Rapid de novo evolution of X chromosome dosage compensation in Silene latifolia, a plant with young sex chromosomes

Allopolyploidization from two dioecious ancestors leads to recurrent evolution of sex chromosomes

Polyploidization presents an unusual challenge for species with sex chromosomes, as it can lead to complex combinations of sex chromosomes that disrupt reproductive development. This is particularly true for allopolyploidization between species with different sex chromosome systems. Here, we assemble haplotype-resolved chromosome-level genomes of a female allotetraploid weeping willow (Salix babylonica) and a male diploid S. dunnii. We show that weeping willow arose from crosses between a female ancestor from the Salix-clade, which has XY sex chromosomes on chromosome 7, and a male ancestor from the Vetrix-clade, which has ancestral XY sex chromosomes on chromosome 15. We find that weeping willow has one pair of sex chromosomes, ZW on chromosome 15, that derived from the ancestral XY sex chromosomes in the male ancestor of the Vetrix-clade. Moreover, the ancestral 7X chromosomes from the female ancestor of the Salix-clade have reverted to autosomal inheritance. Duplicated intact ARR17-like genes on the four homologous chromosomes 19 likely have contributed to the maintenance of dioecy during polyploidization and sex chromosome turnover. Taken together, our results suggest the rapid evolution and reversion of sex chromosomes following allopolyploidization in weeping willow.

Non-canonical bases differentially represented in the sex chromosomes of the dioecious plant Silene latifolia

The oxidation of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), 5-formylcytosine (5fC), and 5-carboxylcytosine (5caC), known as oxi-mCs, garners significant interest in plants as potential epigenetic marks. While research in mammals has established a role in cell reprogramming, carcinogenesis, and gene regulation, their functions in plants remain unclear. In rice, 5hmC has been associated with transposable elements (TEs) and heterochromatin. This study utilizes Silene latifolia, a dioecious plant with heteromorphic sex chromosomes and a genome with a large proportion of TEs, which provides a favourable environment for the study of oxi-mCs in individual sexes. Notably, we detected surprisingly high levels of oxi-mCs in S. latifolia comparable with mammals. Nuclei showed enrichment in heterochromatic regions, except for 5hmC whose signal was homogeneously distributed. Intriguingly, the same X chromosome in females displayed overall enrichment of 5hmC and 5fC compared with its counterpart. This fact is shared with 5mC, resembling dosage compensation. Co-localization showed higher correlation between 5mC and 5fC than with 5hmC, indicating no potential relationship between 5hmC and 5fC. Additionally, the promoter of several sex-linked genes and sex-biased TEs clustered in a clear sex-dependent way. Together, these findings unveil a hypothetical role for oxi-mCs in S. latifolia sex chromosome development, warranting further exploration.

Why should we study plant sex chromosomes?

Understanding plant sex chromosomes involves studying interactions between developmental and physiological genetics, genome evolution, and evolutionary ecology. We focus on areas of overlap between these. Ideas about how species with separate sexes (dioecious species, in plant terminology) can evolve are even more relevant to plants than to most animal taxa because dioecy has evolved many times from ancestral functionally hermaphroditic populations, often recently. One aim of studying plant sex chromosomes is to discover how separate males and females evolved from ancestors with no such genetic sex-determining polymorphism, and the diversity in the genetic control of maleness vs femaleness. Different systems share some interesting features, and their differences help to understand why completely sex-linked regions may evolve. In some dioecious plants, the sex-determining genome regions are physically small. In others, regions without crossing over have evolved sometimes extensive regions with properties very similar to those of the familiar animal sex chromosomes. The differences also affect the evolutionary changes possible when the environment (or pollination environment, for angiosperms) changes, as dioecy is an ecologically risky strategy for sessile organisms. Dioecious plants have repeatedly reverted to cosexuality, and hermaphroditic strains of fruit crops such as papaya and grapes are desired by plant breeders. Sex-linked regions are predicted to become enriched in genes with sex differences in expression, especially when higher expression benefits one sex function but harms the other. Such trade-offs may be important for understanding other plant developmental and physiological processes and have direct applications in plant breeding.

Positive Selection Drives cis-regulatory Evolution Across the Threespine Stickleback Y Chromosome

Allele-specific gene expression evolves rapidly on heteromorphic sex chromosomes. Over time, the accumulation of mutations on the Y chromosome leads to widespread loss of gametolog expression, relative to the X chromosome. It remains unclear if expression evolution on degrading Y chromosomes is primarily driven by mutations that accumulate through processes of selective interference, or if positive selection can also favor the down-regulation of coding regions on the Y chromosome that contain deleterious mutations. Identifying the relative rates of cis-regulatory sequence evolution across Y chromosomes has been challenging due to the limited number of reference assemblies. The threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Y chromosome is an excellent model to identify how regulatory mutations accumulate on Y chromosomes due to its intermediate state of divergence from the X chromosome. A large number of Y-linked gametologs still exist across 3 differently aged evolutionary strata to test these hypotheses. We found that putative enhancer regions on the Y chromosome exhibited elevated substitution rates and decreased polymorphism when compared to nonfunctional sites, like intergenic regions and synonymous sites. This suggests that many cis-regulatory regions are under positive selection on the Y chromosome. This divergence was correlated with X-biased gametolog expression, indicating the loss of expression from the Y chromosome may be favored by selection. Our findings provide evidence that Y-linked cis-regulatory regions exhibit signs of positive selection quickly after the suppression of recombination and allow comparisons with recent theoretical models that suggest the rapid divergence of regulatory regions may be favored to mask deleterious mutations on the Y chromosome.

Transposon wave remodeled the epigenomic landscape in the rapid evolution of X-Chromosome dosage compensation

Sex chromosome dosage compensation is a model to understand the coordinated evolution of transcription; however, the advanced age of the sex chromosomes in model systems makes it difficult to study how the complex regulatory mechanisms underlying chromosome-wide dosage compensation can evolve. The sex chromosomes of Poecilia picta have undergone recent and rapid divergence, resulting in widespread gene loss on the male Y, coupled with complete X Chromosome dosage compensation, the first case reported in a fish. The recent de novo origin of dosage compensation presents a unique opportunity to understand the genetic and evolutionary basis of coordinated chromosomal gene regulation. By combining a new chromosome-level assembly of P. picta with whole-genome bisulfite sequencing and RNA-seq data, we determine that the YY1 transcription factor (YY1) DNA binding motif is associated with male-specific hypomethylated regions on the X, but not the autosomes. These YY1 motifs are the result of a recent and rapid repetitive element expansion on the P. picta X Chromosome, which is absent in closely related species that lack dosage compensation. Taken together, our results present compelling support that a disruptive wave of repetitive element insertions carrying YY1 motifs resulted in the remodeling of the X Chromosome epigenomic landscape and the rapid de novo origin of a dosage compensation system.

Chromosome-Level Genome Assembly for the Angiosperm Silene conica

The angiosperm genus Silene has been the subject of extensive study in the field of ecology and evolution, but the availability of high-quality reference genome sequences has been limited for this group. Here, we report a chromosome-level assembly for the genome of Silene conica based on Pacific Bioscience HiFi, Hi-C, and Bionano technologies. The assembly produced 10 scaffolds (1 per chromosome) with a total length of 862 Mb and only ∼1% gap content. These results confirm previous observations that S. conica and its relatives have a reduced base chromosome number relative to the genus's ancestral state of 12. Silene conica has an exceptionally large mitochondrial genome (>11 Mb), predominantly consisting of sequence of unknown origins. Analysis of shared sequence content suggests that it is unlikely that transfer of nuclear DNA is the primary driver of this mitochondrial genome expansion. More generally, this assembly should provide a valuable resource for future genomic studies in Silene, including comparative analyses with related species that recently evolved sex chromosomes.

Chromosome-level genome assembly for the angiosperm Silene conica

The angiosperm genus Silene has been the subject of extensive study in the field of ecology and evolution, but the availability of high-quality reference genome sequences has been limited for this group. Here, we report a chromosome-level assembly for the genome of Silene conica based on PacBio HiFi, Hi-C and Bionano technologies. The assembly produced 10 scaffolds (one per chromosome) with a total length of 862 Mb and only ~1% gap content. These results confirm previous observations that S. conica and its relatives have a reduced base chromosome number relative to the genus's ancestral state of 12. Silene conica has an exceptionally large mitochondrial genome (>11 Mb), predominantly consisting of sequence of unknown origins. Analysis of shared sequence content suggests that it is unlikely that transfer of nuclear DNA is the primary driver of this mitochondrial genome expansion. More generally, this assembly should provide a valuable resource for future genomic studies in Silene, including comparative analyses with related species that recently evolved sex chromosomes.

Significance

Whole-genome sequences have been largely lacking for species in the genus Silene even though these flowering plants have been used for studying ecology, evolution, and genetics for over a century. Here, we address this gap by providing a high-quality nuclear genome assembly for S. conica, a species known to have greatly accelerated rates of sequence and structural divergence in its mitochondrial and plastid genomes. This resource will be valuable in understanding the coevolutionary interactions between nuclear and cytoplasmic genomes and in comparative analyses across this highly diverse genus.

The origin and evolution of sex chromosomes, revealed by sequencing of the Silene latifolia female genome

White campion (Silene latifolia, Caryophyllaceae) was the first vascular plant where sex chromosomes were discovered. This species is a classic model for studies on plant sex chromosomes due to presence of large, clearly distinguishable X and Y chromosomes that originated de novo about 11 million years ago (mya), but lack of genomic resources for this relatively large genome (∼2.8 Gb) remains a significant hurdle. Here we report S. latifolia female genome assembly integrated with sex-specific genetic maps of this species, focusing on sex chromosomes and their evolution. The analysis reveals a highly heterogeneous recombination landscape with strong reduction in recombination rate in the central parts of all chromosomes. Recombination on the X chromosome in female meiosis primarily occurs at the very ends, and over 85% of the X chromosome length is located in a massive (∼330 Mb) gene-poor, rarely recombining pericentromeric region (Xpr). The results indicate that the non-recombining region on the Y chromosome (NRY) initially evolved in a relatively small (∼15 Mb), actively recombining region at the end of the q-arm, possibly as a result of inversion on the nascent X chromosome. The NRY expanded about 6 mya via linkage between the Xpr and the sex-determining region, which may have been caused by expanding pericentromeric recombination suppression on the X chromosome. These findings shed light on the origin of sex chromosomes in S. latifolia and yield genomic resources to assist ongoing and future investigations into sex chromosome evolution.

Repeated turnovers keep sex chromosomes young in willows

Background

Salicaceae species have diverse sex determination systems and frequent sex chromosome turnovers. However, compared with poplars, the diversity of sex determination in willows is poorly understood, and little is known about the evolutionary forces driving their turnover. Here, we characterized the sex determination in two Salix species, S. chaenomeloides and S. arbutifolia, which have an XY system on chromosome 7 and 15, respectively.

Results

Based on the assemblies of their sex determination regions, we found that the sex determination mechanism of willows may have underlying similarities with poplars, both involving intact and/or partial homologs of a type A cytokinin response regulator (RR) gene. Comparative analyses suggested that at least two sex turnover events have occurred in Salix, one preserving the ancestral pattern of male heterogamety, and the other changing heterogametic sex from XY to ZW, which could be partly explained by the “deleterious mutation load” and “sexually antagonistic selection” theoretical models. We hypothesize that these repeated turnovers keep sex chromosomes of willow species in a perpetually young state, leading to limited degeneration.

Conclusions

Our findings further improve the evolutionary trajectory of sex chromosomes in Salicaceae species, explore the evolutionary forces driving the repeated turnovers of their sex chromosomes, and provide a valuable reference for the study of sex chromosomes in other species.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13059-022-02769-w.

Polycomb-mediated repression of paternal chromosomes maintains haploid dosage in diploid embryos of Marchantia

Complex mechanisms regulate gene dosage throughout eukaryotic life cycles. Mechanisms controlling gene dosage have been extensively studied in animals, however it is unknown how generalizable these mechanisms are to diverse eukaryotes. Here, we use the haploid plant Marchantia polymorpha to assess gene dosage control in its short-lived diploid embryo. We show that throughout embryogenesis, paternal chromosomes are repressed resulting in functional haploidy. The paternal genome is targeted for genomic imprinting by the Polycomb mark H3K27me3 starting at fertilization, rendering the maternal genome in control of embryogenesis. Maintaining haploid gene dosage by this new form of imprinting is essential for embryonic development. Our findings illustrate how haploid-dominant species can regulate gene dosage through paternal chromosome inactivation and initiates the exploration of the link between life cycle history and gene dosage in a broader range of organisms.

Physiological aspects of sex differences and Haldane's rule in Rumex hastatulus

Haldane's rule (HR, impairment of fertility and/or viability of interracial hybrids) seems to be one of few generalizations in evolutionary biology. The validity of HR has been confirmed in animals, and more recently in some dioecious plants (Silene and Rumex). Dioecious Rumex hastatulus has two races differing in the sex chromosome system: Texas (T) and North Carolina (NC), and T × NC males showed both reduced pollen fertility and rarity-two classical symptoms of Haldane's rule (HR). The reduced fertility of these plants has a simple mechanistic explanation, but the reason for their rarity was not elucidated. Here, we measured selected physiological parameters related to the antioxidant defense system in parental races and reciprocal hybrids of R. hastatulus. We showed that the X-autosome configurations, as well as asymmetries associated with Y chromosomes and cytoplasm, could modulate this system in hybrids. The levels and quantitative patterns of the measured parameters distinguish the T × NC hybrid from the other analyzed forms. Our observations suggest that the rarity of T × NC males is caused postzygotically and most likely related to the higher level of oxidative stress induced by the chromosomal incompatibilities. It is the first report on the physiological aspects of HR in plants.

The evolution of huge Y chromosomes in Coccinia grandis and its sister, Coccinia schimperi

Microscopically dimorphic sex chromosomes in plants are rare, reducing our ability to study them. One difficulty has been the paucity of cultivatable species pairs for cytogenetic, genomic and experimental work. Here, we study the newly recognized sisters Coccinia grandis and Coccinia schimperi, both with large Y chromosomes as we here show for Co. schimperi. We built genetic maps for male and female Co. grandis using a full-sibling family, inferred gene sex-linkage, and, with Co. schimperi transcriptome data, tested whether X- and Y-alleles group by species or by sex. Most sex-linked genes for which we could include outgroups grouped the X- and Y-alleles by species, but some 10% instead grouped the two species' X-alleles. There was no relationship between XY synonymous-site divergences in these genes and gene position on the non-recombining part of the X, suggesting recombination arrest shortly before or after species divergence, here dated to about 3.6 Ma. Coccinia grandis and Co. schimperi are the species pair with the most heteromorphic sex chromosomes in vascular plants (the condition in their sister remains unknown), and future work could use them to study mechanisms of Y chromosome enlargement and parallel degeneration, or to test Haldane's rule about lower hybrid fitness in the heterogametic sex. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sex determination and sex chromosome evolution in land plants'.

Dosage compensation evolution in plants: theories, controversies and mechanisms

In a minority of flowering plants, separate sexes are genetically determined by sex chromosomes. The Y chromosome has a non-recombining region that degenerates, causing a reduced expression of Y genes. In some species, the lower Y expression is accompanied by dosage compensation (DC), a mechanism that re-equalizes male and female expression and/or brings XY male expression back to its ancestral level. Here, we review work on DC in plants, which started as early as the late 1960s with cytological approaches. The use of transcriptomics fired a controversy as to whether DC existed in plants. Further work revealed that various plants exhibit partial DC, including a few species with young and homomorphic sex chromosomes. We are starting to understand the mechanisms responsible for DC in some plants, but in most species, we lack the data to differentiate between global and gene-by-gene DC. Also, it is unknown why some species evolve many dosage compensated genes while others do not. Finally, the forces that drive DC evolution remain mysterious, both in plants and animals. We review the multiple evolutionary theories that have been proposed to explain DC patterns in eukaryotes with XY or ZW sex chromosomes. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sex determination and sex chromosome evolution in land plants'.

Labile sex expression in angiosperm species with sex chromosomes

Here, we review the literature on sexual lability in dioecious angiosperm species with well-studied sex chromosomes. We distinguish three types of departures from strict dioecy, concerning either a minority of flowers in some individuals (leakiness) or the entire individual, which can constantly be bisexual or change sex. We found that for only four of the 22 species studied, reports of lability are lacking. The occurrence of lability is only weakly related to sex chromosome characteristics (number of sex-linked genes, age of the non-recombining region). These results contradict the naive idea that lability is an indication of the absence or the recent evolution of sex chromosomes, and thereby contribute to a growing consensus that sex chromosomes do not necessarily fix sex determination once and for all. We discuss some implications of these findings for the evolution of sex chromosomes, and suggest that more species with well-characterized lability should be studied with genomic data and tools. This article is part of the theme issue 'Sex determination and sex chromosome evolution in land plants'.

Chemical genetics in Silene latifolia elucidate regulatory pathways involved in gynoecium development

Dioecious plants possess diverse sex determination systems and unique mechanisms of reproductive organ development; however, little is known about how sex-linked genes shape the expression of regulatory cascades that lead to developmental differences between sexes. In Silene latifolia, a dioecious plant with stable dimorphism in floral traits, early experiments suggested that female-regulator genes act on the factors that determine the boundaries of the flower whorls. To identify these regulators, we sequenced the transcriptome of male flowers with fully developed gynoecia, induced by rapid demethylation in the parental generation. Eight candidates were found to have a positive role in gynoecium promotion, floral organ size, and whorl boundary, and affect the expression of class B MADS-box flower genes. To complement our transcriptome analysis, we closely examined the floral organs in their native state using field emission environmental scanning electron microscopy, and examined the differences between females and androhermaphrodites in their placenta and ovule organization. Our results reveal the regulatory pathways potentially involved in sex-specific flower development in the classical model of dioecy, S. latifolia. These pathways include previously hypothesized and unknown female-regulator genes that act on the factors that determine the flower boundaries, and a negative regulator of anther development, SUPERMAN-like (SlSUP).

A new model of sex chromosome evolution

A new model, based on the evolution of gene regulation, challenges the classical theory.

Y recombination arrest and degeneration in the absence of sexual dimorphism

Current theory proposes that degenerated sex chromosomes-such as the mammalian Y-evolve through three steps: (i) recombination arrest, linking male-beneficial alleles to the Y chromosome; (ii) Y degeneration, resulting from the inefficacy of selection in the absence of recombination; and (iii) dosage compensation, correcting the resulting low expression of X-linked genes in males. We investigate a model of sex chromosome evolution that incorporates the coevolution of cis and trans regulators of gene expression. We show that the early emergence of dosage compensation favors the maintenance of Y-linked inversions by creating sex-antagonistic regulatory effects. This is followed by degeneration of these nonrecombining inversions caused by regulatory divergence between the X and Y chromosomes. In contrast to current theory, the whole process occurs without any selective pressure related to sexual dimorphism.

The good, the bad, and the ugly: Evolutionary and pathological aspects of gene dosage alterations

Diploid organisms contain a maternal and a paternal genome complement that is thought to provide robustness and allow developmental progression despite genetic perturbations that occur in heterozygosity. However, changes affecting gene dosage from the chromosome down to the individual gene level possess a significant pathological potential and can lead to developmental disorders (DDs). This indicates that expression from a balanced gene complement is highly relevant for proper cellular and organismal function in eukaryotes. Paradoxically, gene and whole chromosome duplications are a principal driver of evolution, while heteromorphic sex chromosomes (XY and ZW) are naturally occurring aneuploidies important for sex determination. Here, we provide an overview of the biology of gene dosage at the crossroads between evolutionary benefit and pathogenicity during disease. We describe the buffering mechanisms and cellular responses to alterations, which could provide a common ground for the understanding of DDs caused by copy number alterations.

Long-read transcriptome and other genomic resources for the angiosperm Silene noctiflora

The angiosperm genus Silene is a model system for several traits of ecological and evolutionary significance in plants, including breeding system and sex chromosome evolution, host-pathogen interactions, invasive species biology, heavy metal tolerance, and cytonuclear interactions. Despite its importance, genomic resources for this large genus of approximately 850 species are scarce, with only one published whole-genome sequence (from the dioecious species Silene latifolia). Here, we provide genomic and transcriptomic resources for a hermaphroditic representative of this genus (S. noctiflora), including a PacBio Iso-Seq transcriptome, which uses long-read, single-molecule sequencing technology to analyze full-length mRNA transcripts. Using these data, we have assembled and annotated high-quality full-length cDNA sequences for approximately 14,126 S. noctiflora genes and 25,317 isoforms. We demonstrated the utility of these data to distinguish between recent and highly similar gene duplicates by identifying novel paralogous genes in an essential protease complex. Furthermore, we provide a draft assembly for the approximately 2.7-Gb genome of this species, which is near the upper range of genome-size values reported for diploids in this genus and threefold larger than the 0.9-Gb genome of Silene conica, another species in the same subgenus. Karyotyping confirmed that S. noctiflora is a diploid, indicating that its large genome size is not due to polyploidization. These resources should facilitate further study and development of this genus as a model in plant ecology and evolution.

Plant genera Cannabis and Humulus share the same pair of well-differentiated sex chromosomes

We recently described, in Cannabis sativa, the oldest sex chromosome system documented so far in plants (12-28 Myr old). Based on the estimated age, we predicted that it should be shared by its sister genus Humulus, which is known also to possess XY chromosomes. Here, we used transcriptome sequencing of an F₁ family of H. lupulus to identify and study the sex chromosomes in this species using the probabilistic method SEX-DETector. We identified 265 sex-linked genes in H. lupulus, which preferentially mapped to the C. sativa X chromosome. Using phylogenies of sex-linked genes, we showed that a region of the sex chromosomes had already stopped recombining in an ancestor of both species. Furthermore, as in C. sativa, Y-linked gene expression reduction is correlated to the position on the X chromosome, and highly Y degenerated genes showed dosage compensation. We report, for the first time in Angiosperms, a sex chromosome system that is shared by two different genera. Thus, recombination suppression started at least 21-25 Myr ago, and then (either gradually or step-wise) spread to a large part of the sex chromosomes (c. 70%), leading to a degenerated Y chromosome.

The timing of genetic degeneration of sex chromosomes

Genetic degeneration is an extraordinary feature of sex chromosomes, with the loss of functions of Y-linked genes in species with XY systems, and W-linked genes in ZW systems, eventually affecting almost all genes. Although degeneration is familiar to most biologists, important aspects are not yet well understood, including how quickly a Y or W chromosome can become completely degenerated. I review the current understanding of the time-course of degeneration. Degeneration starts after crossing over between the sex chromosome pair stops, and theoretical models predict an initially fast degeneration rate and a later much slower one. It has become possible to estimate the two quantities that the models suggest are the most important in determining degeneration rates-the size of the sex-linked region, and the time when recombination became suppressed (which can be estimated using Y-X or W-Z sequence divergence). However, quantifying degeneration is still difficult. I review evidence on gene losses (based on coverage analysis) or loss of function (by classifying coding sequences into functional alleles and pseudogenes). I also review evidence about whether small genome regions degenerate, or only large ones, whether selective constraints on the genes in a sex-linked region also strongly affect degeneration rates, and about how long it takes before all (or almost all) genes are lost. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenging the paradigm in sex chromosome evolution: empirical and theoretical insights with a focus on vertebrates (Part I)'.

Sex-linked gene expression and the emergence of hermaphrodites in Carica papaya

PREMISE

One evolutionary path from hermaphroditism to dioecy is via a gynodioecious intermediate. The evolution of dioecy may also coincide with the formation of sex chromosomes that possess sex-determining loci that are physically linked in a region of suppressed recombination. Dioecious papaya (Carica papaya) has an XY chromosome system, where the presence of a Y chromosome determines maleness. However, in cultivation, papaya is gynodioecious, due to the conversion of the male Y chromosome to a hermaphroditic Y^h chromosome during its domestication.

METHODS

We investigated gene expression linked to the X, Y, and Y^h chromosomes at different floral developmental stages to identify differentially expressed genes that may be involved in the sexual transition of males to hermaphrodites.

RESULTS

We identified 309 sex-biased genes found on the sex chromosomes, most of which are found in the pseudoautosomal regions. Female (XX) expression in the sex-determining region was almost double that of X-linked expression in males (XY) and hermaphrodites (XY^h ), which rules out dosage compensation for most sex-linked genes; although, an analysis of hemizygous X-linked loci found evidence of partial dosage compensation. Furthermore, we identified a candidate gene associated with sex determination and the transition to hermaphroditism, a homolog of the MADS-box protein SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified a pattern of partial dosage compensation for hemizygous genes located in the papaya sex-determining region. Furthermore, we propose that loss-of-expression of the Y-linked SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE homolog facilitated the transition from males to hermaphrodites in papaya.

Epigenetics drive the evolution of sex chromosomes in animals and plants

We review how epigenetics affect sex chromosome evolution in animals and plants. In a few species, sex is determined epigenetically through the action of Y-encoded small RNAs. Epigenetics is also responsible for changing the sex of individuals through time, even in species that carry sex chromosomes, and could favour species adaptation through breeding system plasticity. The Y chromosome accumulates repeats that become epigenetically silenced which leads to an epigenetic conflict with the expression of Y genes and could accelerate Y degeneration. Y heterochromatin can be lost through ageing, which activates transposable elements and lowers male longevity. Y chromosome degeneration has led to the evolution of meiotic sex chromosome inactivation in eutherians (placentals) and marsupials, and dosage compensation mechanisms in animals and plants. X-inactivation convergently evolved in eutherians and marsupials via two independently evolved non-coding RNAs. In Drosophila, male X upregulation by the male specific lethal (MSL) complex can spread to neo-X chromosomes through the transposition of transposable elements that carry an MSL-binding motif. We discuss similarities and possible differences between plants and animals and suggest future directions for this dynamic field of research. This article is part of the theme issue 'How does epigenetics influence the course of evolution?'

Transcriptional regulation of dosage compensation in Carica papaya

Sex chromosome evolution results in the disparity in gene content between heterogametic sex chromosomes and creates the need for dosage compensation to counteract the effects of gene dose imbalance of sex chromosomes in males and females. It is not known at which stage of sex chromosome evolution dosage compensation would evolve. We used global gene expression profiling in male and female papayas to assess gene expression patterns of sex-linked genes on the papaya sex chromosomes. By analyzing expression ratios of sex-linked genes to autosomal genes and sex-linked genes in males relative to females, our results showed that dosage compensation was regulated on a gene-by-gene level rather than whole sex-linked region in papaya. Seven genes on the papaya X chromosome exhibited dosage compensation. We further compared gene expression ratios in the two evolutionary strata. Y alleles in the older evolutionary stratum showed reduced expression compared to X alleles, while Y alleles in the younger evolutionary stratum showed elevated expression compared to X alleles. Reduced expression of Y alleles in the older evolutionary stratum might be caused by accumulation of deleterious mutations in regulatory regions or transposable element-mediated methylation spreading. Most X-hemizygous genes exhibited either no or very low expression, suggesting that gene silencing might play a role in maintaining transcriptional balance between females and males.

RADSex: A computational workflow to study sex determination using restriction site-associated DNA sequencing data

The study of sex determination and sex chromosome organization in nonmodel species has long been technically challenging, but new sequencing methodologies now enable precise and high-throughput identification of sex-specific genomic sequences. In particular, restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq) is being extensively applied to explore sex determination systems in many plant and animal species. However, software specifically designed to search for and visualize sex-biased markers using RAD-Seq data is lacking. Here, we present RADSex, a computational analysis workflow designed to study the genetic basis of sex determination using RAD-Seq data. RADSex is simple to use, requires few computational resources, makes no prior assumptions about the type of sex-determination system or structure of the sex locus, and offers convenient visualization through a dedicated R package. To demonstrate the functionality of RADSex, we re-analysed a published data set of Japanese medaka, Oryzias latipes, where we uncovered a previously unknown Y chromosome polymorphism. We then used RADSex to analyse new RAD-Seq data sets from 15 fish species spanning multiple taxonomic orders. We identified the sex determination system and sex-specific markers in six of these species, five of which had no known sex-markers prior to this study. We show that RADSex greatly facilitates the study of sex determination systems in nonmodel species thanks to its speed of analyses, low resource usage, ease of application and visualization options. Furthermore, our analysis of new data sets from 15 species provides new insights on sex determination in fish.

Dioecy Is Associated with High Genetic Diversity and Adaptation Rates in the Plant Genus Silene

About 15,000 angiosperm species (∼6%) have separate sexes, a phenomenon known as dioecy. Why dioecious taxa are so rare is still an open question. Early work reported lower species richness in dioecious compared with nondioecious sister clades, raising the hypothesis that dioecy may be an evolutionary dead-end. This hypothesis has been recently challenged by macroevolutionary analyses that detected no or even positive effect of dioecy on diversification. However, the possible genetic consequences of dioecy at the population level, which could drive the long-term fate of dioecious lineages, have not been tested so far. Here, we used a population genomics approach in the Silene genus to look for possible effects of dioecy, especially for potential evidence of evolutionary handicaps of dioecy underlying the dead-end hypothesis. We collected individual-based RNA-seq data from several populations in 13 closely related species with different sexual systems: seven dioecious, three hermaphroditic, and three gynodioecious species. We show that dioecy is associated with increased genetic diversity, as well as higher selection efficacy both against deleterious mutations and for beneficial mutations. The results hold after controlling for phylogenetic inertia, differences in species census population sizes and geographic ranges. We conclude that dioecious Silene species neither show signs of increased mutational load nor genetic evidence for extinction risk. We discuss these observations in the light of the possible demographic differences between dioecious and self-compatible hermaphroditic species and how this could be related to alternatives to the dead-end hypothesis to explain the rarity of dioecy.

Evolution of dosage compensation does not depend on genomic background

Organisms have evolved various mechanisms to cope with the differences in the gene copy numbers between sexes caused by degeneration of Y and W sex chromosomes. Complete dosage compensation or at least expression balance between sexes has been reported predominantly in XX/XY systems, but rarely in ZZ/ZW systems. However, this often-reported pattern is based on comparisons of lineages where sex chromosomes evolved from nonhomologous genomic regions, potentially differing in sensitivity to differences in gene copy numbers. Here we document that two reptilian lineages (XX/XY iguanas and ZZ/ZW softshell turtles), which independently co-opted the same ancestral genomic region for the function of sex chromosomes, evolved different gene dose regulatory mechanisms. The independent co-option of the same genomic region for the role of sex chromosomes as in the iguanas and the softshell turtles offers great opportunity for testing evolutionary scenarios on sex chromosome evolution under the explicit control of the genomic background and gene identity. We show that the parallel loss of functional genes from the Y chromosome of the green anole and the W chromosome of the Florida softshell turtle led to different dosage compensation mechanisms. Our approach controlling for genetic background thus does not support that the variability in the regulation of gene dose differences is a consequence of ancestral autosomal gene content.

The Diversity and Dynamics of Sex Determination in Dioecious Plants

The diversity of inflorescences among flowering plants is captivating. Such charm is not only due to the variety of sizes, shapes, colors, and flowers displayed, but also to the range of reproductive systems. For instance, hermaphrodites occur abundantly throughout the plant kingdom with both stamens and carpels within the same flower. Nevertheless, 10% of flowering plants have separate unisexual flowers, either in different locations of the same individual (monoecy) or on different individuals (dioecy). Despite their rarity, dioecious plants provide an excellent opportunity to investigate the mechanisms involved in sex expression and the evolution of sex-determining regions (SDRs) and sex chromosomes. The SDRs and the evolution of dioecy have been studied in many species ranging from Ginkgo to important fruit crops. Some of these studies, for example in asparagus or kiwifruit, identified two sex-determining genes within the non-recombining SDR and may thus be consistent with the classical model for the evolution of dioecy from hermaphroditism via gynodioecy, that predicts two successive mutations, the first one affecting male and the second one female function, becoming linked in a region of suppressed recombination. On the other hand, aided by genome sequencing and gene editing, single factor sex determination has emerged in other species, such as persimmon or poplar. Despite the diversity of sex-determining mechanisms, a tentative comparative analysis of the known sex-determining genes and candidates in different species suggests that similar genes and pathways may be employed repeatedly for the evolution of dioecy. The cytokinin signaling pathway appears important for sex determination in several species regardless of the underlying genetic system. Additionally, tapetum-related genes often seem to act as male-promoting factors when sex is determined via two genes. We present a unified model that synthesizes the genetic networks of sex determination in monoecious and dioecious plants and will support the generation of hypothesis regarding candidate sex determinants in future studies.

Histone post-translational modifications in Silene latifolia X and Y chromosomes suggest a mammal-like dosage compensation system

Silene latifolia is a model organism to study evolutionary young heteromorphic sex chromosome evolution in plants. Previous research indicates a Y-allele gene degeneration and a dosage compensation system already operating. Here, we propose an epigenetic approach based on analysis of several histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) to find the first epigenetic hints of the X:Y sex chromosome system regulation in S. latifolia. Through chromatin immunoprecipitation we interrogated six genes from X and Y alleles. Several histone PTMS linked to DNA methylation and transcriptional repression (H3K27me3, H3K23me, H3K9me2 and H3K9me3) and to transcriptional activation (H3K4me3 and H4K5, 8, 12, 16ac) were used. DNA enrichment (Immunoprecipitated DNA/input DNA) was analyzed and showed three main results: (i) promoters of the Y allele are associated with heterochromatin marks, (ii) promoters of the X allele in males are associated with activation of transcription marks and finally, (iii) promoters of X alleles in females are associated with active and repressive marks. Our finding indicates a transcription activation of X allele and transcription repression of Y allele in males. In females we found a possible differential regulation (up X₁, down X₂) of each female X allele. These results agree with the mammal-like epigenetic dosage compensation regulation.

The search for sexually antagonistic genes: Practical insights from studies of local adaptation and statistical genomics

Sexually antagonistic (SA) genetic variation-in which alleles favored in one sex are disfavored in the other-is predicted to be common and has been documented in several animal and plant populations, yet we currently know little about its pervasiveness among species or its population genetic basis. Recent applications of genomics in studies of SA genetic variation have highlighted considerable methodological challenges to the identification and characterization of SA genes, raising questions about the feasibility of genomic approaches for inferring SA selection. The related fields of local adaptation and statistical genomics have previously dealt with similar challenges, and lessons from these disciplines can therefore help overcome current difficulties in applying genomics to study SA genetic variation. Here, we integrate theoretical and analytical concepts from local adaptation and statistical genomics research-including F ST and F IS statistics, genome-wide association studies, pedigree analyses, reciprocal transplant studies, and evolve-and-resequence experiments-to evaluate methods for identifying SA genes and genome-wide signals of SA genetic variation. We begin by developing theoretical models for between-sex F ST and F IS, including explicit null distributions for each statistic, and using them to critically evaluate putative multilocus signals of sex-specific selection in previously published datasets. We then highlight new statistics that address some of the limitations of F ST and F IS, along with applications of more direct approaches for characterizing SA genetic variation, which incorporate explicit fitness measurements. We finish by presenting practical guidelines for the validation and evolutionary analysis of candidate SA genes and discussing promising empirical systems for future work.

How to Become an Apomixis Model: The Multifaceted Case of Paspalum

In the past decades, the grasses of the Paspalum genus have emerged as a versatile model allowing evolutionary, genetic, molecular, and developmental studies on apomixis as well as successful breeding applications. The rise of such an archetypal system progressed through integrative phases, which were essential to draw conclusions based on solid standards. Here, we review the steps adopted in Paspalum to establish the current body of knowledge on apomixis and provide model breeding programs for other agronomically important apomictic crops. In particular, we discuss the need for previous detailed cytoembryological and cytogenetic germplasm characterization; the establishment of sexual and apomictic materials of identical ploidy level; the development of segregating populations useful for inheritance analysis, positional mapping, and epigenetic control studies; the development of omics data resources; the identification of key molecular pathways via comparative gene expression studies; the accurate molecular characterization of genomic loci governing apomixis; the in-depth functional analysis of selected candidate genes in apomictic and model species; the successful building of a sexual/apomictic combined breeding scheme.

Genomic architecture and evolutionary antagonism drive allelic expression bias in the social supergene of red fire ants

Supergene regions maintain alleles of multiple genes in tight linkage through suppressed recombination. Despite their importance in determining complex phenotypes, our empirical understanding of early supergene evolution is limited. Here we focus on the young ‘social’ supergene of fire ants, a powerful system for disentangling the effects of evolutionary antagonism and suppressed recombination. We hypothesize that gene degeneration and social antagonism shaped the evolution of the fire ant supergene, resulting in distinct patterns of gene expression. We test these ideas by identifying allelic differences between supergene variants, characterizing allelic expression across populations, castes and body parts, and contrasting allelic expression biases with differences in expression between social forms. We find strong signatures of gene degeneration and gene-specific dosage compensation. On this background, a small portion of the genes has the signature of adaptive responses to evolutionary antagonism between social forms.

Red fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) are native to South America, but the species has spread to North America, Australia and New Zealand where it can be an invasive pest. A reason for this species’ invasiveness types of colonies : one with a single egg-laying queen and another with several queens. However, it is not possible to simply add more queens to a colony with one queen. Instead, the number of queens in a colony is controlled genetically, by a chromosome known as the ‘social chromosome’.

Like many other animals, red fire ants are diploid: their cells have two copies of each chromosome, which can carry two different versions of each gene. The social chromosome is no different, and it comes in two variants, SB and Sb. Each ant can therefore have either two SB chromosomes, leading to a colony with a single queen; or one SB chromosome and one Sb chromosome, leading to a colony with multiple queens. Ants with two copies of the Sb variant die when they are young, so the Sb version is inherited in a similar way to how the Y chromosome is passed on in humans. However, the social chromosome in red fire ants appeared less than one million years ago, making it much younger than the human Y chromosome, which is 180 million years old. This makes the social chromosome a good candidate for examining the early evolution of special chromosome variants that are only inherited.

How differences between the SB and the Sb chromosomes are evolving is an open question, however. Perhaps each version of the social chromosome has been optimised through natural selection to one colony type. Another suggestion is that the Sb chromosome has degenerated over time because its genes cannot be ‘reshuffled’ as they would be on normal chromosomes.

Martinez-Ruiz et al. compared genetic variants on the SB and Sb chromosomes, along with their expression in different types of ant colonies. The analysis showed that the Sb variant is in fact breaking down because of the lack of gene shuffling. This loss is compensated by intact copies of the same genes found on the SB variant, which explains why ants with the Sb variant can only survive if they also carry the SB version. Only a handful of genes on the social chromosomes appear to have been optimised by natural selection. Therefore Martinez-Ruiz et al. concluded the differences between the two chromosomes that lead to different colony types are collateral effects of Sb’s inability to reshuffle its genes.

This work reveals how a special chromosome similar to the Y chromosome in humans evolved. It also shows how multiple complex evolutionary forces can shape a species’ genetic makeup and social forms.

Evidence for Dosage Compensation in Coccinia grandis, a Plant with a Highly Heteromorphic XY System

About 15,000 angiosperms are dioecious, but the mechanisms of sex determination in plants remain poorly understood. In particular, how Y chromosomes evolve and degenerate, and whether dosage compensation evolves as a response, are matters of debate. Here, we focus on Coccinia grandis, a dioecious cucurbit with the highest level of X/Y heteromorphy recorded so far. We identified sex-linked genes using RNA sequences from a cross and a model-based method termed SEX-DETector. Parents and F1 individuals were genotyped, and the transmission patterns of SNPs were then analyzed. In the >1300 sex-linked genes studied, maximum X-Y divergence was 0.13-0.17, and substantial Y degeneration is implied by an average Y/X expression ratio of 0.63 and an inferred gene loss on the Y of ~40%. We also found reduced Y gene expression being compensated by elevated expression of corresponding genes on the X and an excess of sex-biased genes on the sex chromosomes. Molecular evolution of sex-linked genes in C. grandis is thus comparable to that in Silene latifolia, another dioecious plant with a strongly heteromorphic XY system, and cucurbits are the fourth plant family in which dosage compensation is described, suggesting it might be common in plants.

Characterization of the First W-Specific Protein-Coding Gene for Sex Identification in Helicoverpa armigera

Helicoverpa armigera is a globally-important crop pest with a WZ (female)/ZZ (male) sex chromosome system. The absence of discernible sexual dimorphism in its egg and larval stages makes it impossible to address any sex-related theoretical and applied questions before pupation unless a W-specific sequence marker is available for sex diagnosis. To this end, we used one pair of morphologically pre-sexed pupae to PCR-screen 17 non-transposon transcripts selected from 4855 W-linked candidate reads identified by mapping a publicly available egg transcriptome of both sexes to the male genome of this species and detected the read SRR1015458.67499 only in the female pupa. Subsequent PCR screenings of this read and the previously reported female-specific RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) marker AF18 with ten more pairs of pre-sexed pupae and different annealing positions and/or temperatures as well as its co-occurrence with the female-specific transcript splicing isoforms of doublesex gene of H. armigera (Hadsx) and amplification and sequencing of their 5′ unknown flanking sequences in three additional pairs of pre-sexed pupae verified that SRR1015458.67499 is a single copy protein-coding gene unique to W chromosome (named GUW1) while AF18 is a multicopy MITE transposon located on various chromosomes. Test application of GUW1 as a marker to sex 30 neonates of H. armigera yielded a female/male ratio of 1.14: 1.00. Both GUW1 and Hadsx splicing isoforms assays revealed that the H. armigera embryo cell line QB-Ha-E-1 is a male cell line. Taken together, GUW1 is not only a reliable DNA marker for sexing all stages of H. armigera and its cell lines, but also represents the first W-specific protein-coding gene in lepidopterans.

Sex Chromosome Degeneration by Regulatory Evolution

In many species, the Y (or W) sex chromosome is degenerate. Current theory proposes that this degeneration follows the arrest of recombination and results from the accumulation of deleterious mutations due to selective interference-the inefficacy of natural selection on non-recombining genomic regions. This theory requires very few assumptions, but it does not robustly predict fast erosion of the Y (or W) in large populations or the stepwise degeneration of several small non-recombining strata. We propose a new mechanism for Y/W erosion that works over faster timescales, in large populations, and for small non-recombining regions (down to a single sex-linked gene). The mechanism is based on the instability and divergence of cis-regulatory sequences in non-recombining genome regions, which become selectively haploidized to mask deleterious mutations on coding sequences. This haploidization is asymmetric, because cis-regulators on the X cannot be silenced (otherwise there would be no expression in females). This process causes rapid Y/W degeneration and simultaneous evolution of dosage compensation, provided that autosomal trans-regulatory sequences with sex-limited effects are available to compensate for cis-regulatory divergence. Although this "degeneration by regulatory evolution" does not require selective interference, both processes may act in concert to further accelerate Y degeneration.

Guppy Y Chromosome Integrity Maintained by Incomplete Recombination Suppression

The loss of recombination triggers divergence between the sex chromosomes and promotes degeneration of the sex-limited chromosome. Several livebearers within the genus Poecilia share a male-heterogametic sex chromosome system that is roughly 20 Myr old, with extreme variation in the degree of Y chromosome divergence. In Poecilia picta, the Y is highly degenerate and associated with complete X chromosome dosage compensation. In contrast, although recombination is restricted across almost the entire length of the sex chromosomes in Poecilia reticulata and Poecilia wingei, divergence between the X chromosome and the Y chromosome is very low. This clade therefore offers a unique opportunity to study the forces that accelerate or hinder sex chromosome divergence. We used RNA-seq data from multiple families of both P. reticulata and P. wingei, the species with low levels of sex chromosome divergence, to differentiate X and Y coding sequences based on sex-limited SNP inheritance. Phylogenetic tree analyses reveal that occasional recombination has persisted between the sex chromosomes for much of their length, as X- and Y-linked sequences cluster by species instead of by gametolog. This incomplete recombination suppression maintains the extensive homomorphy observed in these systems. In addition, we see differences between the previously identified strata in the phylogenetic clustering of X-Y orthologs, with those that cluster by chromosome located in the older stratum, the region previously associated with the sex-determining locus. However, recombination arrest appears to have expanded throughout the sex chromosomes more gradually instead of through a stepwise process associated with inversions.

Sex Chromosome Evolution: So Many Exceptions to the Rules

Genomic analysis of many nonmodel species has uncovered an incredible diversity of sex chromosome systems, making it possible to empirically test the rich body of evolutionary theory that describes each stage of sex chromosome evolution. Classic theory predicts that sex chromosomes originate from a pair of homologous autosomes and recombination between them is suppressed via inversions to resolve sexual conflict. The resulting degradation of the Y chromosome gene content creates the need for dosage compensation in the heterogametic sex. Sex chromosome theory also implies a linear process, starting from sex chromosome origin and progressing to heteromorphism. Despite many convergent genomic patterns exhibited by independently evolved sex chromosome systems, and many case studies supporting these theoretical predictions, emerging data provide numerous interesting exceptions to these long-standing theories, and suggest that the remarkable diversity of sex chromosomes is matched by a similar diversity in their evolution. For example, it is clear that sex chromosome pairs are not always derived from homologous autosomes. In addition, both the cause and the mechanism of recombination suppression between sex chromosome pairs remain unclear, and it may be that the spread of recombination suppression is a more gradual process than previously thought. It is also clear that dosage compensation can be achieved in many ways, and displays a range of efficacy in different systems. Finally, the remarkable turnover of sex chromosomes in many systems, as well as variation in the rate of sex chromosome divergence, suggest that assumptions about the inevitable linearity of sex chromosome evolution are not always empirically supported, and the drivers of the birth-death cycle of sex chromosome evolution remain to be elucidated. Here, we concentrate on how the diversity in sex chromosomes across taxa highlights an equal diversity in each stage of sex chromosome evolution.

The Location of the Pseudoautosomal Boundary in Silene latifolia

Y-chromosomes contain a non-recombining region (NRY), and in many organisms it was shown that the NRY expanded over time. How and why the NRY expands remains unclear. Young sex chromosomes, where NRY expansion occurred recently or is on-going, offer an opportunity to study the causes of this process. Here, we used the plant Silene latifolia, where sex chromosomes evolved ~11 million years ago, to study the location of the boundary between the NRY and the recombining pseudoautosomal region (PAR). The previous work devoted to the NRY/PAR boundary in S. latifolia was based on a handful of genes with locations approximately known from the genetic map. Here, we report the analysis of 86 pseudoautosomal and sex-linked genes adjacent to the S. latifolia NRY/PAR boundary to establish the location of the boundary more precisely. We take advantage of the dense genetic map and polymorphism data from wild populations to identify 20 partially sex-linked genes located in the “fuzzy boundary”, that rarely recombines in male meiosis. Genes proximal to this fuzzy boundary show no evidence of recombination in males, while the genes distal to this partially-sex-linked region are actively recombining in males. Our results provide a more accurate location for the PAR boundary in S. latifolia, which will help to elucidate the causes of PAR boundary shifts leading to NRY expansion over time.

The Earth BioGenome project: opportunities and challenges for plant genomics and conservation

Sequencing them all. That is the ambitious goal of the recently launched Earth BioGenome project (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115, 4325-4333), which aims to produce reference genomes for all eukaryotic species within the next decade. In this perspective, we discuss the opportunities of this project with a plant focus, but highlight also potential limitations. This includes the question of how to best capture all plant diversity, as the green taxon is one of the most complex clades in the tree of life, with over 300 000 species. For this, we highlight four key points: (i) the unique biological insights that could be gained from studying plants, (ii) their apparent underrepresentation in sequencing efforts given the number of threatened species, (iii) the necessity of phylogenomic methods that are aware of differences in genome complexity and quality, and (iv) the accounting for within-species genetic diversity and the historical aspect of conservation genetics.

An efficient RNA-seq-based segregation analysis identifies the sex chromosomes of Cannabis sativa

Cannabissativa–derived tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) production is increasing very fast worldwide. C. sativa is a dioecious plant with XY Chromosomes, and only females (XX) are useful for THC production. Identifying the sex chromosome sequence would improve early sexing and better management of this crop; however, the C. sativa genome projects have failed to do so. Moreover, as dioecy in the Cannabaceae family is ancestral, C. sativa sex chromosomes are potentially old and thus very interesting to study, as little is known about old plant sex chromosomes. Here, we RNA-sequenced a C. sativa family (two parents and 10 male and female offspring, 576 million reads) and performed a segregation analysis for all C. sativa genes using the probabilistic method SEX-DETector. We identified >500 sex-linked genes. Mapping of these sex-linked genes to a C. sativa genome assembly identified the largest chromosome pair being the sex chromosomes. We found that the X-specific region (not recombining between X and Y) is large compared to other plant systems. Further analysis of the sex-linked genes revealed that C. sativa has a strongly degenerated Y Chromosome and may represent the oldest plant sex chromosome system documented so far. Our study revealed that old plant sex chromosomes can have large, highly divergent nonrecombining regions, yet still be roughly homomorphic.

An efficient RNA-seq-based segregation analysis identifies the sex chromosomes of Cannabis sativa

Cannabis sativa-derived tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) production is increasing very fast worldwide. C. sativa is a dioecious plant with XY Chromosomes, and only females (XX) are useful for THC production. Identifying the sex chromosome sequence would improve early sexing and better management of this crop; however, the C. sativa genome projects have failed to do so. Moreover, as dioecy in the Cannabaceae family is ancestral, C. sativa sex chromosomes are potentially old and thus very interesting to study, as little is known about old plant sex chromosomes. Here, we RNA-sequenced a C. sativa family (two parents and 10 male and female offspring, 576 million reads) and performed a segregation analysis for all C. sativa genes using the probabilistic method SEX-DETector. We identified >500 sex-linked genes. Mapping of these sex-linked genes to a C. sativa genome assembly identified the largest chromosome pair being the sex chromosomes. We found that the X-specific region (not recombining between X and Y) is large compared to other plant systems. Further analysis of the sex-linked genes revealed that C. sativa has a strongly degenerated Y Chromosome and may represent the oldest plant sex chromosome system documented so far. Our study revealed that old plant sex chromosomes can have large, highly divergent nonrecombining regions, yet still be roughly homomorphic.

Young sex chromosomes in plants and animals

A major reason for studying plant sex chromosomes is that they may often be 'young' systems. There is considerable evidence for the independent evolution of separate sexes within plant families or genera, in some cases showing that the maximum possible time during which their sex-determining genes have existed must be much shorter than those of several animal taxa. Consequently, their sex-linked regions could either have evolved soon after genetic sex determination arose or considerably later. Plants, therefore, include species with both young and old systems. I review several questions about the evolution of sex-determining systems and sex chromosomes that require studies of young systems, including: the kinds of mutations involved in the transition to unisexual reproduction from hermaphroditism or monoecy (a form of functional hermaphroditism); the times when they arose; and the extent to which the properties of sex-linked regions of genomes reflect responses to new selective situations created by the presence of a sex-determining locus. I also evaluate which questions are best studied in plants, vs other suitable candidate organisms. Studies of young plant systems can help understand general evolutionary processes that are shared with the sex chromosomes of other organisms.

Insights into the genetic architecture of sexual dimorphism from an interspecific cross between two diverging Silene (Caryophyllaceae) species

The evolution of sexual dimorphism in species with separate sexes is influenced by the resolution of sexual conflicts creating sex differences through genetic linkage or sex-biased expression. Plants with different degrees of sexual dimorphism are thus ideal to study the genetic basis of sexual dimorphism. In this study we explore the genetic architecture of sexual dimorphism between Silene latifolia and Silene dioica. These species have chromosomal sex determination and differ in the extent of sexual dimorphism. To test whether QTL for sexually dimorphic traits have accumulated on the sex chromosomes and to quantify their contribution to species differences, we create a linkage map and performed QTL analysis of life history, flower and vegetative traits using an unidirectional interspecific F2 hybrid cross. We found support for an accumulation of QTL on the sex chromosomes and that sex differences explained a large proportion of the variance between species, suggesting that both natural and sexual selection contributed to species divergence. Sexually dimorphic traits that also differed between species displayed transgressive segregation. We observed a reversal in sexual dimorphism in the F2 population, where males tended to be larger than females, indicating that sexual dimorphism is constrained within populations but not in recombinant hybrids. This study contributes to the understanding of the genetic basis of sexual dimorphism and its evolution in Silene.

The distribution of epigenetic histone marks differs between the X and Y chromosomes in Silene latifolia

Contrasting patterns of histone modifications between the X and Y chromosome in Silene latifolia show euchromatic histone mark depletion on the Y chromosome and indicate hyperactivation of one X chromosome in females. Silene latifolia (white campion) is a dioecious plant with heteromorphic sex chromosomes (24, XX in females and 24, XY in males), and a genetically degenerated Y chromosome that is 1.4 times larger than the X chromosome. Although the two sex chromosomes differ in their DNA content, information about epigenetic histone marks and evidence of their function are scarce. We performed immunolabeling experiments using antibodies specific for active and suppressive histone modifications as well as pericentromere-specific histone modifications. We show that the Y chromosome is partially depleted of histone modifications important for transcriptionally active chromatin, and carries these marks only in the pseudo-autosomal region, but that it is not enriched for suppressive and pericentromere histone marks. We also show that two of the active marks are specifically enriched in one of the X chromosomes in females and in the X chromosome in males. Our data support recent findings that genetic imprinting mediates dosage compensation of sex chromosomes in S. latifolia.

Flower bud proteome reveals modulation of sex-biased proteins potentially associated with sex expression and modification in dioecious Coccinia grandis

BACKGROUND

Dioecy is an important sexual system wherein, male and female flowers are borne on separate unisexual plants. Knowledge of sex-related differences can enhance our understanding in molecular and developmental processes leading to unisexual flower development. Coccinia grandis is a dioecious species belonging to Cucurbitaceae, a family well-known for diverse sexual forms. Male and female plants have 22A + XY and 22A + XX chromosomes, respectively. Previously, we have reported a gynomonoecious form (22A + XX) of C. grandis bearing morphologically hermaphrodite flowers (GyM-H) and female flowers (GyM-F). Also, we have showed that foliar spray of AgNO₃ on female plant induces morphologically hermaphrodite bud development (Ag-H) despite the absence of Y-chromosome.

RESULTS

To identify sex-related differences, total proteomes from male, female, GyM-H and Ag-H flower buds at early and middle stages of development were analysed by label-free proteomics. Protein search against the cucumber protein sequences (Phytozome) as well as in silico translated C. grandis flower bud transcriptome database, resulted in the identification of 2426 and 3385 proteins (FDR ≤ 1%), respectively. The latter database was chosen for further analysis as it led to the detection of higher number of proteins. Identified proteins were annotated using BLAST2GO pipeline. SWATH-MS-based comparative abundance analysis between Female_Early_vs_Male_Early, Ag_Early_vs_Female_Early, GyM-H_Middle_vs_Male_Middle and Ag_Middle_vs_ Male_Middle led to the identification of 650, 1108, 905 and 805 differentially expressed proteins, respectively, at fold change ≥1.5 and P ≤ 0.05. Ethylene biosynthesis-related candidates as highlighted in protein interaction network were upregulated in female buds compared to male buds. AgNO₃ treatment on female plant induced proteins related to pollen development in Ag-H buds. Additionally, a few proteins governing pollen germination and tube growth were highly enriched in male buds compared to Ag-H and GyM-H buds.

CONCLUSION

Overall, current proteomic analysis provides insights in the identification of key proteins governing dioecy and unisexual flower development in cucurbitaceae, the second largest horticultural family in terms of economic importance. Also, our results suggest that the ethylene-mediated stamen inhibition might be conserved in dioecious C. grandis similar to its monoecious cucurbit relatives. Further, male-biased proteins associated with pollen germination and tube growth identified here can help in understanding pollen fertility.

Immediate Dosage Compensation Is Triggered by the Deletion of Y-Linked Genes in Silene latifolia

The loss of functional genes from non-recombining sex-specific chromosomes [1, 2], such as the Y chromosomes in mammals [3] or W chromosomes in birds [4], should result in an imbalance of gene products for sex-linked genes [5]. Different chromosome-wide systems that rebalance gene expression are known to operate in organisms with relatively old sex chromosomes [6]; e.g., Drosophila overexpress X-linked genes in males [7], while mammals shut down one of the X chromosomes in females [8]. It is not known how long it takes for a chromosome-wide dosage compensation system to evolve. To shed light on the early evolution of dosage compensation, we constructed a high-density Y-deletion map and used deletion mutants to manipulate gene dose and analyze gene expression in white campion (Silene latifolia), which evolved dioecy and sex chromosomes only 11 million years ago [9]. We demonstrate that immediate dosage compensation can be triggered by deletions in a large portion of the p arm of the Y chromosome. Our results indicate that dosage compensation in S. latifolia does not have to evolve gene by gene because a system to upregulate gene expression is already operating on part of the X chromosome, which likely represents an intermediate step in the evolution of a chromosome-wide dosage compensation system in this species.

Evolution of Young Sex Chromosomes in Two Dioecious Sister Plant Species with Distinct Sex Determination Systems

In the last decade, progress has been made in methods to identify the sex determination system in plants. This gives the opportunity to study sex chromosomes that arose independently at different phylogenetic scales, and thus allows the discovery and the understanding of early stages of sex chromosome evolution. In the genus Silene, sex chromosomes have evolved independently in at least two clades from a nondioecious ancestor, the Melandrium and Otites sections. In the latter, sex chromosomes could be younger than in the section Melandrium, based on phylogenetic studies and as no heteromorphic sex chromosomes have been detected. This section might also exhibit lability in sex determination, because male heterogamy and female heterogamy have been suggested to occur.

In this study, we investigated the sex determination system of two dioecious species in the section Otites (Silene otites and its close relative Silene pseudotites). Applying the new probabilistic method SEX-DETector on RNA-seq data from cross-controlled progenies, we inferred their most likely sex determination system and a list of putative autosomal and sex-linked contigs. We showed that the two phylogenetically close species differed in their sex determination system (XY versus ZW) with sex chromosomes that derived from two different pairs of autosomes. We built a genetic map of the sex chromosomes and showed that both pairs exhibited a large region with lack of recombination. However, the sex-limited chromosomes exhibited no strong degeneration. Finally, using the “ancestral” autosomal expression of sex-linked orthologs of nondioecious S. nutans, we found a slight signature of dosage compensation in the heterogametic females of S. otites.

Evolution of sex determination and heterogamety changes in section Otites of the genus Silene

Switches in heterogamety are known to occur in both animals and plants. Although plant sex determination systems probably often evolved more recently than those in several well-studied animals, including mammals, and have had less time for switches to occur, we previously detected a switch in heterogamety in the plant genus Silene: section Otites has both female and male heterogamety, whereas S. latifolia and its close relatives, in a different section of the genus, Melandrium (subgenus Behenantha), all have male heterogamety. Here we analyse the evolution of sex chromosomes in section Otites, which is estimated to have evolved only about 0.55 MYA. Our study confirms female heterogamety in S. otites and newly reveals female heterogamety in S. borysthenica. Sequence analyses and genetic mapping show that the sex-linked regions of these two species are the same, but the region in S. colpophylla, a close relative with male heterogamety, is different. The sex chromosome pairs of S. colpophylla and S. otites each correspond to an autosome of the other species, and both differ from the XY pair in S. latifolia. Silene section Otites species are suitable for detailed studies of the events involved in such changes, and our phylogenetic analysis suggests a possible change from female to male heterogamety within this section. Our analyses suggest a possibility that has so far not been considered, change in heterogamety through hybridization, in which a male-determining chromosome from one species is introgressed into another one, and over-rides its previous sex-determining system.