Thermal tolerance of the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei: predictions of climate change impact on a tropical insect pest

Phenological variations of avocado cv. Hass and their relationship with thermal time under tropical conditions

In recent years, the avocado has been one of the most dynamic fruits in the world market. In particular, cv. Hass stands out due to its productivity, nutritional quality, and acceptance. Under tropical conditions, weather elements, especially air temperature, and precipitation, affect the productivity and quality of cv. Hass. However, in tropical environments, many relationships between weather and phenological aspects of this cultivar are still unknown. Given this situation, our aim was to identify the variation and degree of association between the phenology of avocado cv. Hass and thermal time (TT) under low-latitude conditions. Eight commercial fields planted with cv. Hass grafted onto Antillean genotypes, located in an altitudinal transect between 1,700 and 2,500 m, were evaluated. The evaluation was carried out for three years and was focused on determining the differences in avocado phenological patterns associated with different environmental variables monitored by weather stations at each location. Air temperature data were used to calculate the base temperature (BT) using different methods for all phenological stages. Later the TT was determined for each stage and all locations. The results show that the duration of each phenological stage varies as a function of elevation (air temperature) and that the phenological stages overlap at the regional, crop field, and plant levels at different periods of the year, generating a high phenological variability but with specific patterns associated with temperature and precipitation. The BT for each phenological stage varied between 0.3 and 7.5 °C, and TT was found to vary depending on the method of calculation. Our work suggests that the generalization of a BT of 10 °C is not applicable for avocado cv. Hass crops under tropical conditions, specifically in the case of Colombia. Detailed studies of phenological relationships with respect to climatic variables will allow a better approximation of the productive behavior of avocado cv. Hass.

Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Activity and Infestation in the High Mountain and Blue Mountain Regions of Jamaica

Jamaica produces coffee marketed as Blue Mountain and high mountain (grown outside the Blue Mountains). Since the discovery of the coffee berry borer (CBB; Hypothenemus hampei) in Jamaica in 1978, chemical control has traditionally been the primary approach used to protect the crop from the pest. However, in the last 20 years, there has been an effort to shift towards more sustainable management strategies. The study was conducted to determine CBB activity (trap catch) and field infestation on coffee farms in the high mountains and Blue Mountains of Jamaica, over a crop cycle. A total of 27,929 and 12,921 CBBs were captured at high mountain and Blue Mountain farms, respectively. Peak CBB activity occurred in April in the high mountain region (365 CBBs/trap/month) and February in the Blue Mountain region (129 CBBs/trap/month). The highest levels of infestation were in November (33%) and October (34%) in the high mountain region and Blue Mountain region, respectively. There was no significant difference in the patterns of CBB activity and infestation between the study locations, and neither were related to the temperature or relative humidity. However, there was a significant relationship with rainfall. These data suggest that the population dynamics of the CBB may involve complex interactions among weather conditions, berry development, and agronomic practices.

Coupling Plant Growth Models and Pest and Disease Models: An Interaction Structure Proposal, MIMIC

Coupling plant growth model with pests and diseases (P&D) models, with consideration for the long-term feedback that occurs after the interaction, is still a challenging task nowadays. While a number of studies have examined various methodologies, none of them provides a generic frame able to host existing models and their codes without updating deeply their architecture. We developed MIMIC (Mediation Interface for Model Inner Coupling), an open-access framework/tool for this objective. MIMIC allows to couple plant growth and P&D models in a variety of ways. Users can experiment with various interaction configurations, ranging from a weak coupling that is mediated by the direct exchange of inputs and outputs between models to an advanced coupling that utilizes a third-party tool if the models' data or operating cycles do not align. The users decide how the interactions operate, and the platform offers powerful tools to design key features of the interactions, mobilizing metaprogramming techniques. The proposed framework is demonstrated, implementing coffee berry borers' attacks on Coffea arabica fruits. Observations conducted in a field in Sumatra (Indonesia) assess the coupled interaction model. Finally, we highlight the user-centric implementation characteristics of MIMIC, as a practical and convenient tool that requires minimal coding knowledge to use.

Temperature-Dependent Biology and Population Performances of the Coffee Berry Borer Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) on Artificial Diet

At different observation intervals of 1, 5, and 10 days during a trial period of 30 days, the mortality rates of Hypothenemus hampei were 100, 95, and 55%, and the fecundity rates were 0.55, 8.45, and 19.35 eggs/female, respectively. At temperatures of 18, 21, 24, and 27 °C, the development time of the immature stage of H. hampei was significantly shortened with increasing temperature. Furthermore, the lower developmental threshold (T₀) and thermal summation (K) of the immature stage were 8.91 °C and 485.44 degree-days, respectively. The greatest longevity of female and male adults reached 115.77 and 26.50 days, respectively, at 18 °C. The highest fecundity was 29.00 eggs/female at 24 °C. The population parameters of H. hampei were analyzed on the basis of the age-stage, two-sex life table theory. According to the data, the parameters were significantly affected by temperature. The highest net reproductive rate (R₀) was 13.32 eggs/individual at 24 °C. The highest intrinsic rate of increase (r) and finite rate of increase (λ) were calculated as 0.0401 and 1.0409 day^-1, respectively, at a temperature of 27 °C. The shortest mean generation time (T) was 51.34 days at 27 °C. Overall, we provide a discussion on comprehensive biological information regarding H. hampei, thus providing basic knowledge for further research on this pest.

Comparative transcriptome analysis in peaberry and regular bean coffee to identify bean quality associated genes

BACKGROUND

The peaberry bean in Arabica coffee has exceptional quality compared to the regular coffee bean. Understanding the molecular mechanism of bean quality is imperative to introduce superior coffee quality traits. Despite high economic importance, the regulatory aspects of bean quality are yet largely unknown in peaberry. A transcriptome analysis was performed by using peaberry and regular coffee beans in this study.

RESULTS

The result of phenotypic analysis stated a difference in the physical attributes of both coffee beans. In addition, transcriptome analysis revealed low genetic differences. Only 139 differentially expressed genes were detected in which 54 genes exhibited up-regulation and 85 showed down-regulations in peaberry beans compared to regular beans. The majority of differentially expressed genes had functional annotation with cell wall modification, lipid binding, protein binding, oxidoreductase activity, and transmembrane transportation. Many fold lower expression of Ca25840-PMEs1, Ca30827-PMEs2, Ca30828-PMEs3, Ca25839-PMEs4, Ca36469-PGs. and Ca03656-Csl genes annotated with cell wall modification might play a critical role to develop different bean shape patterns in Arabica. The ERECTA family genes Ca15802-ERL1, Ca99619-ERL2, Ca07439-ERL3, Ca97226-ERL4, Ca89747-ERL5, Ca07056-ERL6, Ca01141-ERL7, and Ca32419-ERL8 along lipid metabolic pathway genes Ca06708-ACOX1, Ca29177-ACOX2, Ca01563-ACOX3, Ca34321-CPFA1, and Ca36201-CPFA2 are predicted to regulate different shaped bean development. In addition, flavonoid biosynthesis correlated genes Ca03809-F3H, Ca95013-CYP75A1, and Ca42029-CYP75A2 probably help to generate rarely formed peaberry beans.

CONCLUSION

Our results provide molecular insights into the formation of peaberry. The data resources will be important to identify candidate genes correlated with the different bean shape patterns in Arabica.

Gene expression differences consistent with water loss reduction underlie desiccation tolerance of natural Drosophila populations

BACKGROUND

Climate change is one of the main factors shaping the distribution and biodiversity of organisms, among others by greatly altering water availability, thus exposing species and ecosystems to harsh desiccation conditions. However, most of the studies so far have focused on the effects of increased temperature. Integrating transcriptomics and physiology is key to advancing our knowledge on how species cope with desiccation stress, and these studies are still best accomplished in model organisms.

RESULTS

Here, we characterized the natural variation of European D. melanogaster populations across climate zones and found that strains from arid regions were similar or more tolerant to desiccation compared with strains from temperate regions. Tolerant and sensitive strains differed not only in their transcriptomic response to stress but also in their basal expression levels. We further showed that gene expression changes in tolerant strains correlated with their physiological response to desiccation stress and with their cuticular hydrocarbon composition, and functionally validated three of the candidate genes identified. Transposable elements, which are known to influence stress response across organisms, were not found to be enriched nearby differentially expressed genes. Finally, we identified several tRNA-derived small RNA fragments that differentially targeted genes in response to desiccation stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results showed that basal gene expression differences across individuals should be analyzed if we are to understand the genetic basis of differential stress survival. Moreover, tRNA-derived small RNA fragments appear to be relevant across stress responses and allow for the identification of stress-response genes not detected at the transcriptional level.

Integrating temperature-dependent development and reproduction models for predicting population growth of the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari

The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae), is the most devastating insect pest of coffee worldwide. It feeds on the beans inside the berries leading to significant crop losses and unmarketable products. This study aims to model the impact of temperature on H. hampei fecundity and population growth parameters, as a contribution to the prediction of infestation risk. The fecundity was assessed on fresh coffee beans at six constant temperatures in the range 15-30°C, with RH 80 ± 5% and photoperiod 12:12 L:D. Nonlinear models were fitted to the relationship between fecundity and temperature using the ILCYM software. The best fecundity model was combined to development models obtained for immature stages in a previous study in order to simulate life table parameters at different constant temperatures. Females of H. hampei successfully oviposited in the temperature range 15-30°C, with the highest fecundity observed at 23°C (106.1 offspring per female). Polynomial function 8 model was the best fitted to the relationship between fecundity and temperature. With this model, the highest fecundity was estimated at 23°C, with 110 eggs per female. The simulated net reproductive rate (R₀) was maximal at 24°C, with 50.08 daughters per female, while the intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) was the highest at 26°C, with a value of 0.069. Our results will help understand H. hampei population dynamics and develop an ecologically sound management strategy based on a better assessment of infestation risk.

Demography and perturbation analyses of the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Implications for management

The coffee berry borer (CBB) Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari is the most serious pest of coffee worldwide. Management of the CBB is extremely difficult because its entire life cycle occurs inside the fruit, where it is well protected. Knowing which life stages contribute most to population growth, would shed light on the population dynamics of this pest and help to improve CBB management programs. Two staged-classified matrices were constructed for CBB populations reared in the lab on artificial diets and CBB populations from artificial infestations in the field. Matrices were used to determine demographic parameters, to conduct elasticity analyses, and to perform prospective perturbation analysis. Higher values of the intrinsic rate of natural increase (r_m) and population growth rate (λ): were observed for CBB populations growing in the lab than in the field (r_m: 0.058, λ: 1.74 lab; r_m: 0.053, λ: 1.32 field). Sensitivity values for both CBB populations were highest for the transitions from larva to pupa (G₂: 0.316 lab, 0.352 field), transition from pupa to juvenile (G₃: 0.345 lab, 0.515 field) and survival of adult females (P₅: 0.324 lab, 0.389 field); these three vital rates can be important targets for CBB management. Prospective perturbation analyses indicated that an effective management for the CBB should consider multiple developmental stages; perturbations of >90% for each transition are necessary to reduce λ to <1. However, when the three vital rates with highest sensitivity are impacted at the same time, the percentage of perturbation is reduced to 25% for each transition; with these reductions in survival of larvae, pupae and adult females the value of λ was reduced from 1.32 to 0.96. Management programs for CBB should be focused on the use of biological and cultural measures that are known to affect these three important targets.

Sub-lethal doses of Nucleopolyhedrosis Virus and synthetic ınsecticides alter the biological parameters of Helicoverpa armigera Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Resistance management is very important for devising control strategies of polyphagous insect-pests like Helicoverpa armigera Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Considering the importance of resistance management, demographic features of selected and unselected populations of H. armigera were studied in 6 different treatments viz. emamectin benzoate, Helicoverpa armigera Nucleopolyhedrosis Virus (HaNPV), emamectin benzoate+HaNPV, spinetoram, spinetoram+HaNPV and control. Higher values for fecundity, intrinsic rate, the finite rate of increase (λ) were recorded in the control of selected as compared to the rest of treatment. Similarly, higher values for these population parameters viz. oviposition days, fecundity, intrinsic rate, the finite rate of increase were calculated in the unselected control. Similarly, net reproductive rate (R₀) for selected and unselected control was higher as compared to the rest of the treatments. It may happen because these kinds of selection pressures can result in decreased fitness of the test insect thus decreased fitness of H. armigera in different treatments was observed as compared to the control. Additionally, quicker development of susceptible insects was observed because susceptible insects were growing without any stressor (xenobiotics) as compared to the rest which contributed to their faster development.

Agro-Ecological Management of Coffee Pests in Brazil

Coffee plants host several herbivorous species, but only few are considered pests. Brazil is the largest coffee producer of the world, and the two key coffee pests of the crop in the country are the coffee leaf miner Leucoptera coffeella and the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei. However, in some regions or on specific conditions, species of mites and scales can also cause damage to coffee plants. Conventional management of coffee pests relies on chemical pesticides, and it is the most commonly used strategy in Brazil, but environmental problems, pest resistance, and toxicity-related issues have led coffee growers to search for alternatives for pest control. Agro-ecological strategies suitable to coffee cultivation can be adopted by farmers, based on plant diversification, in order to provide resources for natural enemies, such as nectar, pollen, shelter, microclimate conditions, and oviposition sites, thereby promoting conservation biological control. Here I revise these strategies and report the results from research in Brazil. I include results on agroforestry, use of cover crops, and non-crop plant management. These are complemented by curative measures based on the use of organic farming-approved pesticides that can be employed when the agro-ecological practices are not yet consolidated. I also present the cultural control method used by several coffee producers in Brazil to decrease coffee berry borer damage.

Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei) Emergence from Ground Fruits Across Varying Altitudes and Climate Cycles, and the Effect on Coffee Tree Infestation

During coffee harvest, picked berries fall to the ground where they serve as a reservoir for the coffee berry borer (CBB) which then infest coffee berries on the trees. This study tested the effect of fallen CBB-infested coffee berries on the infestation of coffee trees (Coffea arabica). Three-year-old trees were treated with either 0, 1, 5, 10, 15, or 20 CBB-infested berries placed on the root vicinity. The CBB infestation of coffee trees was sampled every 30 days during 6 months for four coffee productive cycles. The experiment was set up at four different locations comprising different altitudes (1,218; 1,381; 1,470; and 1,700 m.a.s.l.) and the measurements were taken during 4 years where the climatic events of El Niño, La Niña, Neutral, and transitions El Niño/La Niña were present. The results show that CBB-infested berries left on the ground are a reservoir of CBB for 140 ± 8.2 days and infest developing healthy coffee berries. In a climate Neutral year, one CBB-infested ground berry left on the ground infested on average 590.2 ± 142.2 berries in coffee trees grown at 1,218 m.a.s.l. At the same altitude, one CBB-infested ground berry resulted in 151.5 ± 29.1 infested tree berries during La Niña year and 959.0 ± 89.6 during El Niño year. The CBB infestation was positively correlated with temperature and negatively correlated with altitude (R²= 0.99 and R²= -0.96, respectively). This study highlights the importance of careful harvesting practices to prevent berries from falling to the ground, followed by ground sanitation to limit later infestation of the coffee crop.

The hotter the better? Climate change and voltinism of Spodoptera eridania estimated with different methods

Substantial increases in global temperature are projected for the coming decades due to climate change. Considering that temperature has a strong influence on insect voltinism (i.e., number of generations per year), climate change may affect the population growth of insects, with potential consequences for food production. The southern armyworm, Spodoptera eridania, is a multivoltine species native to the American tropics that causes severe damage to several crops. In this context, this study evaluated the impacts of climate change on the voltinism of S. eridania in southern Brazil. Current and future daily temperature data were combined with non-linear and degree-day models to estimate the voltinism of this pest. Under current climate conditions, the voltinism of S. eridania ranged from 2.9 to 9.2 generations, with fewer cohorts in colder regions and more in warmer ones. A higher number of generations was predicted for the future climate scenarios evaluated, reaching up to 12.1 annual generations in certain regions by 2070. Most of the variation in voltinism was explained by location (87.7%) and by the interaction between location and mathematical model (3.0%). The degree-day model estimated an increase in the number of generations in the entire study area, while the non-linear model predicted a decrease in voltinism in the warmer regions under future climate change scenarios. Given these differences between the predictions provided by degree-day and non-linear models, the selection of the best method to be used in climate change studies should be carried out carefully, considering how species respond to temperature. A considerable increase in the number of generations of S. eridania was projected for most of the study area under the climate change scenarios evaluated, suggesting a possible rise in pest incidence levels in the coming decades.

Emergence and Infestation Level of Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on Coffee Berries on the Plant or on the Ground During the Post-harvest Period in Brazil

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is the most important coffee pest in most of the coffee growing countries. CBB females leave old dry berries after harvest and search for dry noninfested berries on the plant or on the ground to lay eggs or to use as refuge until new berries are available on the coffee trees in the following season. The CBB infestation level and emergence from berries on the ground or on the plants were evaluated in two fields post-harvest in the Spring in Brazil over two seasons. Twenty infested or noninfested berries in separate cages (250 ml plastic cups) were placed on the plants or on the ground under the tree canopy, in each field. The number of infested berries and CBB females that emerged from the infested berries were recorded weekly. CBB emergence was higher from berries on the ground than those on the coffee trees in both seasons, whereas CBB infestation was higher on coffee berries on the plants than those on the ground in season I. Insolation (hours of sunlight) and temperature were the main covariates that affected emergence and infestation by this insect. The results are discussed for monitoring CBB during the time of dispersal with implications on integrated management of this pest.

Growth temperature effect on mandibles' ontogeny and sexual dimorphism in the ambrosia beetle Xyleborus affinis (Curculionidae: Scolytinae)

Ambrosia beetles from the genus Xyleborus are important vectors of fungal pathogens in forest and agricultural systems, yet the influence of temperature on their morphological development has been poorly studied. Because host colonization and ambrosial fungi cultivation is mostly restricted to females, it is possible to speculate on strong sexual dimorphism expression in secondary sexual characters and ecological segregation between sexes. Here, we determined the effect of different growing temperatures (17, 23, 26 and 29 °C) on mandible ontogeny of larvae and adult individuals of X. affinis, and sexual dimorphism in adults, in shape and size variation using geometric morphometrics. Mandible shape change showed significant differences in magnitude and direction through larval ontogeny among temperature treatments. Sexual shape and size dimorphism were found in adult mandibles, and the degree of sexual dimorphism was dependent on growth temperature, with a significant effect of the interaction between temperature and sex on mandible shape and size variation. Higher morphological differences were observed at the base of mandibles among temperature treatments in adults and a gradual narrowing trend with temperature increments. These findings could have consequences on feeding performance and fungus cultivation inside colonies, potentially influencing their ability to establish populations in new geographical areas.

A one-dimensional map to study multi-seasonal coffee infestation by the coffee berry borer

The coffee berry borer (CBB, Hypothenemus hampei) is the most serious insect pest of coffee worldwide; understanding the dynamics of its reproduction is essential for pest management. The female CBB penetrates the coffee berry, eats the seed, and reproduces inside it. A mathematical model of the infestation progress of the coffee berry by the CBB during several coffee seasons is formulated. The model represents the interaction among five populations: uninfested, slightly infested, and severely infested coffee berries, and free and encapsulated CBBs. Coffee harvesting is also included in the model. A one-dimensional map is derived for tracking the population dynamics subject to certain coffee harvesting percentages over several seasons. Stability analysis of the map's fixed points shows that CBB infestation could be eliminated or controlled to a specific level over multiple seasons of coffee harvesting. However, the percent of coffee harvesting required is determined by the level of CBB infestation at the beginning of the first season and in some cases it is impossible to achieve that percentage.

Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei), a Global Pest of Coffee: Perspectives from Historical and Recent Invasions, and Future Priorities

Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari), CBB) has invaded nearly every coffee-producing country in the world, and it is commonly recognized as the most damaging insect pest of coffee. While research has been conducted on this pest in individual coffee-growing regions, new insights may be gained by comparing and contrasting patterns of invasion and response across its global distribution. In this review, we explore the existing literature and focus on common themes in the invasion biology of CBB by examining (1) how it was introduced into each particular region and the response to its invasion, (2) flight activity and infestation patterns, (3) economic impacts, and (4) management strategies. We highlight research conducted over the last ten years in Hawaii as a case study for the development and implementation of an effective integrated pest management (IPM) program for CBB, and also discuss biosecurity issues contributing to incursion and establishment. Potential areas for future research in each of the five major components of CBB IPM (monitoring and sampling, cultural, biological, chemical, and physical controls) are also presented. Finally, we emphasize that outreach efforts are crucial to the successful implementation of CBB IPM programs. Future research programs should strive to include coffee growers as much as possible to ensure that management options are feasible and cost-effective.

Shade trees preserve avian insectivore biodiversity on coffee farms in a warming climate

AIM

Coffee is an important export for many developing countries, with a global annual trade value of $100 billion, but it is threatened by a warming climate. Shade trees may mitigate the effects of climate change through temperature regulation that can aid in coffee growth, slow pest reproduction, and sustain avian insectivore diversity. The impact of shade on bird diversity and microclimate on coffee farms has been studied extensively in the Neotropics, but there is a dearth of research in the Paleotropics.

LOCATION

East Africa.

METHODS

We created current and future regional Maxent models for avian insectivores in East Africa using Worldclim temperature data and observations from the Global Biodiversity Information Database. We then adjusted current and future bioclimatic layers based on mean differences in temperature between shade and sun coffee farms and projected the models using these adjusted layers to predict the impact of shade tree removal on climatic suitability for avian insectivores.

RESULTS

Existing Worldclim temperature layers more closely matched temperatures under shade trees than temperatures in the open. Removal of shade trees, through warmer temperatures alone, would result in reduction of avian insectivore species by over 25%, a loss equivalent to 50 years of climate change under the most optimistic emissions scenario. Under the most extreme climate scenario and removal of shade trees, insectivore richness is projected to decline from a mean of 38 to fewer than 8 avian insectivore species.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

We found that shade trees on coffee farms already provide important cooler microclimates for avian insectivores. Future temperatures will become a regionally limiting factor for bird distribution in East Africa, which could negatively impact control of coffee pests, but the effect of climate change can be potentially mediated through planting and maintaining shade trees on coffee farms.

Land Suitability for Coffee (Coffea arabica) Growing in Amazonas, Peru: Integrated Use of AHP, GIS and RS

Peru is one of the world’s main coffee exporters, whose production is driven mainly by five regions and, among these, the Amazonas region. However, a combined negative factor, including, among others, climate crisis, the incidence of diseases and pests, and poor land-use planning, have led to a decline in coffee yields, impacting on the family economy. Therefore, this research assesses land suitability for coffee production (Coffea arabica) in Amazonas region, in order to support the development of sustainable agriculture. For this purpose, a hierarchical structure was developed based on six climatological sub-criteria, five edaphological sub-criteria, three physiographical sub-criteria, four socio-economic sub-criteria, and three restrictions (coffee diseases and pests). These were integrated using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS). Of the Amazonas region, 11.4% (4803.17 km2), 87.9% (36,952.27 km2) and 0.7% (295.47 km2) are “optimal”, “suboptimal” and “unsuitable” for the coffee growing, respectively. It is recommended to orient coffee growing in 912.48 km2 of territory in Amazonas, which presents “optimal” suitability for coffee and is “unsuitable” for diseases and pests. This research aims to support coffee farmers and local governments in the region of Amazonas to implement new strategies for land management in coffee growing. Furthermore, the methodology used can be applied to assess land suitability for other crops of economic interest in Andean Amazonian areas.

Evaluation of Exclusion Netting for Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus Hampei) Management

Exclusion nets are increasingly being used to protect a variety of agricultural crops from insect pests as a sustainable alternative to chemical controls. We examined the efficacy of exclusion nets in controlling the world's most damaging insect pest of coffee, Hypothenemus hampei (coffee berry borer), on two small-scale coffee farms on Hawai'i Island. We recorded microclimate data, fruit infestation, population per fruit, sex ratio, mortality by Beauveria bassiana, coffee yield and quality in four paired exclusion and control (un-netted) plots on both farms. Mean and maximum daily temperature and relative humidity were similar between treatments, while mean and maximum daily solar radiation was reduced by ~50% in exclusion plots. Green and ripe fruit from exclusion plots had significantly lower infestation compared to un-netted control plots at both farms. We observed no significant difference between exclusion and control plots in the number of CBB per fruit or the female:male sex ratio. CBB mortality was significantly higher in control relative to exclusion plots in one of the two farms. Ripe fruits harvested from exclusion plots were on average significantly heavier and wider than those from control plots; however, there was no significant difference in the average yield per tree between treatments. Lastly, coffee quality was not significantly different between control and exclusion plots. Our results suggest that with complete sanitation prior to net installation in an environment where CBB is actively circulating, exclusion netting can successfully control CBB on small-scale coffee farms without reducing coffee yield or quality, and has the potential to lower production and labor costs by eliminating the need to spray pesticides.

Modelling the effect of temperature on the biology and demographic parameters of the African coffee white stem borer, Monochamus leuconotus (Pascoe) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

The African coffee white stem borer Monochamus leuconotus (Pascoe) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is a destructive insect pest of Arabica coffee trees in African highlands. Our study aims to provide information on the pest biology as influenced by temperature, determine thermal thresholds, and provide life table parameters for M. leuconotus reared in the laboratory. The life cycle of M. leuconotus was studied at seven constant temperatures in the range 15-35 °C, with 80 ± 5% RH and a photoperiod of L:D 12:12. Linear and nonlinear models were fitted to laboratory data to describe the impact of temperature on M. leuconotus development, mortality, fecundity and senescence. The complete life cycle was obtained between 18 and 30 °C, with the egg incubation period ranging 10.8-29.2 days. The development time was longest for the larva, with 194.2 days at 30 °C and 543.1 days at 18 °C. The minimum temperature threshold (T_min) was estimated at 10.7, 10.0 and 11.5 °C, for egg, larva and pupa, respectively. The maximum temperature threshold (T_max) was estimated at 37.4, 40.6 and 40.0 °C for egg, larva and pupa, respectively. The optimum temperature for immature stage survival was estimated between 23.0 and 23.9 °C. The highest fecundity was 97.8 eggs per female at 23 °C. Simulated life table parameters showed the highest net reproductive rate (R_o) of 11.8 daughters per female at 26 °C and maximal intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) between 26 and 28 °C, with a value of 0.008. Our results will help understanding M. leuconotus biology as influenced by temperature and may be used to predict the distribution and infestation risk under climate warming for this critical coffee pest.

Temperature-dependent development and survival of immature stages of the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Although the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is the most destructive insect pest of coffee worldwide, there is much to learn about its thermal biology. This study aimed to develop temperature-based models for H. hampei development and to provide the thermal requirements of immature stages in the laboratory. Using a new observation method, larval development and survival were monitored daily on fresh Arabica coffee seeds, under seven constant temperatures in the range 15-35°C, with 80 ± 5% RH and 12:12 L:D photoperiod. Linear and non-linear functions were fitted to the development data plotted against temperature, using Insect Life Cycle Modelling software (ILCYM). Temperature significantly affected the development time of all immature stages. Egg incubation period ranged 4.6-16.8 days, under temperature between 30 and 15°C. No development occurred at 35°C and the larval stage did not develop to pupa at 15°C. The minimum temperature threshold (Tmin) estimated from linear regression was 10.5, 13.0, 15.0 and 13.0°C, for egg, larva, pupa and the total development from egg to adult, respectively. The maximum temperature threshold (Tmax) estimated from the Sharpe and DeMichele function was 32°C for egg to adult development. The thermal constant (k) was estimated at 78.1, 188.7, 36.5 and 312.5 degree days, for egg, larva, pupa and for egg to adult, respectively. Our results will help understand and predict the pest population dynamics and distribution in coffee plantations as impacted by temperature, and as such, will contribute to a more efficient management of the pest.

Elucidation of Hosts, Native Distribution, and Habitat of the Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei) Using Herbaria and Other Museum Collections

The coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) is the most damaging insect pest of global coffee production. Despite its importance, our knowledge on the insect's natural habitat, range, and wild host species remains poorly known. Using archival sources (mainly herbaria but also other museum collections), we surveyed 18,667 predominantly wild-collected herbarium specimens mostly from Africa, Madagascar, and Asia for coffee berry borer occurrence. A total of 72 incidences were confirmed for presence of the coffee berry borer, with identifications assisted by micro-CT for SEM. Of the 72 positive infestations, all were from tropical African coffee (Coffea) species, of which 32 were from wild (non-cultivated) plants. Of the 32 wild occurrences, 30 were found in C. canephora (robusta coffee), 1 in C. liberica (Liberica coffee), and 1 in C. arabica (Arabica coffee). Our herbarium survey confirms literature and anecdotal reports that the coffee berry borer is indigenous to tropical Africa, and that coffee species, and particularly robusta coffee, are important hosts. We identify the wetter type of Guineo-Congolian forest as either the preferred or exclusive native habitat of the coffee berry borer. Other than coffee, we find no evidence of other naturally occurring hosts. Characters of infestation (e.g., hole position on coffee fruits) infers a certain degree of specificity between the coffee berry borer and its host.

Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) development across an elevational gradient on Hawai'i Island: Applying laboratory degree-day predictions to natural field populations

Coffee berry borer (CBB, Hypothenemus hampei) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is the most destructive pest of coffee worldwide. Information on CBB development times can be used to predict the initiation of new infestation cycles early in the coffee-growing season and thus inform the timing of insecticide applications. While laboratory estimates of CBB development under constant conditions exist, they have not been applied under the heterogeneous environmental conditions that characterize many coffee-growing regions. We measured CBB development times and abundance in commercial coffee farms across an elevational gradient on Hawai‘i Island and applied thermal accumulation models from previous laboratory studies to test their fit to field data. Artificial lures were used to infest coffee berries at five farms ranging in elevation from 279–792 m, and weather variables were monitored at macro (farm-level) and micro (branch-level) scales. CBB development was followed in the field from the time of initial berry infestation by the founding female through the development of F1 mature adults. Mean development time from egg to adult across all sites was 38.5 ± 3.46 days, while the mean time required for the completion of a full life cycle (from time of infestation to presence of mature F1 females) was 50.9 ± 3.35 days. Development time increased with increasing elevation and decreasing temperature. Using macro-scale temperature data and two different estimates for the lower temperature threshold (14.9°C and 13.9°C), we estimated a mean requirement of 332 ± 14 degree-days and 386 ± 16 degree-days, respectively, from the time of berry infestation to the initiation of a new reproductive cycle in mature coffee berries. Similar estimates were obtained using micro-scale temperature data, indicating that macro-scale temperature monitoring is sufficient for life-cycle prediction. We also present a model relating elevation to number of CBB generations per month. Our findings suggest that CBB development times from laboratory studies are generally applicable to field conditions on Hawai‘i Island and can be used as a decision support tool to improve IPM strategies for this worldwide pest of coffee.

Biology, Thermal Requirements, and Estimation of the Number of Generations of Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari, 1867) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in the State of São Paulo, Brazil

Coffee culture, one of the main agricultural activities in Brazil, has undergone recent negative impacts due to unfavorable climate conditions, with a subnormal rainy period and increased temperatures during the second half of 2015. The coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari, 1867) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is one of the main insect pests of coffee crops worldwide. The present research aimed to determine the climate zones for coffee berry borer in the state of São Paulo, based on its thermal requirements. The results showed that the mean biological development time of H. hampei was affected by temperature, completing its life cycle more rapidly in increased temperatures until the 30°C threshold temperature, and more slowly above this temperature. Development time (egg-adult) was inversely related to temperature in the range between 18 and 32°C. The temperature threshold (Tt) was 13.9°C and the thermal constant (K) was 299 degree-days. These laboratory estimates of thermal requirements and the Geographic Information System (GIS) were used to generate insect life span distribution maps for São Paulo. In this state, the coffee berry borer can produce 5.09-10.53 generations annually. Higher pest incidences should coincide with both temperature increases and the availability of coffee fruit for infestation. The data obtained can be used to estimate the monthly and yearly number of generations of this pest, for use in integrated pest management programs.

Climate Change, Carbon Dioxide, and Pest Biology, Managing the Future: Coffee as a Case Study

The challenge of maintaining sufficient food, feed, fiber, and forests, for a projected end of century population of between 9–10 billion in the context of a climate averaging 2–4 °C warmer, is a global imperative. However, climate change is likely to alter the geographic ranges and impacts for a variety of insect pests, plant pathogens, and weeds, and the consequences for managed systems, particularly agriculture, remain uncertain. That uncertainty is related, in part, to whether pest management practices (e.g., biological, chemical, cultural, etc.) can adapt to climate/CO2 induced changes in pest biology to minimize potential loss. The ongoing and projected changes in CO2, environment, managed plant systems, and pest interactions, necessitates an assessment of current management practices and, if warranted, development of viable alternative strategies to counter damage from invasive alien species and evolving native pest populations. We provide an overview of the interactions regarding pest biology and climate/CO2; assess these interactions currently using coffee as a case study; identify the potential vulnerabilities regarding future pest impacts; and discuss possible adaptive strategies, including early detection and rapid response via EDDMapS (Early Detection & Distribution Mapping System), and integrated pest management (IPM), as adaptive means to improve monitoring pest movements and minimizing biotic losses while improving the efficacy of pest control.

Temperature-dependent models of development and survival of an insect pest of African tropical highlands, the coffee antestia bug Antestiopsis thunbergii (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

The antestia bug Antestiopsis thunbergii (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is a major pest of Arabica coffee in African tropical highlands. It feeds on coffee plant vegetative parts and berries leading to a direct reduction in coffee yield and quality. This study aimed to determine A. thunbergii thermal requirements, and to obtain new information on the pest demography as influenced by temperature. Temperature-dependent models were developed using the Insect Life Cycle Modelling software (ILCYM) through a complete life table study at seven constant temperatures in the range 18-32°C. Non-linear functions were fitted to A. thunbergii development, mortality, fecundity and senescence. Model parameters and demographic variables obtained from the models were given for each temperature and development stage. Life table parameters were estimated for nine constant temperatures, from 18°C to 26°C, using stochastic simulations. The minimum temperature threshold (T_min) and the thermal constant (k) for the development from egg to adult were estimated from a linear function at 12.1°C and 666.67° days, respectively. The maximum temperature threshold (T_max) was estimated at 33.9°C from a Logan model. The optimum temperature for immature stages' survival was estimated to be between 22.4 and 24.7°C. The maximum fecundity was 147.7 eggs female^-1 at 21.2°C. Simulated A. thunbergii life table parameters were affected by temperature, and the maximum value of intrinsic rate of increase (r_m) was 0.029 at 22°C and 23°C. In general, the life cycle data, models and demographic parameters we obtained were in line with previous reports for antestia bugs or other stink bug species. The relationships between the pest thermal requirements and ecological preferences in highland coffee were discussed. Our results will contribute to risk prediction under climate change for this important coffee pest.

The Coffee Berry Borer (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Puerto Rico: Distribution, Infestation, and Population per Fruit

The coffee berry borer (CBB) (Hypothenemus hampei: Ferrar) was first detected in Puerto Rico in 2007. Its distribution since then has been extensive, but not extensively documented. An island-wide survey was carried out from August to November 2014 (the coffee production season) to assess CBB distribution, infestation, and population per fruit. The CBB was well-established throughout the coffee-growing area of Puerto Rico, but was not evenly distributed. Infestation (or percentages of fruits perforated) in sites sampled ranged from 0 to 95%, and CBB number per infested fruit varied from 1 to 34 individuals. CBB infestation and total population per fruit were positively correlated with altitude. Highest infestation and total population were observed in sites located >400 masl; most of the coffee-producing area in Puerto Rico is above this altitude. Coffea arabica (L.) had higher CBB infestation and population per fruit than Coffea canephora (Pierre ex A. Froehner) (robusta coffee). Based on these results, management tools should be implemented to mitigate the severe damage that CBB is causing in Puerto Rico. These management tools should include the removal of all fruits that remain on the plants after harvest and the use of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balls.) Vuill. for biocontrol, especially on coffee farms at higher elevations.

Towards a Collaborative Research: A Case Study on Linking Science to Farmers' Perceptions and Knowledge on Arabica Coffee Pests and Diseases and Its Management

The scientific community has recognized the importance of integrating farmer's perceptions and knowledge (FPK) for the development of sustainable pest and disease management strategies. However, the knowledge gap between indigenous and scientific knowledge still contributes to misidentification of plant health constraints and poor adoption of management solutions. This is particularly the case in the context of smallholder farming in developing countries. In this paper, we present a case study on coffee production in Uganda, a sector depending mostly on smallholder farming facing a simultaneous and increasing number of socio-ecological pressures. The objectives of this study were (i) to examine and relate FPK on Arabica Coffee Pests and Diseases (CPaD) to altitude and the vegetation structure of the production systems; (ii) to contrast results with perceptions from experts and (iii) to compare results with field observations, in order to identify constraints for improving the information flow between scientists and farmers. Data were acquired by means of interviews and workshops. One hundred and fifty farmer households managing coffee either at sun exposure, under shade trees or inter-cropped with bananas and spread across an altitudinal gradient were selected. Field sampling of the two most important CPaD was conducted on a subset of 34 plots. The study revealed the following findings: (i) Perceptions on CPaD with respect to their distribution across altitudes and perceived impact are partially concordant among farmers, experts and field observations (ii) There are discrepancies among farmers and experts regarding management practices and the development of CPaD issues of the previous years. (iii) Field observations comparing CPaD in different altitudes and production systems indicate ambiguity of the role of shade trees. According to the locality-specific variability in CPaD pressure as well as in FPK, the importance of developing spatially variable and relevant CPaD control practices is proposed.

Summer diapause induced by high temperatures in the oriental tobacco budworm: ecological adaptation to hot summers

Summer diapause in Helicoverpa assulta (Hübner), which prolongs the pupal stage, particularly in males, is induced by high temperatures. In the laboratory, 3^rd-, 4^th-, 6^th-instar and prepupal larvae were exposed to high temperatures – 33 and 35 °C with a photoperiod of LD16:8 – until pupation to induce summer diapause. The results showed that the incidence of summer diapause was influenced by temperature, stage exposed, and sex. The higher the temperature, the more often summer diapause was attained. Sixth-instar and prepupal larvae were the sensitive stages for summer diapause induction. H. assulta summer-diapausing pupae needed diapause development to resume development when temperatures became favorable. Furthermore, both body mass and energy storage capacity (lipid and glycogen) were significantly affected by diapause rather than sex, and were significantly higher in summer-diapausing pupae than in non-diapausing pupae. In addition, the body mass loss and respiration rate showed that the rate of metabolism in the summer-diapausing pupae was consistently lower than in non-diapausing pupae, which were significantly affected by diapause and pupal age. We conclude that summer diapause in H. assulta is a true diapause, and H. assulta has evolved mechanisms to accumulate energy storage and to lower its metabolism to adapt to hot summers.

Future Risks of Pest Species under Changing Climatic Conditions

Most agricultural pests are poikilothermic species expected to respond to climate change. Currently, they are a tremendous burden because of the high losses they inflict on crops and livestock. Smallholder farmers in developing countries of Africa are likely to suffer more under these changes than farmers in the developed world because more severe climatic changes are projected in these areas. African countries further have a lower ability to cope with impacts of climate change through the lack of suitable adapted management strategies and financial constraints. In this study we are predicting current and future habitat suitability under changing climatic conditions for Tuta absoluta, Ceratitis cosyra, and Bactrocera invadens, three important insect pests that are common across some parts of Africa and responsible for immense agricultural losses. We use presence records from different sources and bioclimatic variables to predict their habitat suitability using the maximum entropy modelling approach. We find that habitat suitability for B. invadens, C. cosyra and T. absoluta is partially increasing across the continent, especially in those areas already overlapping with or close to most suitable sites under current climate conditions. Assuming a habitat suitability at three different threshold levels we assessed where each species is likely to be present under future climatic conditions and if this is likely to have an impact on productive agricultural areas. Our results can be used by African policy makers, extensionists and farmers for agricultural adaptation measures to cope with the impacts of climate change.

From site-level to regional adaptation planning for tropical commodities: cocoa in West Africa

The production of tropical agricultural commodities, such as cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and coffee (Coffea spp.), the countries and communities engaged in it, and the industries dependent on these commodities, are vulnerable to climate change. This is especially so where a large percentage of the global supply is grown in a single geographical region. Fortunately, there is often considerable spatial heterogeneity in the vulnerability to climate change within affected regions, implying that local production losses could be compensated through intensification and expansion of production elsewhere. However, this requires that site-level actions are integrated into a regional approach to climate change adaptation. We discuss here such a regional approach for cocoa in West Africa, where 70 % of global cocoa supply originates. On the basis of a statistical model of relative climatic suitability calibrated on West African cocoa farming areas and average climate projections for the 2030s and 2050s of, respectively, 15 and 19 Global Circulation Models, we divide the region into three adaptation zones: (i) a little affected zone permitting intensification and/or expansion of cocoa farming; (ii) a moderately affected zone requiring diversification and agronomic adjustments of farming practices; and (iii) a severely affected zone with need for progressive crop change. We argue that for tropical agricultural commodities, larger-scale adaptation planning that attempts to balance production trends across countries and regions could help reduce negative impacts of climate change on regional economies and global commodity supplies, despite the institutional challenges that this integration may pose.

Influence of Temperature on Intra- and Interspecific Resource Utilization within a Community of Lepidopteran Maize Stemborers

Competition or facilitation characterises intra- and interspecific interactions within communities of species that utilize the same resources. Temperature is an important factor influencing those interactions and eventual outcomes. The noctuid stemborers, Busseola fusca and Sesamia calamistis and the crambid Chilo partellus attack maize in sub-Saharan Africa. They often occur as a community of interacting species in the same field and plant at all elevations. The influence of temperature on the intra- and interspecific interactions among larvae of these species, was studied using potted maize plants exposed to varying temperatures in a greenhouse and artificial stems kept at different constant temperatures (15°C, 20°C, 25°C and 30°C) in an incubator. The experiments involved single- and multi-species infestation treatments. Survival and relative growth rates of each species were assessed. Both intra- and interspecific competitions were observed among all three species. Interspecific competition was stronger between the noctuids and the crambid than between the two noctuids. Temperature affected both survival and relative growth rates of the three species. Particularly at high temperatures, C. partellus was superior in interspecific interactions shown by higher larval survival and relative growth rates. In contrast, low temperatures favoured survival of B. fusca and S. calamistis but affected the relative growth rates of all three species. Survival and relative growth rates of B. fusca and S. calamistis in interspecific interactions did not differ significantly across temperatures. Temperature increase caused by future climate change is likely to confer an advantage on C. partellus over the noctuids in the utilization of resources (crops).

Integrated Pest Management of Coffee Berry Borer: Strategies from Latin America that Could Be Useful for Coffee Farmers in Hawaii

The coffee berry borer (CBB), Hypothenemus hampei Ferrari (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is the primary arthropod pest of coffee plantations worldwide. Since its detection in Hawaii (September 2010), coffee growers are facing financial losses due to reduced quality of coffee yields. Several control strategies that include cultural practices, biological control agents (parasitoids), chemical and microbial insecticides (entomopathogenic fungi), and a range of post-harvest sanitation practices have been conducted to manage CBB around the world. In addition, sampling methods including the use of alcohol based traps for monitoring CBB populations have been implemented in some coffee producing countries in Latin America. It is currently unclear which combination of CBB control strategies is optimal under economical, environmental, and sociocultural conditions of Hawaii. This review discusses components of an integrated pest management program for CBB. We focus on practical approaches to provide guidance to coffee farmers in Hawaii. Experiences of integrated pest management (IPM) of CBB learned from Latin America over the past 25 years may be relevant for establishing strategies of control that may fit under Hawaiian coffee farmers’ conditions.

Can Coffee Chemical Compounds and Insecticidal Plants Be Harnessed for Control of Major Coffee Pests?

Pests and pathogens threaten coffee production worldwide and are difficult to control using conventional methods, such as insecticides. We review the literature on the chemistry of coffee, concentrating on compounds most commonly reported from Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora. Differences in chemistry can distinguish coffee species and varieties, and plants grown under different biogeographic conditions exhibit different chemotypes. A number of chemical groups, such as alkaloids and caffeoylquinic acids, are known to be insecticidal, but most studies have investigated their effects on coffee quality and flavor. More research is required to bridge this gap in knowledge, so that coffee can be bred to be more resistant to pests. Furthermore, we report on some pesticidal plants that have been used for control of coffee pests. Locally sourced pesticidal plants have been underutilized and offer a sustainable alternative to conventional insecticides and could be used to augment breeding for resilience of coffee plants.

Multiclass Classification of Agro-Ecological Zones for Arabica Coffee: An Improved Understanding of the Impacts of Climate Change

Cultivation of Coffea arabica is highly sensitive to and has been shown to be negatively impacted by progressive climatic changes. Previous research contributed little to support forward-looking adaptation. Agro-ecological zoning is a common tool to identify homologous environments and prioritize research. We demonstrate here a pragmatic approach to describe spatial changes in agro-climatic zones suitable for coffee under current and future climates. We defined agro-ecological zones suitable to produce arabica coffee by clustering geo-referenced coffee occurrence locations based on bio-climatic variables. We used random forest classification of climate data layers to model the spatial distribution of these agro-ecological zones. We used these zones to identify spatially explicit impact scenarios and to choose locations for the long-term evaluation of adaptation measures as climate changes. We found that in zones currently classified as hot and dry, climate change will impact arabica more than those that are better suited to it. Research in these zones should therefore focus on expanding arabica's environmental limits. Zones that currently have climates better suited for arabica will migrate upwards by about 500m in elevation. In these zones the up-slope migration will be gradual, but will likely have negative ecosystem impacts. Additionally, we identified locations that with high probability will not change their climatic characteristics and are suitable to evaluate C. arabica germplasm in the face of climate change. These locations should be used to investigate long term adaptation strategies to production systems.

Molecular markers as a method to evaluate the movement of Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari)

The objective of this research was to develop a methodology to describe the movement of the coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in the field through: (i) the evaluation of allele variation of a microsatellite marker on polymorphic Colombian H. hampei populations; (ii) the invention of a device for releasing H. hampei adults; (iii) the standardization of a release-recapture technique for H. hampei populations; (iv) the estimation of the flight distance of the insect; and (v) the calculation of a mathematical expression that describes the movement of H. hampei in space over time. The results indicated that: (i) the microsatellite molecular marker HHK.1.6 was exclusively present in a population from Guapotá-Santander, was dominant and allows the evaluation of H. hampei movement for several generations; (ii) a device that released 88.8% of H. hampei adults in 2 s was designed; (iii) this device was used as H. hampei populations containing HHK.1.6 marker release strategy, and coffee seeds as recapture strategy; (iv) it was estimated that H. hampei adults flew as far as 65 m, however, 90% were recovered in a radius of <40 m. Finally, (v) the mathematical expression that described the movement of H. hampei in space over time was [Formula: see text], being [Formula: see text] the average number of borer beetles recaptured per tree, and x the distance in meters. This method will allow to determine the movement of H. hampei from different environmental and ecological scenarios.

Projected shifts in Coffea arabica suitability among major global producing regions due to climate change

Regional studies have shown that climate change will affect climatic suitability for Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) within current regions of production. Increases in temperature and changes in precipitation patterns will decrease yield, reduce quality and increase pest and disease pressure. This is the first global study on the impact of climate change on suitability to grow Arabica coffee. We modeled the global distribution of Arabica coffee under changes in climatic suitability by 2050s as projected by 21 global circulation models. The results suggest decreased areas suitable for Arabica coffee in Mesoamerica at lower altitudes. In South America close to the equator higher elevations could benefit, but higher latitudes lose suitability. Coffee regions in Ethiopia and Kenya are projected to become more suitable but those in India and Vietnam to become less suitable. Globally, we predict decreases in climatic suitability at lower altitudes and high latitudes, which may shift production among the major regions that produce Arabica coffee.

Diaphorina citri (Hemiptera: Liviidae) Abundance in Puerto Rico Declines with Elevation

Diaphorina citri Kuwayama is the primary vector of Huanglongbing, the most devastating disease of citrus. D. citri populations in Puerto Rico were monitored with yellow sticky traps on citrus trees or other psyllid host plants at different elevations, ranging from 10 to 880 m above sea level. Trapping was conducted in March through May of 2013 and 2014 when psyllid populations usually are highest. Population levels of D. citri, based on the trapping data, varied among the sites, and there was a strong trend in both years for decreasing psyllid abundance with increased elevation based on the number of psyllids captured on traps and the proportion of trees shown to be infested. No psyllids were collected at an elevation of >600 m. Reduced populations at higher elevations could be a consequence of differences in temperature, air pressure, oxygen levels, ultraviolet light, or other factors alone or in combination. We discuss our results as they pertain to management of D. citri and Huanglongbing.

Effect of temperature on the phenology of Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera, Crambidae); simulation and visualization of the potential future distribution of C. partellus in Africa under warmer temperatures through the development of life-table parameters

Maize (Zea mays) is a major staple food in Africa. However, maize production is severely reduced by damage caused by feeding lepidopteran pests. In East and Southern Africa, Chilo partellus is one of the most damaging cereal stem borers mainly found in the warmer lowland areas. In this study, it was hypothesized that the future distribution and abundance of C. partellus may be affected greatly by the current global warming. The temperature-dependent population growth potential of C. partellus was studied on artificial diet under laboratory conditions at six constant temperatures (15, 18, 20, 25, 28, 30, 32 and 35 °C), relative humidity of 75±5% and a photoperiod of L12:L12 h. Several non-linear models were fitted to the data to model development time, mortality and reproduction of the insect species. Cohort updating algorithm and rate summation approach were stochastically used for simulating age and stage structure populations and generate life-table parameters. For spatial analysis of the pest risk, three generic risk indices (index of establishment, generation number and activity index) were visualized in the geographical information system component of the advanced Insect Life Cycle modeling (ILCYM) software. To predict the future distribution of C. partellus we used the climate change scenario A1B obtained from WorldClim and CCAFS databases. The maps were compared with available data on the current distribution of C. partellus in Kenya. The results show that the development times of the different stages decreased with increasing temperatures ranging from 18 to 35 °C; at the extreme temperatures, 15 and 38 °C, no egg could hatch and no larvae completed development. The study concludes that C. partellus may potentially expands its range into higher altitude areas, highland tropics and moist transitional regions, with the highest maize potential where the species has not been recorded yet. This has serious implication in terms of food security since these areas produce approximately 80% of the total maize in East Africa.

Will climate change affect outbreak patterns of planthoppers in Bangladesh?

Recently, planthoppers outbreaks have intensified across Asia resulting in heavy rice yield losses. The problem has been widely reported as being induced by insecticides while other factors such as global warming that could be potential drivers have been neglected. Here, we speculate that global warming may increase outbreak risk of brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål.). We present data that demonstrate the relationship between climate variables (air temperature and precipitation) and the abundance of brown planthopper (BPH) during 1998-2007. Data show that BPH has become significantly more abundant in April over the 10-year period, but our data do not indicate that this is due to a change in climate, as no significant time trends in temperature and precipitation could be demonstrated. The abundance of BPH varied considerably between months within a year which is attributed to seasonal factors, including the availability of suitable host plants. On the other hand, the variation within months is attributed to fluctuations in monthly temperature and precipitation among years. The effects of these weather variables on BPH abundance were analyzed statistically by a general linear model. The statistical model shows that the expected effect of increasing temperatures is ambiguous and interacts with the amount of rainfall. According to the model, months or areas characterized by a climate that is either cold and dry or hot and wet are likely to experience higher levels of BPH due to climate change, whereas other combinations of temperature and rainfall may reduce the abundance of BPH. The analysis indicates that global warming may have contributed to the recent outbreaks of BPH in some rice growing areas of Asia, and that the severity of such outbreaks is likely to increase if climate change exaggerates. Our study highlights the need to consider climate change when designing strategies to manage planthoppers outbreaks.