baseline (T0; N = 1790) and one (T1; n = 980) and three months thereafter (T2; n = 556), explicit cognitions, red meat consumption, and implicit attitudes were assessed among a Dutch sample.

Results: Only explicit cognitions were associated with red meat consumption. Implicit attitudes moderated the effect of self-efficacy on T0-RMC; negative implicit attitudes strengthened this effect. T0-intention was associated with explicit cognitions and implicit attitudes. Additionally, negative implicit attitudes strengthened the effect of social norms on T0 and T2-intention. Regarding red meat consumption, support for the interactive pattern was found. For intention there was support for the interactive and additive pattern.

Conclusion: Interventions aiming to reduce red meat consumption in the general public might profit from changing implicit attitudes in addition to explicit cognitions.

The impact of nicotine dose and instructed dose on smokers' implicit attitudes to smoking cues: An ERP study

It is unclear whether nicotine and perceived nicotine exposure can influence automatic evaluations of cigarette stimuli. In the present study, we investigated the effects of nicotine dose and instructed dose on motivational responses to smoking cues. Forty overnight nicotine-deprived smokers completed an Implicit Association Test (IAT) at each of the four laboratory sessions in a balanced-placebo design that crossed nicotine dose (Given-NIC [given nicotine] vs. Given-DENIC [given denicotinized]) with instructed dose expectancy (Told-NIC [told-nicotine] vs. Told-DENIC. [told-denicotinized]). We measured participants' behavioral performance, including reaction time (RT) and accuracy rate, and the early posterior negativity (EPN) component using the event-related potential (ERP) technique to the target pictures. During congruent trials when the categorization condition was smoking or unpleasant, smokers had greater classification accuracy, shorter RT latency, and greater EPN amplitudes compared to the incongruent trials when the categorization condition was smoking or pleasant. The Given-NIC condition was associated with increased classification accuracy, longer RT latency, and decreased EPN amplitudes compared to the Given-DENIC condition. Similarly, the Told-NIC condition was associated with increased accuracy and decreased EPN amplitudes compared to the Told-DENIC condition, but with shorter RT latency. Cigarette-related pictures produced greater EPN amplitudes than neutral pictures. Both behavioral and ERP results suggest that smokers have negative implicit attitudes toward smoking. While both nicotine dose and expected dose facilitated stimulus categorization, there was no evidence that either factor altered smokers' negative attitudes toward smoking cues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Human caregivers perceive racial bias in their pet dogs

Is there any empirical support for the popular stereotype that dogs are racist? As an initial inquiry into this question, we investigated whether human caregivers perceive racial bias in the behavior of their pet dogs. In 2 studies, caretakers completed explicit and implicit measures of racial preference and reported their dogs’ behavior toward White and Black people. White caretakers reported that their dogs displayed more positive behaviors toward White than Black people, and these reports of dog behaviors were significantly correlated with caretakers’ own explicit and implicit racial preferences. Increased interracial contact was associated with less reported pro-White dog behavior. Humans perceive racial biases in those around us, including our pets.