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Li H, Yuan H, Yang ZP, Song Y, Wang JJ, Wen Q, Zheng YX, Zhang XX, Yu M, Yuan ZG. Differential transcriptome study on the damage of testicular tissues caused by chronic infection of T. gondii in mice. Parasit Vectors 2024; 17:252. [PMID: 38858789 PMCID: PMC11165745 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-024-06247-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite that is widely distributed in humans and warm-blooded animals. T. gondii chronic infections can cause toxoplasmic encephalopathy, adverse pregnancy, and male reproductive disorders. In male reproduction, the main function of the testis is to provide a stable place for spermatogenesis and immunological protection. The disorders affecting testis tissue encompass abnormalities in the germ cell cycle, spermatogenic retardation, or complete cessation of sperm development. However, the mechanisms of interaction between T. gondii and the reproductive system is unclear. The aims were to study the expression levels of genes related to spermatogenesis, following T. gondii infection, in mouse testicular tissue. METHODS RNA-seq sequencing was carried out on mouse testicular tissues from mice infected or uninfected with the T. gondii type II Prugniaud (PRU) strain and validated in combination with real-time quantitative PCR and immunofluorescence assays. RESULTS The results showed that there were 250 significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (P < 0.05, |log2fold change| ≧ 1). Bioinformatics analysis showed that 101 DEGs were annotated to the 1696 gene ontology (GO) term. While there was a higher number of DEGs in the biological process classification as a whole, the GO enrichment revealed a significant presence of DEGs in the cellular component classification. The Arhgap18 and Syne1 genes undergo regulatory changes following T. gondii infection, and both were involved in shaping the cytoskeleton of the blood-testis barrier (BTB). The number of DEGs enriched in the MAPK signaling pathway, the ERK1/2 signaling pathway, and the JNK signaling pathway were significant. The PTGDS gene is located in the Arachidonic acid metabolism pathway, which plays an important role in the formation and maintenance of BTB in the testis. The expression of PTGDS is downregulated subsequent to T. gondii infection, potentially exerting deleterious effects on the integrity of the BTB and the spermatogenic microenvironment within the testes. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our research provides in-depth insights into how chronic T. gondii infection might affect testicular tissue and potentially impact male fertility. These findings offer a new perspective on the impact of T. gondii infection on the male reproductive system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoxin Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Hao Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Zi-Peng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Yining Song
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Jun-Jie Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Qingyuan Wen
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Yu-Xiang Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiu-Xiang Zhang
- College of Plant, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Miao Yu
- Key Laboratory of Oral Medicine, Guangzhou Institute of Oral Disease, Stomatology Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510140 People’s Republic of China
| | - Zi-Guo Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642 Guangdong People’s Republic of China
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Anaya-Martínez V, Anacleto-Santos J, Mondragón-Flores R, Zepeda-Rodríguez A, Casarrubias-Tabarez B, de Jesús López-Pérez T, de Alba-Alvarado MC, Martínez-Ortiz-de-Montellano C, Carrasco-Ramírez E, Rivera-Fernández N. Changes in the Proliferation of the Neural Progenitor Cells of Adult Mice Chronically Infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2671. [PMID: 38004683 PMCID: PMC10673519 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11112671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
During Toxoplasma gondii chronic infection, certain internal factors that trigger the proliferation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs), such as brain inflammation, cell death, and changes in cytokine levels, are observed. NPCs give rise to neuronal cell types in the adult brain of some mammals. NPCs are capable of dividing and differentiating into a restricted repertoire of neuronal and glial cell types. In this study, the proliferation of NPCs was evaluated in CD-1 adult male mice chronically infected with the T. gondii ME49 strain. Histological brain sections from the infected mice were evaluated in order to observe T. gondii tissue cysts. Sagittal and coronal sections from the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and from the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus, as well as sagittal sections from the rostral migratory stream, were obtained from infected and non-infected mice previously injected with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU). A flotation immunofluorescence technique was used to identify BrdU+ NPC. The scanning of BrdU+ cells was conducted using a confocal microscope, and the counting was performed with ImageJ® software (version 1.48q). In all the evaluated zones from the infected mice, a significant proliferation of the NPCs was observed when compared with that of the control group. We concluded that chronic infection with T. gondii increased the proliferation of NPCs in the three evaluated zones. Regardless of the role these cells are playing, our results could be useful to better understand the pathogenesis of chronic toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verónica Anaya-Martínez
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Anáhuac, Lomas Anáhuac, Naucalpan de Juárez 52786, Estado de México, Mexico;
| | - Jhony Anacleto-Santos
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (J.A.-S.); (T.d.J.L.-P.); (M.C.d.A.-A.); (E.C.-R.)
| | | | - Armando Zepeda-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Tisular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (A.Z.-R.); (B.C.-T.)
| | - Brenda Casarrubias-Tabarez
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Tisular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (A.Z.-R.); (B.C.-T.)
| | - Teresa de Jesús López-Pérez
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (J.A.-S.); (T.d.J.L.-P.); (M.C.d.A.-A.); (E.C.-R.)
| | - Mariana Citlalli de Alba-Alvarado
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (J.A.-S.); (T.d.J.L.-P.); (M.C.d.A.-A.); (E.C.-R.)
| | - Cintli Martínez-Ortiz-de-Montellano
- Departamento de Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico;
| | - Elba Carrasco-Ramírez
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (J.A.-S.); (T.d.J.L.-P.); (M.C.d.A.-A.); (E.C.-R.)
| | - Norma Rivera-Fernández
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; (J.A.-S.); (T.d.J.L.-P.); (M.C.d.A.-A.); (E.C.-R.)
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Tedford E, Badya NB, Laing C, Asaoka N, Kaneko S, Filippi BM, McConkey GA. Infection-induced extracellular vesicles evoke neuronal transcriptional and epigenetic changes. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6913. [PMID: 37106020 PMCID: PMC10140046 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34074-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii induces changes in neurotransmission, neuroinflammation, and behavior, yet it remains elusive how these changes come about. In this study we investigated how norepinephrine levels are altered by infection. TINEV (Toxoplasma-induced neuronal extracellular vesicles) isolated from infected noradrenergic cells down-regulated dopamine ß-hydroxylase (DBH) gene expression in human and rodent cells. Here we report that intracerebral injection of TINEVs into the brain is sufficient to induce DBH down-regulation and distrupt catecholaminergic signalling. Further, TINEV treatment induced hypermethylation upstream of the DBH gene. An antisense lncRNA to DBH was found in purified TINEV preparations. Paracrine signalling to induce transcriptional gene silencing and DNA methylation may be a common mode to regulate neurologic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Tedford
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Norhidayah Binti Badya
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Conor Laing
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Nozomi Asaoka
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, 46-29 Yoshida-Shimoadachi-Cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Shuji Kaneko
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, 46-29 Yoshida-Shimoadachi-Cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Beatrice Maria Filippi
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Glenn Alan McConkey
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
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Halonen SK. Use of in vitro derived human neuronal models to study host-parasite interactions of Toxoplasma gondii in neurons and neuropathogenesis of chronic toxoplasmosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1129451. [PMID: 36968101 PMCID: PMC10031036 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1129451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infects approximately one-third of the world's population resulting in a chronic infection with the parasite located in cysts in neurons in the brain. In most immunocompetent hosts the chronic infection is asymptomatic, but several studies have found correlations between Toxoplasma seropositivity and neuropsychiatric disorders, including Schizophrenia, and some other neurological disorders. Host-parasite interactions of bradyzoites in cysts in neurons is not well understood due in part to the lack of suitable in vitro human neuronal models. The advent of stem cell technologies in which human neurons can be derived in vitro from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) or direct conversion of somatic cells generating induced neurons (iNs), affords the opportunity to develop in vitro human neuronal culture systems to advance the understanding of T. gondii in human neurons. Human neurons derived from hiPSCs or iNs, generate pure human neuron monolayers that express differentiated neuronal characteristics. hiPSCs also generate 3D neuronal models that better recapitulate the cytoarchitecture of the human brain. In this review, an overview of iPSC-derived neurons and iN protocols leading to 2D human neuron cultures and hiPSC-derived 3D cerebral organoids will be given. The potential applications of these 2D and 3D human neuronal models to address questions about host-parasite interactions of T. gondii in neurons and the parasite in the CNS, will be discussed. These human neuronal in vitro models hold the promise to advance the understanding of T. gondii in human neurons and to improve the understanding of neuropathogenesis of chronic toxoplasmosis.
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Effects of diverse Types of Toxoplasma gondii on the outcome of Alzheimer's disease in the rat model. Microb Pathog 2023; 174:105931. [PMID: 36473668 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii has lifelong persistence in the brain and its cysts can affect gene expression and change diverse biological functions of neurons. Many studies indicated T. gondii infection as a risk factor for the development of behavioral changes and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), although the etiopathogenetic link between them has not been exactly elucidated. The current study aimed to examine the effects of chronic toxoplasmosis infection with Types I, II, and III strains (RH, PRU, and VEG) alone and in combination on cognitive impairments and neuronal death in the Aβ1-42-induced rat model of Alzheimer's disease. In the chronic toxoplasmosis phase, Alzheimer's induction was conducted by injecting Aβ1-42 oligomers into the rat brain hippocampus. Behavioral tests were conducted 10 days after the AD induction. Real-time PCR was performed to evaluate T. gondii parasite burden by amplification of the B1 gene. Cytokines IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-10 were assayed in brain tissue supernatant using ELISA. Also, histopathological examinations were conducted to calculate inflammatory changes and neuronal death in the brain. Our findings showed that chronic toxoplasmosis infection with PRU reduces cognitive disorders, while the RH strain of T. gondii plays a destructive role and aggravates cognitive impairments in AD. Also, infection with a combination of PRU and VEG strains significantly improved spatial learning and memory impairments in Alzheimer's rat model. Histopathological findings also confirmed the results of behavioral tests, so that in AβPRU and AβPRU + VEG groups, neuronal death and infiltration of inflammatory cells were negligible and significantly less than in Alzheimer's and AβRH groups. Our findings indicate that chronic toxoplasmosis infection with PRU strain alone, also in combination with VEG strain can significantly improve cognitive disorders in AD rats, while RH strain plays a destructive role in AD pathogenesis.
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Xiao J. Behavioral Changes Induced by Latent Toxoplasmosis Could Arise from CNS Inflammation and Neuropathogenesis. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2022; 61:303-313. [PMID: 35676595 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii, a neurotropic parasite, has been linked to multiple behavioral changes in rodents and humans. The pathogenic mechanisms underlying these correlations are not known. I discuss here from animal studies the distribution of tissue cysts, the constant immune surveillance, the critical role of cyst burden, and the time-dependent consequences, which I believe are crucial to explaining the behavioral changes. In line with the brain-wide distribution of tissue cysts and chronic neuroinflammation, infected mice displayed a broad range of behavioral phenotypes. Many studies suggest that behavioral changes in mice are directly associated with tissue cyst presence or cyst burden and the host immune response. Cyst burden may not exert direct effects; however, the mechanisms causing behavioral and neuropathological changes are potentially the consequence of cyst burden over time, such as the neuroinflammation required to control the reactivation of tissue cysts. The reduction of neuroinflammation has proven that neuropathogenesis and behavioral abnormalities can be reversed, at least partially, in infected mice. Overall, Toxoplasma-induced behavioral changes are likely to be an indirect consequence of the host immune response in a parasite burden-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianchun Xiao
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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7
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Spini VBMG, Ferreira FR, Gomes AO, Duarte RMF, Oliveira VHS, Costa NB, Ferreira AFF, Dourado MDPB, Ribeiro-Barbosa ER. Maternal Immune Activation with H1N1 or Toxoplasma gondii Antigens Induces Behavioral Impairments Associated with Mood Disorders in Rodents. Neuropsychobiology 2021; 80:234-241. [PMID: 33070134 DOI: 10.1159/000510791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Epidemiological studies revealed that maternal exposure to influenza A (H1N1) and Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection during pregnancy may increase the risk for mood disorders of the offspring. However, the impact of maternal infections in different stages of neural development and the nature of antigens remain to be elucidated. OBJECTIVE This study investigated behavioral impairments induced by maternal immune activation (MIA) due to H1N1 or T. gondii infection during preborn neurodevelopment. METHODS Maternal infection with influenza or toxoplasma was mimicked by administration of influenza vaccine antigens or suspension of soluble T. gondii antigen (STAg) in pregnant Balb/c mice at E6 or E16. Adult male offspring were evaluated for anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior in elevated plus maze (EPM) and forced swimming test (FST). RESULTS In FST, immobility time at E6 and E16 increased when the mothers were treated with both antigen solutions. There was increased immobility in the pups whose mothers were treated with STAg at E16. MIA with influenza antigens reduced the exploration of the open arms of EPM for the pups whose progenitors received treatment at E6 and E16. The animals at E6 exhibited a greater number of stretch-attend postures compared with the saline group. STAg at E6 reduced the time of exploration in the open arms and increased the number of stretch-attend postures compared with the saline group. CONCLUSION These results suggest that immunological responses to H1N1 or T. gondii during pregnancy may impact differently the susceptibility of adult offspring to mood disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa B M G Spini
- Physiology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil,
| | | | - Angelica Oliveira Gomes
- Department of Structural Biology, Federal University of the Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Erika R Ribeiro-Barbosa
- Physiology Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
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Virus MA, Ehrhorn EG, Lui LM, Davis PH. Neurological and Neurobehavioral Disorders Associated with Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Humans. J Parasitol Res 2021; 2021:6634807. [PMID: 34712493 PMCID: PMC8548174 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6634807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii is estimated to infect up to 30% of the world population, leading to lifelong chronic infection of the brain and muscle tissue. Although most latent T. gondii infections in humans have traditionally been considered asymptomatic, studies in rodents suggest phenotypic neurological changes are possible. Consequently, several studies have examined the link between T. gondii infection and diseases such as schizophrenia, epilepsy, depression, bipolar disorder, dysphoria, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). To date, there is varying evidence of the relationship of T. gondii to these human neurological or neurobehavioral disorders. A thorough review of T. gondii literature was conducted to highlight and summarize current findings. We found that schizophrenia was most frequently linked to T. gondii infection, while sleep disruption showed no linkage to T. gondii infection, and other conditions having mixed support for a link to T. gondii. However, infection as a cause of human neurobehavioral disease has yet to be firmly established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell A. Virus
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Evie G. Ehrhorn
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - LeeAnna M. Lui
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Paul H. Davis
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
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de Haan L, Sutterland AL, Schotborgh JV, Schirmbeck F, de Haan L. Association of Toxoplasma gondii Seropositivity With Cognitive Function in Healthy People: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 2021; 78:1103-1112. [PMID: 34259822 PMCID: PMC8281022 DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.1590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE The parasite Toxoplasma gondii has been associated with behavioral alterations and psychiatric disorders. Studies investigating neurocognition in people with T gondii infection have reported varying results. To systematically analyze these findings, a meta-analysis evaluating cognitive function in healthy people with and without T gondii seropositivity is needed. OBJECTIVE To assess whether and to what extent T gondii seropositivity is associated with cognitive function in otherwise healthy people. DATA SOURCES A systematic search was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guideline. A systematic search of PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, PsycInfo, and Embase was performed to identify studies from database inception to June 7, 2019, that analyzed cognitive function among healthy participants with available data on T gondii seropositivity. Search terms included toxoplasmosis, neurotoxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma gondii, cognition disorder, neuropsychological, and psychomotor performance. STUDY SELECTION Studies that performed cognitive assessment and analyzed T gondii seroprevalence among otherwise healthy participants were included. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS Two researchers independently extracted data from published articles; if needed, authors were contacted to provide additional data. Quantitative syntheses were performed in predefined cognitive domains when 4 independent data sets per domain were available. Study quality, heterogeneity, and publication bias were assessed. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Performance on neuropsychological tests measuring cognitive function. RESULTS The systematic search yielded 1954 records. After removal of 533 duplicates, an additional 1363 records were excluded based on a review of titles and abstracts. A total of 58 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility (including reference list screening); 45 articles were excluded because they lacked important data or did not meet study inclusion or reference list criteria. The remaining 13 studies comprising 13 289 healthy participants (mean [SD] age, 46.7 [16.0] years; 6586 men [49.6%]) with and without T gondii seropositivity were included in the meta-analysis. Participants without T gondii seropositivity had favorable functioning in 4 cognitive domains: processing speed (standardized mean difference [SMD], 0.12; 95% CI, 0.05-0.19; P = .001), working memory (SMD, 0.16; 95% CI, 0.06-0.26; P = .002), short-term verbal memory (SMD, 0.18; 95% CI, 0.09-0.27; P < .001), and executive functioning (SMD, 0.15; 95% CI, 0.01-0.28; P = .03). A meta-regression analysis found a significant association between older age and executive functioning (Q = 6.17; P = .01). Little suggestion of publication bias was detected. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE The study's findings suggested that T gondii seropositivity was associated with mild cognitive impairment in several cognitive domains. Although effect sizes were small, given the ubiquitous prevalence of this infection globally, the association with cognitive impairment could imply a considerable adverse effect at the population level. Further research is warranted to investigate the underlying mechanisms of this association.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lies de Haan
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Arjen L. Sutterland
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jasper V. Schotborgh
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Frederike Schirmbeck
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Lieuwe de Haan
- Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Valproic acid inhibits chronic Toxoplasma infection and associated brain inflammation in mice. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:e0100321. [PMID: 34339265 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01003-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Individuals infected with Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) are prone to psycho-behavioral disorders, most notably schizophrenia and bipolar. Valproic acid reportedly inhibited the proliferation of T. gondii tachyzoites in vitro. However, animals treated with the drug neither lived longer during acute infection nor had fewer brain cysts upon chronic infection. In this study, a quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) method was applied to quantify copy numbers of BAG1 (a bradyzoite-specific protein), REP529 DNA (a repetitive DNA fragment of the parasite), and SAG1 (a highly expressed tachyzoite-specific surface protein) in brains of chronically infected mice treated by valproic acid. The treatment inhibited the infection and decreased BAG1, SAG1, and REP529 copy numbers in mice brains (P < 0.0001), comparable to Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMZ), the common medication for Toxoplasmosis treatment. Moreover, valproic acid decreased brain TNF-α expression (P < 0.0001), comparable to TMP/SMZ. Histological examination of mice brains showed a marked reduction in cyst establishment, perivascular infiltration of lymphocytes, and glial nodules to the same level as the TMP/SMZ group. Our results provide direct evidence for the efficacy of valproic acid, a mood-stabilizing and antipsychotic drug against chronic Toxoplasma infection. These results might help modulate therapeutic regimens for neuropsychiatric patients and design more effective anti-Toxoplasma drugs.
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Postolache TT, Wadhawan A, Rujescu D, Hoisington AJ, Dagdag A, Baca-Garcia E, Lowry CA, Okusaga OO, Brenner LA. Toxoplasma gondii, Suicidal Behavior, and Intermediate Phenotypes for Suicidal Behavior. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:665682. [PMID: 34177652 PMCID: PMC8226025 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.665682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the general literature on infections and suicidal behavior, studies on Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) occupy a central position. This is related to the parasite's neurotropism, high prevalence of chronic infection, as well as specific and non-specific behavioral alterations in rodents that lead to increased risk taking, which are recapitulated in humans by T. gondii's associations with suicidal behavior, as well as trait impulsivity and aggression, mental illness and traffic accidents. This paper is a detailed review of the associations between T. gondii serology and suicidal behavior, a field of study that started 15 years ago with our publication of associations between T. gondii IgG serology and suicidal behavior in persons with mood disorders. This "legacy" article presents, chronologically, our primary studies in individuals with mood disorders and schizophrenia in Germany, recent attempters in Sweden, and in a large cohort of mothers in Denmark. Then, it reviews findings from all three meta-analyses published to date, confirming our reported associations and overall consistent in effect size [ranging between 39 and 57% elevation of odds of suicide attempt in T. gondii immunoglobulin (IgG) positives]. Finally, the article introduces certain links between T. gondii and biomarkers previously associated with suicidal behavior (kynurenines, phenylalanine/tyrosine), intermediate phenotypes of suicidal behavior (impulsivity, aggression) and state-dependent suicide risk factors (hopelessness/dysphoria, sleep impairment). In sum, an abundance of evidence supports a positive link between suicide attempts (but not suicidal ideation) and T. gondii IgG (but not IgM) seropositivity and serointensity. Trait impulsivity and aggression, endophenotypes of suicidal behavior have also been positively associated with T. gondii seropositivity in both the psychiatrically healthy as well as in patients with Intermittent Explosive Disorder. Yet, causality has not been demonstrated. Thus, randomized interventional studies are necessary to advance causal inferences and, if causality is confirmed, to provide hope that an etiological treatment for a distinct subgroup of individuals at an increased risk for suicide could emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teodor T Postolache
- Department of Psychiatry, Mood and Anxiety Program, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Military and Veteran Microbiome: Consortium for Research and Education (MVM-CoRE), Aurora, CO, United States.,Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Veterans Integrated Service Network (VISN) 5, VA Capitol Health Care Network, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Abhishek Wadhawan
- Department of Psychiatry, Mood and Anxiety Program, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, Saint Elizabeth's Hospital, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Dan Rujescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University of Halle, Halle, Germany
| | - Andrew J Hoisington
- Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Military and Veteran Microbiome: Consortium for Research and Education (MVM-CoRE), Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Systems Engineering and Management, Air Force Institute of Technology, Dayton, OH, United States.,Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Aline Dagdag
- Department of Psychiatry, Mood and Anxiety Program, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Enrique Baca-Garcia
- Department of Psychiatry, Jimenez Diaz Foundation Hospital, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Madrid Autonomous University, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Rey Juan Carlos University Hospital, Móstoles, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, General Hospital of Villalba, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Infanta Elena University Hospital, Valdemoro, Spain.,Universidad Catolica del Maule, Talca, Chile.,Department of Psychiatry, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nîmes, Nîmes, France
| | - Christopher A Lowry
- Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Military and Veteran Microbiome: Consortium for Research and Education (MVM-CoRE), Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Integrative Physiology, Center for Neuroscience, Center for Microbial Exploration, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Olaoluwa O Okusaga
- Department of Psychiatry, Mood and Anxiety Program, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States.,Michael E DeBakey VA Medical Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Lisa A Brenner
- Veterans Health Administration, Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Military and Veteran Microbiome: Consortium for Research and Education (MVM-CoRE), Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States.,Department of Psychiatry & Neurology, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
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12
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Carrillo GL, Ballard VA, Glausen T, Boone Z, Teamer J, Hinkson CL, Wohlfert EA, Blader IJ, Fox MA. Toxoplasma infection induces microglia-neuron contact and the loss of perisomatic inhibitory synapses. Glia 2020; 68:1968-1986. [PMID: 32157745 PMCID: PMC7423646 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Infection and inflammation within the brain induces changes in neuronal connectivity and function. The intracellular protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, is one pathogen that infects the brain and can cause encephalitis and seizures. Persistent infection by this parasite is also associated with behavioral alterations and an increased risk for developing psychiatric illness, including schizophrenia. Current evidence from studies in humans and mouse models suggest that both seizures and schizophrenia result from a loss or dysfunction of inhibitory synapses. In line with this, we recently reported that persistent T. gondii infection alters the distribution of glutamic acid decarboxylase 67 (GAD67), an enzyme that catalyzes GABA synthesis in inhibitory synapses. These changes could reflect a redistribution of presynaptic machinery in inhibitory neurons or a loss of inhibitory nerve terminals. To directly assess the latter possibility, we employed serial block face scanning electron microscopy (SBFSEM) and quantified inhibitory perisomatic synapses in neocortex and hippocampus following parasitic infection. Not only did persistent infection lead to a significant loss of perisomatic synapses, it induced the ensheathment of neuronal somata by myeloid-derived cells. Immunohistochemical, genetic, and ultrastructural analyses revealed that these myeloid-derived cells included activated microglia. Finally, ultrastructural analysis identified myeloid-derived cells enveloping perisomatic nerve terminals, suggesting they may actively displace or phagocytose synaptic elements. Thus, these results suggest that activated microglia contribute to perisomatic inhibitory synapse loss following parasitic infection and offer a novel mechanism as to how persistent T. gondii infection may contribute to both seizures and psychiatric illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela L. Carrillo
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Valerie A. Ballard
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- Roanoke Valley Governor’s School, Roanoke VA 24015
| | - Taylor Glausen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo NY 14260
| | - Zack Boone
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Joseph Teamer
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- FBRI neuroSURF Program, Roanoke, VA 24016
| | - Cyrus L. Hinkson
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA 24016
| | | | - Ira J. Blader
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo NY 14260
| | - Michael A. Fox
- Center for Neurobiology Research, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute at Virginia Tech Carilion, 2 Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA 24016
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061
- Department of Pediatrics, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA 24016
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El Mouhawass A, Hammoud A, Zoghbi M, Hallit S, Haddad C, El Haddad K, El Khoury S, Tannous J, Obeid S, Halabi MA, Mammari N. Relationship between Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity and schizophrenia in the Lebanese population: potential implication of genetic polymorphism of MMP-9. BMC Psychiatry 2020; 20:264. [PMID: 32460746 PMCID: PMC7254747 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-020-02683-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasma multiplication and its persistence into the brain cause a local neuroinflammatory reaction, resulting synthesis of neurotransmitters involved in neurological disorders, especially schizophrenia. The Matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) protein can play a major role in this neuroinflammation. It can promote extravasation and migration of infected immune cells into the brain. The objectives of this study are to determine the possible association between schizophrenia and toxoplasmosis and highlight the existence of gene polymorphism encoding MMP-9 protein's in patients presented both schizophrenia and toxoplasmosis. METHODS A case-control study was conducted on 150 patients with schizophrenia (case group), and 150 healthy persons (control group). Groups were matched with age, gender, and place of residence. The survey was conducted using a questionnaire and a serological profile assay for specific IgG and IgM antibodies against T. gondii. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of gene polymorphism encoding MMP-9 was performed on 83 cases selected randomly. RESULTS Data show a significant association between toxoplasmosis (IgM+/IgG+ serological profile) and schizophrenia. Significant effects of raw meat consumption and contact with cats have been associated with the occurrence of schizophrenia. RT-PCR shows the presence of muted allele of MMP-9 gene in selected cases whose present T. gondii serological profile IgM+/IgG+ and IgM-/IgG+ respectively. CONCLUSION Toxoplasmosis may be one of the etiological causes of schizophrenia, and MMP-9 gene polymorphism could be involved in the occurrence mechanism of this pathology following Toxoplasma infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amata El Mouhawass
- Medical Laboratory Department, Holy Family University, Batroun, 5534 Lebanon
| | - Amale Hammoud
- Public Health Faculty, Jinan University, Tripoli, Lebanon
| | - Marouan Zoghbi
- Psychiatric Hospital of the Cross, Jal Eddib, 6096 Lebanon
- Faculty of Medicine, Saint-Joseph University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Souheil Hallit
- Faculty of Medicine and Medical Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh, Lebanon
- INSPECT-LB: Institut National de Santé Publique, Épidémiologie Clinique et Toxicologie, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Chadia Haddad
- Psychiatric Hospital of the Cross, Jal Eddib, 6096 Lebanon
- INSERM, Univ. Limoges, CH Esquirol Limoges, IRD, U1094 Tropical Neuroepidemiology, Institute of Epidemiology and Tropical Neurology, GEIST, Limoges, France
| | - Kinda El Haddad
- Medical Laboratory Department, Holy Family University, Batroun, 5534 Lebanon
| | - Saydeh El Khoury
- Medical Laboratory Department, Holy Family University, Batroun, 5534 Lebanon
| | - Jennifer Tannous
- Medical Laboratory Department, Holy Family University, Batroun, 5534 Lebanon
| | - Sahar Obeid
- Psychiatric Hospital of the Cross, Jal Eddib, 6096 Lebanon
- INSPECT-LB: Institut National de Santé Publique, Épidémiologie Clinique et Toxicologie, Beirut, Lebanon
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (USEK), Jounieh, Lebanon
| | | | - Nour Mammari
- Medical Laboratory Department, Holy Family University, Batroun, 5534 Lebanon
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14
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Boillat M, Hammoudi PM, Dogga SK, Pagès S, Goubran M, Rodriguez I, Soldati-Favre D. Neuroinflammation-Associated Aspecific Manipulation of Mouse Predator Fear by Toxoplasma gondii. Cell Rep 2020; 30:320-334.e6. [PMID: 31940479 PMCID: PMC6963786 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In rodents, the decrease of felid aversion induced by Toxoplasma gondii, a phenomenon termed fatal attraction, is interpreted as an adaptive manipulation by the neurotropic protozoan parasite. With the aim of understanding how the parasite induces such specific behavioral modifications, we performed a multiparametric analysis of T. gondii-induced changes on host behavior, physiology, and brain transcriptome as well as parasite cyst load and distribution. Using a set of complementary behavioral tests, we provide strong evidence that T. gondii lowers general anxiety in infected mice, increases explorative behaviors, and surprisingly alters predator aversion without selectivity toward felids. Furthermore, we show a positive correlation between the severity of the behavioral alterations and the cyst load, which indirectly reflects the level of inflammation during brain colonization. Taken together, these findings refute the myth of a selective loss of cat fear in T. gondii-infected mice and point toward widespread immune-related alterations of behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madlaina Boillat
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pierre-Mehdi Hammoudi
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine-University of Geneva CMU, 1 rue Michel-Servet 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Sunil Kumar Dogga
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine-University of Geneva CMU, 1 rue Michel-Servet 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
| | - Stéphane Pagès
- Wyss Center for Bio- and Neuroengineering, Geneva, Switzerland; Department of Basic Neurosciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Maged Goubran
- Hurvitz Brain Sciences Program, Sunnybrook Research Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ivan Rodriguez
- Department of Genetics and Evolution, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Dominique Soldati-Favre
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine-University of Geneva CMU, 1 rue Michel-Servet 1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland.
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15
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Pierson J, Yeruva RR, El-Mallakh RS. Can in utero Zika virus exposure be a risk factor for schizophrenia in the offspring? World J Biol Psychiatry 2020; 21:2-11. [PMID: 30051738 DOI: 10.1080/15622975.2018.1500027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Objectives: Schizophrenia is a severe psychiatric illness that has been purported to be causally related to in utero infection of neurotropic organisms. For obvious ethical reasons, this hypothesis has never been tested prospectively in humans. However, with the recent introduction of Zika virus into the New World offers the opportunity to test the hypothesis of infection in schizophrenia.Methods: This is a directed review examining the hypothesis. The literature relevant to Zika virus transmission in the New World, its biology and neurotropy is reviewed.Results: Zika virus has been associated with a wide variety of neural tube and neuroanatomical abnormalities. In its original range, Zika is only infrequently associated with congenital anomalies, but in the New World, where the majority of the population has not developed immunity, infections are associated with a wide range of neurologic abnormalities.Conclusions: The current outbreak of Zika virus in the Western Hemisphere, offers the opportunity to prospectively examine the congenital infection hypothesis of the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnathan Pierson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky 40202, USA
| | - Rajashekar Reddy Yeruva
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky 40202, USA
| | - Rif S El-Mallakh
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky 40202, USA
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16
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Galván-Ramírez MDLL, Salas-Lais AG, Dueñas-Jiménez SH, Mendizabal-Ruiz G, Franco Topete R, Berumen-Solís SC, Rodríguez Pérez LR, Franco Topete K. Kinematic Locomotion Changes in C57BL/6 Mice Infected with Toxoplasma Strain ME49. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7110573. [PMID: 31752159 PMCID: PMC6921015 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7110573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic infection with the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii produces an accumulation of cysts in the brain and muscle, causing tissue damage. The cysts in the brain motor regions affect some kinematic locomotion parameters in the host. To localize the brain cysts from Toxoplasma gondii and study the changes in kinematic locomotion in C57BL/6 mice. Female adult C57BL/6 mice were infected orally with 30 ME-49 Toxoplasma gondii cysts. An uninfected group (n = 7) and two infected groups, examined 15 and 40 days postinfection, were used for this study. To evaluate kinematic locomotion, the mice were marked with indelible ink on the iliac crest, hip, knee, ankle, and phalangeal metatarsus of the left and right hindlimbs. At least three recordings were carried out to obtain videos of the left and right hindlimbs. Mice were video recorded at 90 fps at a resolution of 640 × 480 pixels while walking freely in a transparent Plexiglass tunnel. We measured the hindlimb pendular movement and the hindlimb transfer [linear displacement] curves for each step and evaluated them statistically with Fréchet dissimilarity tests. Afterward, the mice were sacrificed, and the brain, heart, skeletal muscle, lung, liver, and kidney were obtained. The different tissues were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for analysis with optical microscopy. Topographic localization of the cysts was made using bregma coordinates for the mouse brain. The cysts were distributed in several brain regions. In one mouse, cyst accumulation occurred in the hippocampus, coinciding with an alteration in foot displacement. The step length was different among the different studied groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- María de la Luz Galván-Ramírez
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, col.Indepdencia, Guadalajara 44320, Mexico
- Correspondence:
| | - Angel Gustavo Salas-Lais
- Instituto of Oftalmología Conde de Valenciana I.A.P.”, Chimalpopoca 14, Centro, Ciudad de México 06800, Mexico
| | - Sergio Horacio Dueñas-Jiménez
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, col.Indepdencia, Guadalajara 44320, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Mendizabal-Ruiz
- Departamento de Ciencias computacionales, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenierías, Universidad de Guadalajara, Blvd. Gral. Marcelino García Barragán 1421, Olímpica, Guadalajara 44430, Mexico
| | - Ramón Franco Topete
- Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, col.Indepdencia, Guadalajara 44320, Mexico
- Departamento de Anatomía Patológica del Nuevo Hospital Civil de Guadalajara, Salvador Quevedo y Zubieta 750, Independencia Oriente, Guadalajara 44340, Mexico
| | - Sofía Citlalli Berumen-Solís
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, col.Indepdencia, Guadalajara 44320, Mexico
| | - Laura Roció Rodríguez Pérez
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Sierra Mojada 950, col.Indepdencia, Guadalajara 44320, Mexico
| | - Karina Franco Topete
- Departamento de Anatomía Patológica del Nuevo Hospital Civil de Guadalajara, Salvador Quevedo y Zubieta 750, Independencia Oriente, Guadalajara 44340, Mexico
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17
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Schlüter D, Barragan A. Advances and Challenges in Understanding Cerebral Toxoplasmosis. Front Immunol 2019; 10:242. [PMID: 30873157 PMCID: PMC6401564 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a widespread parasitic pathogen that infects over one third of the global human population. The parasite invades and chronically persists in the central nervous system (CNS) of the infected host. Parasite spread and persistence is intimately linked to an ensuing immune response, which does not only limit parasite-induced damage but also may facilitate dissemination and induce parasite-associated immunopathology. Here, we discuss various aspects of toxoplasmosis where knowledge is scarce or controversial and, the recent advances in the understanding of the delicate interplay of T. gondii with the immune system in experimental and clinical settings. This includes mechanisms for parasite passage from the circulation into the brain parenchyma across the blood-brain barrier during primary acute infection. Later, as chronic latent infection sets in with control of the parasite in the brain parenchyma, the roles of the inflammatory response and of immune cell responses in this phase of the disease are discussed. Additionally, the function of brain resident cell populations is delineated, i.e., how neurons, astrocytes and microglia serve both as target cells for the parasite but also actively contribute to the immune response. As the infection can reactivate in the CNS of immune-compromised individuals, we bring up the immunopathogenesis of reactivated toxoplasmosis, including the special case of congenital CNS manifestations. The relevance, advantages and limitations of rodent infection models for the understanding of human cerebral toxoplasmosis are discussed. Finally, this review pinpoints questions that may represent challenges to experimental and clinical science with respect to improved diagnostics, pharmacological treatments and immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Schlüter
- Hannover Medical School, Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Epidemiology, Hannover, Germany
| | - Antonio Barragan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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18
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Alsaady I, Tedford E, Alsaad M, Bristow G, Kohli S, Murray M, Reeves M, Vijayabaskar MS, Clapcote SJ, Wastling J, McConkey GA. Downregulation of the Central Noradrenergic System by Toxoplasma gondii Infection. Infect Immun 2019; 87:e00789-18. [PMID: 30510101 PMCID: PMC6346129 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00789-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is associated with physiological effects in the host. Dysregulation of catecholamines in the central nervous system has previously been observed in chronically infected animals. In the study described here, the noradrenergic system was found to be suppressed with decreased levels of norepinephrine (NE) in brains of infected animals and in infected human and rat neural cells in vitro The mechanism responsible for the NE suppression was found to be downregulation of dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) gene expression, encoding the enzyme that synthesizes norepinephrine from dopamine, with downregulation observed in vitro and in infected brain tissue, particularly in the dorsal locus coeruleus/pons region. The downregulation was sex specific, with males expressing reduced DBH mRNA levels whereas females were unchanged. Rather, DBH expression correlated with estrogen receptor in the female rat brains for this estrogen-regulated gene. DBH silencing was not a general response of neurons to infection, as human cytomegalovirus did not downregulate DBH expression. The noradrenergic-linked behaviors of sociability and arousal were altered in chronically infected animals, with a high correlation between DBH expression and infection intensity. A decrease in DBH expression in noradrenergic neurons can elevate dopamine levels, which provides a possible explanation for mixed observations of changes in this neurotransmitter with infection. Decreased NE is consistent with the loss of coordination and motor impairments associated with toxoplasmosis. Further, the altered norepinephrine synthesis observed here may, in part, explain behavioral effects of infection and associations with mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isra Alsaady
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Ellen Tedford
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Mohammad Alsaad
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Greg Bristow
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Shivali Kohli
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Murray
- Institute of Immunity & Transplantation, UCL Department of Virology, Division of Infection & Immunity, Royal Free Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Reeves
- Institute of Immunity & Transplantation, UCL Department of Virology, Division of Infection & Immunity, Royal Free Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - M S Vijayabaskar
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Steven J Clapcote
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Wastling
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Keele, Newcastle-under-Lyme, United Kingdom
| | - Glenn A McConkey
- School of Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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19
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Huang WY, Wang YP, Mahmmod YS, Wang JJ, Liu TH, Zheng YX, Zhou X, Zhang XX, Yuan ZG. A Double-Edged Sword: Complement Component 3 in Toxoplasma gondii Infection. Proteomics 2019; 19:e1800271. [PMID: 30515942 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201800271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Sprague Dawley rats and Kunming (KM) mice are artificially infected with type II Toxoplasma gondii strain Prugniaud (Pru) to generate toxoplasmosis, which is a fatal disease mediated by T. gondii invasion of the central nervous system (CNS) by unknown mechanisms. The aim is to explore the mechanism of differential susceptibility of mice and rats to T. gondii infection. Therefore, a strategy of isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ) is established to identify differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) in the rats' and the mice's brains compared to the healthy groups. In KM mice, which is susceptible to T. gondii infection, complement component 3 (C3) is upregulated and the tight junction (TJ) pathway shows a disorder. It is presumed that T. gondii-stimulated C3 disrupts the TJ of the blood-brain barrier in the CNS. This effect allows more T. gondii passing to the brain through the intercellular space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Yi Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Ya-Pei Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Yasser S Mahmmod
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA, IRTA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193, Barcelona, Spain.,Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193, Barcelona, Spain.,Infectious Diseases, Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, 44511, Zagazig, Sharkia Province, Egypt
| | - Jun-Jie Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Tang-Hui Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Yu-Xiang Zheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Xue Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Xiu-Xiang Zhang
- College of Agriculture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
| | - Zi-Guo Yuan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, P. R. China
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20
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Behavioral evaluation of BALB/c (Mus musculus) mice infected with genetically distinct strains of Toxoplasma gondii. Microb Pathog 2018; 126:279-286. [PMID: 30447421 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In relation to behavioral changes in rodents infected with Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), it is believed that the genotype of the infecting strain can have some influence. In this sense, the present work has sought to evaluate the effect of chronic infection by genetically distinct cystogenic strains of T. gondii on the behavior of mice. For this, experimental models of infection with ME-49 (type II) and VEG (type III) strains were developed in isogenic BALB/c mice. ELISA test was performed to evaluate the humoral immune response and real-time PCR test to quantify parasites in the CNS. Behavioral tests such as passive avoidance, open-field and Y-maze tests were also used for, respectively, evaluation of learning and memory, locomotor activity and aversion to feline odor. The results showed that mice infected with VEG strain had higher total IgG level of anti-toxoplasma, higher tissue burden of T. gondii in the CNS, reduction in the long-term memory, lower activity (mobility) and lower aversion to cat urine and l-felinine than mice infected with ME-49 strain. The results suggest that different T. gondii genotypes have a differential impact on behavioral changes in infected mice.
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21
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Miman Ö, Özcan Ö, Ünal S, Atambay M. Toxoplasma gondii - obsessive -compulsive disorder relationship: is it different in children? Nord J Psychiatry 2018; 72:501-505. [PMID: 30383476 DOI: 10.1080/08039488.2018.1514421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a common neuropsychiatric illness. Although the etiology of OCD is still unknown, recent investigations have associated development of OCD with infectious illness. Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a neurotropic protozoan parasite that causes infection of the central nervous system. In the last decade, a lot of researches have focused on the possible relationship between exposure to T. gondii and neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Therefore, in this study, it was aimed to investigate a possible association between Toxoplasma infection and OCD in children and adolescents. METHODS We selected 55 patients with OCD (aged between 7 and 16 years) and 59 healthy children and adolescents (aged between 7 and 16 years), and investigated the seropositivity rate for anti-Toxoplasma IgG antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS The seropositivity rate for anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies among OCD patients (21.82%) was found to be higher than the rate in control group (15.25%). However, the difference between the OCD group and the control group was not statistically significant (p > .05). CONCLUSION In contrast to studies in adult patients, the results of this study do not support the relationship between T. gondii and OCD children and adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Özlem Miman
- a Department of Parasitology , Dokuz Eylul University Medical Faculty , Izmir , Turkey
| | - Özlem Özcan
- b Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , Inonu University Medical Faculty , Malatya , Turkey
| | - Süheyla Ünal
- c Department of Psychiatry , Inonu University Medical Faculty , Malatya , Turkey
| | - Metin Atambay
- d Department of Parasitology , Inonu University Medical Faculty , Malatya , Turkey
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22
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Wang T, Sun X, Qin W, Zhang X, Wu L, Li Y, Zhou C, Zhou H, He S, Cong H. From inflammatory reactions to neurotransmitter changes: Implications for understanding the neurobehavioral changes in mice chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Behav Brain Res 2018; 359:737-748. [PMID: 30253194 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that can cause a latent infection in the central nervous system, leading to neurobehavioral abnormalities in the host. However, the mechanism underlying these changes remains relatively unexplored. In this study, we detected behavioral changes, pathological injury, secretion of neurotransmitters and related signal pathway in mice infected by T. gondii using behavioral test, histopathology, immunofluorescence staining, western blotting, HPLC and real time PCR. Mice showed neurobehavioral disturbances two months after infection with T. gondii. Histopathology revealed the activation of astrocytes and microglia, apoptosis of neurons and decreases in synapses in the brain of infected mice. Excessive secretion of cytokines and chemokines was detected in the brains of mice infected by T. gondii compared to uninfected mice. Furthermore, T. gondii infection led to abnormalities in neurotransmitters and the activation of NF-κB and dopamine (DA) signaling pathways in the infected mice. In conclusion, excessive activation of the inflammation in the brain could induce neuronal apoptosis in mice chronically infected with T. gondii. Dysregulation of the dopaminergic neurotransmitter could provide an explanation of neurobehavioral disorders in infected hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xiahui Sun
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Wen Qin
- University hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Leilei Wu
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Chunxue Zhou
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Huaiyu Zhou
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Shenyi He
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China
| | - Hua Cong
- Department of Human Parasitology, Shandong University, School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong, PR China.
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23
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Estato V, Stipursky J, Gomes F, Mergener TC, Frazão-Teixeira E, Allodi S, Tibiriçá E, Barbosa HS, Adesse D. The Neurotropic Parasite Toxoplasma gondii Induces Sustained Neuroinflammation with Microvascular Dysfunction in Infected Mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2018; 188:2674-2687. [PMID: 30121257 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is one of the leading parasitic diseases worldwide. Some data suggest that chronic acquired toxoplasmosis could be linked to behavioral alterations in humans. The parasite infects neurons, forming immunologically silent cysts. Cerebral microcirculation homeostasis is determinant to brain functions, and pathologic states can alter capillarity or blood perfusion, leading to neurodegeneration and cognitive deficits. Albino mice were infected with Toxoplasma gondii (ME49 strain) and analyzed after 10, 40, and 180 days. Infected mice presented decreased cerebral blood flow at 10 and 40 days post infection (dpi), which were restored at 180 dpi, as shown by laser speckle contrast imaging. Intravital microscopy demonstrated that infection led to significant capillary rarefaction, accompanied by neuroinflammation, with microglial activation and increased numbers of rolling and adherent leukocytes to the wall of cerebral capillaries. Acetylcholine-induced vasodilation was altered at all time points, and blood brain barrier permeability was evident in infected animals at 40 dpi. Infection reduced angiogenesis, with a decreased number of isolectin B4-stained blood vessels and a decrease in length and branching of laminin-stained capillaries. Sulfadiazine reduced parasite load and partially repaired microvascular damages. We conclude that T. gondii latent infection causes a harmful insult in the brain, promoting neuroinflammation and microcirculatory dysfunction in the brain, with decreased angiogenesis and can contribute to a neurodegenerative process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Estato
- Laboratório de Investigação Cardiovascular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Laboratório de Produtos Naturais, Departamento de Produtos Naturais, Farmanguinhos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Joice Stipursky
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Gomes
- Laboratório de Investigação Cardiovascular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Tally C Mergener
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Edwards Frazão-Teixeira
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Silvana Allodi
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia Comparativa e do Desenvolvimento, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Tibiriçá
- Laboratório de Investigação Cardiovascular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Helene S Barbosa
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Daniel Adesse
- Laboratório de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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24
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Xiao J, Prandovszky E, Kannan G, Pletnikov MV, Dickerson F, Severance EG, Yolken RH. Toxoplasma gondii: Biological Parameters of the Connection to Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2018; 44:983-992. [PMID: 29889280 PMCID: PMC6101499 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sby082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
It is increasingly evident that the brain is not truly an immune privileged site and that cells of the central nervous system are sensitive to the inflammation generated when the brain is fighting off infection. Among the many microorganisms that have access to the brain, the apicomplexan protozoan Toxoplasma gondii has been one of the most studied. This parasite has been associated with many neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. This article provides a comprehensive review of the status of Toxoplasma research in schizophrenia. Areas of interest include (1) the limitations and improvements of immune-based assays to detect these infections in humans, (2) recent discoveries concerning the schizophrenia-Toxoplasma association, (3) findings of Toxoplasma neuropathology in animal models related to schizophrenia pathogenesis, (4) interactions of Toxoplasma with the host genome, (5) gastrointestinal effects of Toxoplasma infections, and (6) therapeutic intervention of Toxoplasma infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianchun Xiao
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Emese Prandovszky
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Geetha Kannan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Mikhail V Pletnikov
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Faith Dickerson
- Stanley Research Program, Sheppard Pratt Health System, Baltimore, MD
| | - Emily G Severance
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Robert H Yolken
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287 USA; tel: +1-410-614-0004, fax: +1-410-955-3723, e-mail:
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25
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Lang D, Schott BH, van Ham M, Morton L, Kulikovskaja L, Herrera-Molina R, Pielot R, Klawonn F, Montag D, Jänsch L, Gundelfinger ED, Smalla KH, Dunay IR. Chronic Toxoplasma infection is associated with distinct alterations in the synaptic protein composition. J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:216. [PMID: 30068357 PMCID: PMC6090988 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1242-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic infection with the neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii has been implicated in the risk for several neuropsychiatric disorders. The mechanisms, by which the parasite may alter neural function and behavior of the host, are not yet understood completely. Methods Here, a novel proteomic approach using mass spectrometry was employed to investigate the alterations in synaptic protein composition in a murine model of chronic toxoplasmosis. In a candidate-based strategy, immunoblot analysis and immunohistochemistry were applied to investigate the expression levels of key synaptic proteins in glutamatergic signaling. Results A comparison of the synaptosomal protein composition revealed distinct changes upon infection, with multiple proteins such as EAAT2, Shank3, AMPA receptor, and NMDA receptor subunits being downregulated, whereas inflammation-related proteins showed an upregulation. Treatment with the antiparasitic agent sulfadiazine strongly reduced tachyzoite levels and diminished neuroinflammatory mediators. However, in both conditions, a significant number of latent cysts persisted in the brain. Conversely, infection-related alterations of key synaptic protein levels could be partly reversed by the treatment. Conclusion These results provide evidence for profound changes especially in synaptic protein composition in T. gondii-infected mice with a downregulation of pivotal components of glutamatergic neurotransmission. Our results suggest that the detected synaptic alterations are a consequence of the distinct neuroinflammatory milieu caused by the neurotropic parasite. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1242-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lang
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Björn H Schott
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Medical Faculty, Department of Neurology, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Marco van Ham
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Cellular Proteomics Group, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lorena Morton
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Leonora Kulikovskaja
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.,Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Rodrigo Herrera-Molina
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Centro Integrativo de Biología y Química Aplicada, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rainer Pielot
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Frank Klawonn
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Cellular Proteomics Group, Braunschweig, Germany.,Department of Computer Science, Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences, Wolfenbuettel, Germany
| | - Dirk Montag
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Lothar Jänsch
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Cellular Proteomics Group, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Eckart D Gundelfinger
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany.,Molecular Neurobiology, Medical Faculty, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Karl Heinz Smalla
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany.,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Ildiko Rita Dunay
- Institute of Inflammation and Neurodegeneration, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany. .,Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Germany.
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26
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Gatkowska J, Wieczorek M, Dziadek B, Dzitko K, Dziadek J, Długońska H. Assessment of the antigenic and neuroprotective activity of the subunit anti-Toxoplasma vaccine in T. gondii experimentally infected mice. Vet Parasitol 2018; 254:82-94. [PMID: 29657017 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the immunogenic and immunoprotective activities and to determine the neuroprotective capacity of the tetravalent vaccine containing selected recombinant T. gondii antigens (ROP2 + ROP4 + SAG1 + MAG1) administered with safe adjuvants (MPL and alum) using male and female inbred mice. The tested antigenic combination provided partial protection against brain cyst formation, especially in males (reduction in cyst burden by 72%). The decrease in cyst burden was observed for the whole brain as well as for specified brain regions associated with natural defensive behaviors, emotion processing and integration of motor and sensory stimuli. The vaccine triggered a strong, specific immune response, regardless of sex, which was characterized by the antigen-specific in vitro synthesis of cytokines (IL-2, IFN-γ and IL-10) and in vivo production of systemic IgG1 and IgG2a immunoglobulins. Immunization prior to the parasite challenge seemed to influence T. gondii - associated behavioral and neurochemical changes, although the impact of vaccination strongly depended on sex and time post-infection. Interestingly, in the vaccinated and T. gondii infected mice there was a significant delay in the parasite-induced loss of aversion toward cat smell (cats are the definitive hosts of the parasite). The regained attraction toward feline scent in vaccinated males, observed during chronic parasite invasion, correlated with the increase in the dopamine metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Gatkowska
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Łódź, Banacha 12/16, Poland.
| | - Marek Wieczorek
- Department of Neurobiology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Łódź, Pomorska 141/143, Poland.
| | - Bożena Dziadek
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Łódź, Banacha 12/16, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Dzitko
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Łódź, Banacha 12/16, Poland.
| | - Jarosław Dziadek
- Institute of Medical Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 93-232 Łódź, Lodowa 106, Poland.
| | - Henryka Długońska
- Department of Immunoparasitology, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-237 Łódź, Banacha 12/16, Poland.
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27
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Use of Human Neurons Derived via Cellular Reprogramming Methods to Study Host-Parasite Interactions of Toxoplasma gondii in Neurons. Cells 2017; 6:cells6040032. [PMID: 28946615 PMCID: PMC5755492 DOI: 10.3390/cells6040032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite, with approximately one-third of the worlds' population chronically infected. In chronically infected individuals, the parasite resides in tissue cysts in neurons in the brain. The chronic infection in immunocompetant individuals has traditionally been considered to be asymptomatic, but increasing evidence indicates that chronic infection is associated with diverse neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, cryptogenic epilepsy, and Parkinson's Disease. The mechanisms by which the parasite exerts affects on behavior and other neuronal functions are not understood. Human neurons derived from cellular reprogramming methods offer the opportunity to develop better human neuronal models to study T. gondii in neurons. Results from two studies using human neurons derived via cellular reprogramming methods indicate these human neuronal models provide better in vitro models to study the effects of T. gondii on neurons and neurological functions. In this review, an overview of the current neural reprogramming methods will be given, followed by a summary of the studies using human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived neurons and induced neurons (iNs) to study T. gondii in neurons. The potential of these neural reprogramming methods for further study of the host-parasite interactions of T. gondii in neurons will be discussed.
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28
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Fallahi S, Rostami A, Birjandi M, Zebardast N, Kheirandish F, Spotin A. Parkinson's disease and Toxoplasma gondii infection: Sero-molecular assess the possible link among patients. Acta Trop 2017; 173:97-101. [PMID: 28602836 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 05/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the possible association between Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder and Toxoplasma gondii infection, the most common neurotropic protozoan parasitic infection, using serological and molecular techniques. One hundred and fifteen patients with confirmed PD and 115 healthy subjects in the same age and sex distribution were enrolled in this study. Blood samples were taken from each participant and the sera was screened for anti-Toxoplasma antibodies (IgG and IgM). PCR assay was performed in duplicate using the primer pair targeting the B1 gene of Toxoplasma. Amplicons were directly sequenced to conduct the phylogenetic analysis. The prevalence of Toxoplasma infection based on IgG titer was 53% in case and 55.6% in the control groups, revealing no statistically significant association between Toxoplasma seropositivity and PD (OR=0.90; 95% CI=0.54-1.51; P=0.691). According to PCR assay, the prevalence of Toxoplasma infections was 19.3% in the case and 10.4% in control groups which the difference was statistically significant (OR=3.02; 95% CI=1.46-6.27; P=0.002). Multiple sequence alignment of Toxoplasma gondii isolates manifested a common haplotype by the identity: 93.6-100% and divergence: 0-6.7%. We concluded that T. gondii infection not only could not be a risk factor to PD, but even it could be concluded that patients with PD are in more risk to acquisition of infection. These results provide fresh insights into the ambiguous association between T. gondii infection and PD.
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29
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Lv L, Wang Y, Feng W, Hernandez JA, Huang W, Zheng Y, Zhou X, Lv S, Chen Y, Yuan ZG. iTRAQ-based differential proteomic analysis in Mongolian gerbil brains chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii. J Proteomics 2017; 160:74-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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30
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Xiao J, Li Y, Gressitt KL, He H, Kannan G, Schultz TL, Svezhova N, Carruthers VB, Pletnikov MV, Yolken RH, Severance EG. Cerebral complement C1q activation in chronic Toxoplasma infection. Brain Behav Immun 2016; 58:52-56. [PMID: 27109609 PMCID: PMC5067173 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to the neurotropic parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, causes significant brain and behavioral anomalies in humans and other mammals. Understanding the cellular mechanisms of T. gondii-generated brain pathologies would aid the advancement of novel strategies to reduce disease. Complement factor C1q is part of a classic immune pathway that functions peripherally to tag and remove infectious agents and cellular debris from circulation. In the developing and adult brain, C1q modifies neuronal architecture through synapse marking and pruning. T. gondii exposure and complement activation have both been implicated in the development of complex brain disorders such as schizophrenia. Thus, it seems logical that mechanistically, the physiological pathways associated with these two factors are connected. We employed a rodent model of chronic infection to investigate the extent to which cyst presence in the brain triggers activation of cerebral C1q. Compared to uninfected mice, cortical C1q was highly expressed at both the RNA and protein levels in infected animals bearing a high cyst burden. In these mice, C1q protein localized to cytoplasm, adjacent to GFAP-labeled astrocytes, near degenerating cysts, and in punctate patterns along processes. In summary, our results demonstrated an upregulation of cerebral C1q in response to latent T. gondii infection. Our data preliminarily suggest that this complement activity may aid in the clearance of this parasite from the CNS and in so doing, have consequences for the connectivity of neighboring cells and synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianchun Xiao
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA
| | - Ye Li
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA
| | - Kristin L Gressitt
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA
| | - Helen He
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA
| | - Geetha Kannan
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Tracey L Schultz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Nadezhda Svezhova
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Vern B Carruthers
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Mikhail V Pletnikov
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Robert H Yolken
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA
| | - Emily G Severance
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Blalock 1105, Baltimore, MD 21287-4933, USA.
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Mahmoudvand H, Ziaali N, Aghaei I, Sheibani V, Shojaee S, Keshavarz H, Shabani M. The possible association between Toxoplasma gondii infection and risk of anxiety and cognitive disorders in BALB/c mice. Pathog Glob Health 2016; 109:369-76. [PMID: 26924347 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2015.1117742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There are conflicting reports concerning the association of Toxoplasma gondii infection with increased risk of mental disorders. This investigation will provide a good understanding about defining the possible association between T. gondii exposure and risk of anxiety and cognitive alterations. Besides, a secondary objective of this study was to determine the effect of pioglitazone administration on the possible alterations induced by T. gondii exposure. Male BALB/c mice were used for this study. The animal model of Toxoplasma infection was established by the intraperitoneal inoculation of 20-25 tissue cysts from Tehran strain of T. gondii. Pioglitazone (20 mg/kg, i.p.1/day) was administered to the animals for 2 weeks before behavioural tests. Behavioural tests including open-field, elevated plus-maze and passive avoidance learning were evaluated in the groups. Since cytokines were implicated as a contributing factor for mood disorders, the mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 as well as inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOs) were examined by real-time PCR. Findings demonstrated that T. gondii caused anxiety-like symptoms and impaired cognitive functions of the infected BALB/c mice, whereas pioglitazone, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonist, showed a promising effect against the cognitive impairments induced by Toxoplasma infection. The results also revealed that the mRNA levels of the aforementioned cytokines were significantly (p < 0.05) increased in the infected mice compared to the uninfected BALB/c ones. Pioglitazone can be offered as a potential neuroprotective agent in the treatment of patients with T. gondii infection that manifests anxiety and cognitive impairments; however, further studies are needed to clarify the exact mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Mahmoudvand
- 1 Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences , Khorramabad, Iran
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Mahmoudvand H, Sheibani V, Shojaee S, Mirbadie SR, Keshavarz H, Esmaeelpour K, Keyhani AR, Ziaali N. Toxoplasma gondii Infection Potentiates Cognitive Impairments of Alzheimer's Disease in the BALB/c Mice. J Parasitol 2016; 102:629-635. [PMID: 27513205 DOI: 10.1645/16-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
This study tests the hypothesis that in chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection communication among immune cells promotes neuroinflammation through cytokine networks and potentiate cognitive impairments in BALB/c mice with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The animal model of Toxoplasma infection was established by the intraperitoneal inoculation of 20-25 tissue cysts from the Tehran strain of T. gondii . We injected amyloid-beta 1-42 peptide (Aβ1-42, 1 and 2 μl) into the hippocampus of BALB/c mice to establish an animal model of AD. The behavioral experiments such as spatial learning and memory were performed using the Morris water maze test. The mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were examined by real-time PCR. We found that T. gondii infection caused AD-like symptoms and impaired learning and memory functions of the infected BALB/c mice. We also found that in Toxoplasma infection + Aβ1-42 (1 μl) group, T. gondii infection could potentiate AD in infected mice receiving subdoses of Aβ1-42 (1 μl) and caused considerable impairment in learning and memory functions similar to AD group. Comparison of the results demonstrated that mRNA levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and iNOS significantly (P < 0.001) increased in T. gondii + Aβ1-42 (1 μl) in comparison with the other tested groups. The obtained results showed that chronic T. gondii infection communication among immune cells promotes neuroinflammation through cytokine networks and induces pathological progression of AD in the mice brain, whereas the presence of neuroanatomical Toxoplasma tissue cysts in the brain could also affect the behavioral functions in T. gondii -infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Mahmoudvand
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Vahid Sheibani
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Saeideh Shojaee
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Seyed Reza Mirbadie
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Hossein Keshavarz
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Esmaeelpour
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Ali Reza Keyhani
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Naser Ziaali
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
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Nourollahpour Shiadeh M, Rostami A, Pearce BD, Gholipourmalekabadi M, Newport DJ, Danesh M, Mehravar S, Seyyedtabaei SJ. The correlation between Toxoplasma gondii infection and prenatal depression in pregnant women. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2016; 35:1829-1835. [PMID: 27502929 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-016-2734-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that latent toxoplasmosis is associated with neuropsychiatric disorders. We evaluated the correlation between Toxoplasma gondii infection and prenatal depression. In this case-control study, we enrolled 116 depressed pregnant women and 244 healthy controls. The Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to evaluate the depression symptom severity in study participants. All participants were screened for the anti-Toxoplasma IgG by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Seroprevalence of T. gondii did not significantly differ between the depressed pregnant women and healthy controls (OR = 1.4; 95 % CI = 0.9-2.19; P = 0.142). T. gondii IgG titer was significantly higher in depressed women (18.6 ± 10.9 IUs) than those in the control group (13.6 ± 8.1 IUs) (z = -5.36, P < 0.001). The T. gondii-positive depressed women showed a positive correlation of T. gondii IgG titer with the EPDS scores (r = 0.52; P < 0.01). The mean EPDS score was also significantly higher in the T. gondii-positive depressed women (20.7 ± 2.7) compared with the controls (18.36 ± 2.7) (P < 0.001). The results obtained from the current study revealed that T. gondii infection might affect susceptibility to depression and severity of depressive symptoms in pregnant women, particularly in those patients who have high antibody titers. Further study is required to fully elucidate the characteristics and mechanisms of this association.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Nourollahpour Shiadeh
- Department of Midwifery and Reproductive Health, Nursing and Midwifery School, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - A Rostami
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - B D Pearce
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - M Gholipourmalekabadi
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran.,Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - D J Newport
- Departments of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences and Obstetrics & Gynecology, Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - M Danesh
- Department of Midwifery and Reproductive Health, Nursing and Midwifery School, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - S Mehravar
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - S J Seyyedtabaei
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Elsheikha HM, Büsselberg D, Zhu XQ. The known and missing links between Toxoplasma gondii and schizophrenia. Metab Brain Dis 2016; 31:749-59. [PMID: 27041387 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-016-9822-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, an intracellular protozoan parasite, has a striking predilection for infecting the Central Nervous System and has been linked to an increased incidence of a number of psychiatric diseases. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that T. gondii infection can affect the structure, bioenergetics and function of brain cells, and alters several host cell processes, including dopaminergic, tryptophan-kynurenine, GABAergic, AKT1, Jak/STAT, and vasopressinergic pathways. These mechanisms underlying the neuropathology of latent toxoplasmosis seem to operate also in schizophrenia, supporting the link between the two disorders. Better understanding of the intricate parasite-neuroglial communications holds the key to unlocking the mystery of T. gondii-mediated schizophrenia and offers substantial prospects for the development of disease-modifying therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK.
| | - Dietrich Büsselberg
- Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, Qatar Foundation - Education City, P.O. Box: 24144, Doha, Qatar
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
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Strunov A, Schneider DI, Albertson R, Miller WJ. Restricted distribution and lateralization of mutualistic Wolbachia in the Drosophila brain. Cell Microbiol 2016; 19. [PMID: 27353950 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Microbial symbionts are universal entities of all living organisms that can significantly affect host fitness traits in manifold ways but, even more fascinating, also their behaviour. Although better known from parasitic symbionts, we currently lack any cases where 'neurotrophic' symbionts have co-evolved mutualistic behavioural interactions from which both partners profit. By theory, most mutualistic associations have originated from ancestral parasitic ones during their long-term co-evolution towards a cost-benefit equilibrium. To manipulate host behaviour in a way where both partners benefit in a reciprocal manner, the symbiont has to target and remain restricted to defined host brain regions to minimize unnecessary fitness costs. By using the classic Drosophila paulistorum model system we demonstrate that (i) mutualistic Wolbachia are restricted to various Drosophila brain areas, (ii) form bacteriocyte-like structures within the brain, (iii) exhibit strictly lateral tropism, and (iv) finally propose that their selective neuronal infection affects host sexual behaviour adaptively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Strunov
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Novosibirsk, Russia.,Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniela I Schneider
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Wolfgang J Miller
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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36
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Possible mechanism of host manipulation resulting from a diel behaviour pattern of eye-dwelling parasites? Parasitology 2016; 143:1261-7. [DOI: 10.1017/s0031182016000810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARYParasitic infection often results in alterations to the host's phenotype, and may modify selection pressures for host populations. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying these changes is essential to understand the evolution of host–parasite interactions. A variety of mechanisms may result in changes in the host's behavioural phenotype, ranging from simple by-products of infection to chemicals directly released by the parasite to alter behaviour. Another possibility may involve parasites freely moving to certain sites within tissues, at specific times of the day to induce behavioural changes in the host. We tested the hypothesis that parasites shift to certain sites within the host by quantifying the location and activity of the trematode Tylodelphys sp., whose mobile metacercarial stages remain unencysted in the eyes of the second intermediate fish host, the common bully (Gobiomorphus cotidianus). This parasite's definitive host is a piscivorous bird feeding exclusively during daytime. Ocular obstruction and metacercarial activity were assessed within the sedated host's eye at three time points 24 h−1 period, using video captured via an ophthalmoscope. Although observed metacercarial activity did not change between time periods, ocular obstruction was significantly reduced at night. Increased visual obstruction specifically during the foraging time of the parasite's definitive host strongly suggests that the parasite's activity pattern is adaptive.
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Tanaka N, Ashour D, Dratz E, Halonen S. Use of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons as a model for Cerebral Toxoplasmosis. Microbes Infect 2016; 18:496-504. [PMID: 27083472 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2016.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous protozoan parasite with approximately one-third of the worlds' population chronically infected. In chronically infected individuals, the parasite resides primarily in cysts within neurons in the central nervous system. The chronic infection in immunocompetent individuals has been considered to be asymptomatic but increasing evidence indicates the chronic infection can lead to neuropsychiatric disorders such as Schizophrenia, prenatal depression and suicidal thoughts. A better understanding of the mechanism(s) by which the parasite exerts effects on human behavior is limited due to lack of suitable human neuronal models. In this paper, we report the use of human neurons derived from normal cord blood CD34+ cells generated via genetic reprogramming, as an in vitro model for the study T. gondii in neurons. This culture method resulted in a relatively pure monolayer of induced human neuronal-like cells that stained positive for neuronal markers, MAP2, NFL, NFH and NeuN. These induced human neuronal-like cells (iHNs) were efficiently infected by the Prugniad strain of the parasite and supported replication of the tachyzoite stage and development of the cyst stage. Infected iHNs could be maintained through 5 days of infection, allowing for formation of large cysts. This induced human neuronal model represents a novel culture method to study both tachyzoite and bradyzoite stages of T. gondii in human neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Tanaka
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Danah Ashour
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Edward Dratz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA
| | - Sandra Halonen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA.
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Möhle L, Israel N, Paarmann K, Krohn M, Pietkiewicz S, Müller A, Lavrik IN, Buguliskis JS, Schott BH, Schlüter D, Gundelfinger ED, Montag D, Seifert U, Pahnke J, Dunay IR. Chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection enhances β-amyloid phagocytosis and clearance by recruited monocytes. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2016; 4:25. [PMID: 26984535 PMCID: PMC4793516 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-016-0293-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with the accumulation of β-amyloid (Aβ) as senile plaques in the brain, thus leading to neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. Plaque formation depends not merely on the amount of generated Aβ peptides, but more importantly on their effective removal. Chronic infections with neurotropic pathogens, most prominently the parasite Toxoplasma (T.) gondii, are frequent in the elderly, and it has been suggested that the resulting neuroinflammation may influence the course of AD. In the present study, we investigated how chronic T. gondii infection and resulting neuroinflammation affect plaque deposition and removal in a mouse model of AD. RESULTS Chronic infection with T. gondii was associated with reduced Aβ and plaque load in 5xFAD mice. Upon infection, myeloid-derived CCR2(hi) Ly6C(hi) monocytes, CCR2(+) Ly6C(int), and CCR2(+) Ly6C(low) mononuclear cells were recruited to the brain of mice. Compared to microglia, these recruited mononuclear cells showed highly increased phagocytic capacity of Aβ ex vivo. The F4/80(+) Ly6C(low) macrophages expressed high levels of Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), CD36, and Scavenger Receptor A1 (SCARA1), indicating phagocytic activity. Importantly, selective ablation of CCR2(+) Ly6C(hi) monocytes resulted in an increased amount of Aβ in infected mice. Elevated insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), as well as immunoproteasome subunits β1i/LMP2, β2i/MECL-1, and β5i/LMP7 mRNA levels in the infected brains indicated increased proteolytic Aβ degradation. Particularly, LMP7 was highly expressed by the recruited mononuclear cells in the brain, suggesting a novel mechanism of Aβ clearance. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that chronic Toxoplasma infection ameliorates β-amyloidosis in a murine model of AD by activation of the immune system, specifically by recruitment of Ly6C(hi) monocytes and by enhancement of phagocytosis and degradation of soluble Aβ. Our findings provide evidence for a modulatory role of inflammation-induced Aβ phagocytosis and degradation by newly recruited peripheral immune cells in the pathophysiology of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Möhle
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, University of Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Israel
- Institute for Molecular and Clinical Immunology, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Kristin Paarmann
- Department of Pathology (PAT), Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Magdeburg, Germany
- Neurogenetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Markus Krohn
- Department of Pathology (PAT), Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
| | - Sabine Pietkiewicz
- Department of Translational Inflammation Research, Institute of Experimental Internal Medicine, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Müller
- Institute for Molecular and Clinical Immunology, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Inna N Lavrik
- Department of Translational Inflammation Research, Institute of Experimental Internal Medicine, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | | | - Björn H Schott
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
- Department of Behavioral Neurology, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Mitte, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dirk Schlüter
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, University of Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Eckart D Gundelfinger
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
- Department of Neurochemistry and Molecular Biology, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
- Medical Faculty, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Dirk Montag
- Neurogenetics, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Seifert
- Institute for Molecular and Clinical Immunology, University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Jens Pahnke
- Department of Pathology (PAT), Translational Neurodegeneration Research and Neuropathology Lab, University of Oslo (UiO) and Oslo University Hospital (OUS), Oslo, Norway
- University of Lübeck (UzL), LIED, Lübeck, Germany
- Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry (IPB), Halle, Germany
| | - Ildiko Rita Dunay
- Institute for Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, University of Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, 39120, Magdeburg, Germany.
- Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany.
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MAHMOUDVAND H, SHEIBANI V, KESHAVARZ H, SHOJAEE S, ESMAEELPOUR K, ZIAALI N. Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor Improves Learning and Memory Impairment Induced by Toxoplasma gondii Infection. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2016; 11:177-185. [PMID: 28096851 PMCID: PMC5236094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Here, we established the mouse models of chronic toxoplasmosis by T. gondii Tehran strain to provide a good understanding about defining the possible association between T. gondii exposure and learning and memory impairments. Moreover, as secondary objective of the present study, we hypothesized whether administration of an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor could reduce learning and memory impairments induced by T. gondii infection. METHODS Twenty-four male BALB/c mice were used to establishment of latent toxoplasmosis. The animal model of Toxoplasma infection was established by the intraperitoneal inoculation of 20-25 tissue cysts from Tehran strain of T. gondii. Donepezil (2 mg/kg) an AChE inhibitor to treat Alzheimer disease was injected intraperitoneally once a day for two weeks starting from post-infection day 90. Morris water maze (MWM) task was used to assay spatial learning and short term spatial memory in all groups. One-way ANOVA with Tukey's post-hoc test was used to assess differences between experimental groups. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS Toxoplasma infection impaired spatial leaning and short term spatial memory of the infected BALB/c mice, whereas donepezil, an AChE inhibitor, improved impairments induced by Toxoplasma infection. CONCLUSION T. gondii infection through increasing AChE reduces the level of Acetylcholine (Ach) and consequently affects learning and memory activity in infected hosts, whereas, donepezil as an AChE inhibitor improves these impairments by restoring ACh levels at synapses of neurons in brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein MAHMOUDVAND
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran
| | - Vahid SHEIBANI
- Neuroscience Research Center, Neuropharmacology Institute, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Hossein KESHAVARZ
- Department of Medical Parasitology & Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Saeedeh SHOJAEE
- Department of Medical Parasitology & Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Khadijeh ESMAEELPOUR
- Neuroscience Research Center, Neuropharmacology Institute, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Naser ZIAALI
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran,Correspondence
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Okusaga O, Duncan E, Langenberg P, Brundin L, Fuchs D, Groer MW, Giegling I, Stearns-Yoder KA, Hartmann AM, Konte B, Friedl M, Brenner LA, Lowry CA, Rujescu D, Postolache TT. Combined Toxoplasma gondii seropositivity and high blood kynurenine--Linked with nonfatal suicidal self-directed violence in patients with schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2016; 72:74-81. [PMID: 26594873 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2015] [Revised: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) chronic infection and elevated kynurenine (KYN) levels have been individually associated with non-fatal suicidal self-directed violence (NF-SSDV). We aimed to test the hypothesis that the association between T. gondii seropositivity and history of NF-SSDV would be stronger in schizophrenia patients with high plasma KYN levels than in those with lower KYN levels. We measured anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies and plasma KYN in 950 patients with schizophrenia, and used logistic regression to evaluate the relationship between NF-SSDV and KYN in patients who were either seropositive or seronegative for T. gondii. For those with KYN levels in the upper 25th percentile, the unadjusted odds ratio for the association between NF-SSDV history and KYN in T. gondii seropositive patients was 1.63 (95% CI 1.01 to 2.66), p = 0.048; the adjusted odds ratio was 1.95 (95% CI 1.15 to 3.30), p = 0.014. Plasma KYN was not associated with a history of NF-SSDV in T. gondii seronegative patients. The results suggest that T. gondii and KYN may have a nonlinear cumulative effect on the risk of NF-SSDV among those with schizophrenia. If confirmed by future longitudinal studies, this result is expected to have both theoretical and clinical implications for the prevention and treatment of suicidal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaoluwa Okusaga
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Erica Duncan
- Mental Health Service, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Emory University, School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Patricia Langenberg
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Lena Brundin
- Division of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University and the Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Dietmar Fuchs
- Division of Biological Chemistry, Biocenter, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Ina Giegling
- Department of Psychiatry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Kelly A Stearns-Yoder
- Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Denver, CO, USA; Military and Veteran Microbiome Consortium of Research and Education (MVM CORE), Denver, CO, USA
| | - Annette M Hartmann
- Department of Psychiatry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Bettina Konte
- Department of Psychiatry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Marion Friedl
- Department of Psychiatry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Lisa A Brenner
- Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Denver, CO, USA; Military and Veteran Microbiome Consortium of Research and Education (MVM CORE), Denver, CO, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Christopher A Lowry
- Military and Veteran Microbiome Consortium of Research and Education (MVM CORE), Denver, CO, USA; Department of Integrative Physiology and Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Dan Rujescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Teodor T Postolache
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Denver, CO, USA; Military and Veteran Microbiome Consortium of Research and Education (MVM CORE), Denver, CO, USA; Veterans Integrated Service Network (VISN) 5, Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center (MIRECC), Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Sutterland AL, Fond G, Kuin A, Koeter MWJ, Lutter R, van Gool T, Yolken R, Szoke A, Leboyer M, de Haan L. Beyond the association. Toxoplasma gondii in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and addiction: systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2015; 132:161-79. [PMID: 25877655 DOI: 10.1111/acps.12423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To perform a meta-analysis on studies reporting prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection in any psychiatric disorder compared with healthy controls. Our secondary objective was to analyze factors possibly moderating heterogeneity. METHOD A systematic search was performed to identify studies into T. gondii infection for all major psychiatric disorders versus healthy controls. Methodological quality, publication bias, and possible moderators were assessed. RESULTS A total of 2866 citations were retrieved and 50 studies finally included. Significant odds ratios (ORs) with IgG antibodies were found in schizophrenia (OR 1.81, P < 0.00001), bipolar disorder (OR 1.52, P = 0.02), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OR 3.4, P < 0.001), and addiction (OR 1.91, P < 0.00001), but not for major depression (OR 1.21, P = 0.28). Exploration of the association between T. gondii and schizophrenia yielded a significant effect of seropositivity before onset and serointensity, but not IgM antibodies or gender. The amplitude of the OR was influenced by region and general seroprevalence. Moderators together accounted for 56% of the observed variance in study effects. After controlling for publication bias, the adjusted OR (1.43) in schizophrenia remained significant. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that T. gondii infection is associated with several psychiatric disorders and that in schizophrenia reactivation of latent T. gondii infection may occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Sutterland
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - G Fond
- AP-HP, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, INSERM U955, Eq 15 Psychiatrie Translationnelle, Université Paris Est-Créteil, Créteil, France.,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - A Kuin
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - M W J Koeter
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - R Lutter
- Departments of Experimental Immunology and Respiratory Medicine, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - T van Gool
- Department of Parasitology, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - R Yolken
- Stanley Neurovirology Laboratory, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - A Szoke
- AP-HP, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, INSERM U955, Eq 15 Psychiatrie Translationnelle, Université Paris Est-Créteil, Créteil, France.,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - M Leboyer
- AP-HP, DHU Pe-PSY, Pôle de Psychiatrie et d'addictologie des Hôpitaux Universitaires H Mondor, INSERM U955, Eq 15 Psychiatrie Translationnelle, Université Paris Est-Créteil, Créteil, France.,Fondation Fondamental, Créteil, France
| | - L de Haan
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Parlog A, Schlüter D, Dunay IR. Toxoplasma gondii-induced neuronal alterations. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:159-70. [PMID: 25376390 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The zoonotic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii infects over 30% of the human population. The intracellular parasite can persist lifelong in the CNS within neurons modifying their function and structure, thus leading to specific behavioural changes of the host. In recent years, several in vitro studies and murine models have focused on the elucidation of these modifications. Furthermore, investigations of the human population have correlated Toxoplasma seropositivity with changes in neurological functions; however, the complex underlying mechanisms of the subtle behavioural alteration are still not fully understood. The parasites are able to induce direct modifications in the infected cells, for example by altering dopamine metabolism, by functionally silencing neurons as well as by hindering apoptosis. Moreover, indirect effects of the peripheral immune system and alterations of the immune status of the CNS, observed during chronic infection, might also contribute to changes in neuronal connectivity and synaptic plasticity. In this review, we will provide an overview and highlight recent advances, which describe changes in the neuronal function and morphology upon T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Parlog
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
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43
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Blanchard N, Dunay IR, Schlüter D. Persistence of Toxoplasma gondii in the central nervous system: a fine-tuned balance between the parasite, the brain and the immune system. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:150-8. [PMID: 25573476 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Upon infection of humans and animals with Toxoplasma gondii, the parasites persist as intraneuronal cysts that are controlled, but not eliminated by the immune system. In particular, intracerebral T cells are crucial in the control of T. gondii infection and are supported by essential functions from other leukocyte populations. Additionally, brain-resident cells including astrocytes, microglia and neurons contribute to the intracerebral immune response by the production of cytokines, chemokines and expression of immunoregulatory cell surface molecules, such as major histocompatibility (MHC) antigens. However, the in vivo behaviour of these individual cell populations, specifically their interaction during cerebral toxoplasmosis, remains to be elucidated. We discuss here what is known about the function of T cells, recruited myeloid cells and brain-resident cells, with particular emphasis on the potential cross-regulation of these cell populations, in governing cerebral toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Blanchard
- Inserm U1043, Toulouse, France; CNRS U5282, Toulouse, France; Centre de Physiopathologie de Toulouse Purpan (CPTP), Université de Toulouse, UPS, Toulouse, France
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Ngoungou EB, Bhalla D, Nzoghe A, Dardé ML, Preux PM. Toxoplasmosis and epilepsy--systematic review and meta analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003525. [PMID: 25695802 PMCID: PMC4335039 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toxoplasmosis is an important, widespread, parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii. The chronic infection in immunocompetent patients, usually considered as asymptomatic, is now suspected to be a risk factor for various neurological disorders, including epilepsy. We aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the available literature to estimate the risk of epilepsy due to toxoplasmosis. METHODS A systematic literature search was conducted of several databases and journals to identify studies published in English or French, without date restriction, which looked at toxoplasmosis (as exposure) and epilepsy (as disease) and met certain other inclusion criteria. The search was based on keywords and suitable combinations in English and French. Fixed and random effects models were used to determine odds ratios, and statistical significance was set at 5.0%. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Six studies were identified, with an estimated total of 2888 subjects, of whom 1280 had epilepsy (477 positive for toxoplasmosis) and 1608 did not (503 positive for toxoplasmosis). The common odds ratio (calculated) by random effects model was 2.25 (95% CI 1.27-3.9), p = 0.005. CONCLUSIONS Despite the limited number of studies, and a lack of high-quality data, toxoplasmosis should continue to be regarded as an epilepsy risk factor. More and better studies are needed to determine the real impact of this parasite on the occurrence of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgard B. Ngoungou
- INSERM, UMR1094, Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale, Limoges, France
- Université de Limoges, UMR 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology, Institute of Neuroepidemiology and Tropical Neurology, CNRS FR 3503 GEIST, Limoges, France
- Département d’Epidémiologie-Biostatistiques et Informatique Médicale (DEBIM/EA NEMIT), Faculté de Médecine, Université des Sciences de la Santé, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Devender Bhalla
- INSERM, UMR1094, Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale, Limoges, France
- Université de Limoges, UMR 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology, Institute of Neuroepidemiology and Tropical Neurology, CNRS FR 3503 GEIST, Limoges, France
| | - Amandine Nzoghe
- Département d’Epidémiologie-Biostatistiques et Informatique Médicale (DEBIM/EA NEMIT), Faculté de Médecine, Université des Sciences de la Santé, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Marie-Laure Dardé
- INSERM, UMR1094, Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale, Limoges, France
- Université de Limoges, UMR 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology, Institute of Neuroepidemiology and Tropical Neurology, CNRS FR 3503 GEIST, Limoges, France
- CHU Limoges, Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Limoges, France
| | - Pierre-Marie Preux
- INSERM, UMR1094, Neuroépidémiologie Tropicale, Limoges, France
- Université de Limoges, UMR 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology, Institute of Neuroepidemiology and Tropical Neurology, CNRS FR 3503 GEIST, Limoges, France
- CHU Limoges, CEBIMER, Limoges, France
- * E-mail:
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Markovitz AA, Simanek AM, Yolken RH, Galea S, Koenen KC, Chen S, Aiello AE. Toxoplasma gondii and anxiety disorders in a community-based sample. Brain Behav Immun 2015; 43:192-7. [PMID: 25124709 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2014.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
A growing body of literature suggests that exposure to the neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is associated with increased risk of mental disorders, particularly schizophrenia. However, a potential association between T. gondii exposure and anxiety disorders has not been rigorously explored. Here, we examine the association of T. gondii infection with both anxiety and mood disorders. Participants (n=484) were drawn from the Detroit Neighborhood Health Study, a population-representative sample of Detroit residents. Logistic regression was used to examine the associations between T. gondii exposure (defined by seropositivity and IgG antibody levels) and three mental disorders: generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression. We found that T. gondii seropositivity was associated with a 2 times greater odds of GAD (odds ratio (OR), 2.25; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.11-4.53) after adjusting for age, gender, race, income, marital status, and medication. Individuals in the highest antibody level category had more than 3 times higher odds of GAD (OR, 3.35; 95% CI, 1.41-7.97). Neither T. gondii seropositivity nor IgG antibody levels was significantly associated with PTSD or depression. Our findings indicate that T. gondii infection is strongly and significantly associated with GAD. While prospective confirmation is needed, T. gondii infection may play a role in the development of GAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam A Markovitz
- Department of Health Management and Policy, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Amanda M Simanek
- Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI 53201, United States
| | - Robert H Yolken
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
| | - Sandro Galea
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Karestan C Koenen
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY 10032, United States
| | - Shu Chen
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Allison E Aiello
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States.
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Reassessment of the role of aromatic amino acid hydroxylases and the effect of infection by Toxoplasma gondii on host dopamine. Infect Immun 2014; 83:1039-47. [PMID: 25547791 DOI: 10.1128/iai.02465-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infection has been described previously to cause infected mice to lose their fear of cat urine. This behavioral manipulation has been proposed to involve alterations of host dopamine pathways due to parasite-encoded aromatic amino acid hydroxylases. Here, we report successful knockout and complementation of the aromatic amino acid hydroxylase AAH2 gene, with no observable phenotype in parasite growth or differentiation in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, expression levels of the two aromatic amino acid hydroxylases were negligible both in tachyzoites and in bradyzoites. Finally, we were unable to confirm previously described effects of parasite infection on host dopamine either in vitro or in vivo, even when AAH2 was overexpressed using the BAG1 promoter. Together, these data indicate that AAH enzymes in the parasite do not cause global or regional alterations of dopamine in the host brain, although they may affect this pathway locally. Additionally, our findings suggest alternative roles for the AHH enzymes in T. gondii, since AAH1 is essential for growth in nondopaminergic cells.
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Chronic infection of Toxoplasma gondii downregulates miR-132 expression in multiple brain regions in a sex-dependent manner. Parasitology 2014; 142:623-32. [PMID: 25351997 DOI: 10.1017/s003118201400167x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
MicroRNA-132 (miR-132) has been demonstrated to affect multiple neuronal functions and its dysregulation is linked to several neurological disorders. We previously showed that acute Toxoplasma gondii infection induces miR-132 expression both in vitro and in vivo. To investigate the impact of chronic infection on miR-132, we infected mice with T. gondii PRU strain and performed assessment 5 months later in six brain regions (cortex, hypothalamus, striatum, cerebellum, olfactory bulb and hippocampus) by qPCR. We found that while acute infection of T. gondii increases the expression of miR-132, chronic infection has the opposite effect. The effect varied amongst different regions of the brain and presented in a sex-dependent manner, with females exhibiting more susceptibility than males. MiR-132 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF, an inducer of miR-132) were not co-varies in the brain areas of infected mice. T. gondii DNA/RNA was found in all tested brain regions and a selective tropism towards the hippocampus, based on bradyzoite density, was observed in both males and females. However, the expressions of miR-132 or BDNF were poorly reflected by the density of T. gondii in brain areas. Our findings highlight the importance of investigating the miR-132-mediated neuronal function in mice infected with T. gondii.
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Prandota J, Gryglas A, Fuglewicz A, Żesławska-Faleńczyk A, Ujma-Czapska B, Szenborn L, Mierzwa J. Recurrent headaches may be caused by cerebral toxoplasmosis. World J Clin Pediatr 2014; 3:59-68. [PMID: 25254186 PMCID: PMC4162438 DOI: 10.5409/wjcp.v3.i3.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM To establish seroprevalence and provide characteristics of Toxoplasma gondii (TG) infection in children with recurrent headaches. METHODS The study was performed in 178 children aged 7-17 years admitted consecutively to the Department of Pediatric Neurology from November 2009 to July 2011. The children were surveyed with a questionnaire with the help and assistance of their parents and blood samples taken on admission were studied for the presence of specific anti-TG IgM, IgG antibodies and IgG avidity using enzyme immunoassay Platelia Toxo IgM, IgG. RESULTS The study showed that 19 children (8 boys, 11 girls; 8-17 years old, mean age 14.36 years) had high serum anti-TG IgG antibody levels (range: 32.2 > 240 UI/mL, mean 120.18 UI/mL; positive value for IgG was ≥ 9 UI/mL). The avidity index (AI) ranged from 0.202 to 0.925 (scale: ≥ 0.5 high AI). The results for IgM antibodies were all negative and the obtained results ranged from 0.113 to 0.25 U/mL (mean = 0.191 IU/mL) and all values below 0.8 IU/mL were considered negative. The most frequent complaints found in the seropositive patients were headaches that affected the frontal (13 children), occipital (4) and parietal areas (5). Headaches usually had a pulsating (in 7 patients) and squeezing (6) character and rarely were piercing, dull or expanding. Interestingly, 8 children did not feel discomfort during the headaches, probably because they did not have sufficiently increased intracranial pressure yet. The headaches usually appeared 1-2 times/mo, lasted for 2-6 h, and had a mean intensity of 5.5 points in a 10 point subjective scale. The comorbidities included epilepsy (5 patients), various infections in 3 children (chronic eustachitis, chronic rhinitis, chronic purulent tonsillitis, streptococcal pharyngitis, meningitis, allergic diseases), disturbances of behavior, deficits of attention, and ocular and motor concentration disorders in 1 child. The electroencephalographic and neuroimaging studies performed in our patients had a very limited value in establishing cerebral toxoplasmosis. CONCLUSION Ten point six seven percent of the studied children had markedly increased serum anti-TG IgG antibodies and high AI indicated chronic infestation. It is suggested that tests for TG infection should be introduced to routine diagnostics in patients with recurrent headaches.
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Morger J, Bajnok J, Boyce K, Craig PS, Rogan MT, Lun ZR, Hide G, Tschirren B. Naturally occurring Toll-like receptor 11 (TLR11) and Toll-like receptor 12 (TLR12) polymorphisms are not associated with Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild wood mice. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2014; 26:180-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2014.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Revised: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Mammari N, Vignoles P, Halabi MA, Darde ML, Courtioux B. In vitro infection of human nervous cells by two strains of Toxoplasma gondii: a kinetic analysis of immune mediators and parasite multiplication. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98491. [PMID: 24886982 PMCID: PMC4041771 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The severity of toxoplasmic infection depends mainly on the immune status of the host, but also on the Toxoplasma gondii strains, which differ by their virulence profile. The relationship between the human host and T. gondii has not yet been elucidated because few studies have been conducted on human models. The immune mechanisms involved in the persistence of T. gondii in the brains of immunocompetent subjects and during the reactivation of latent infections are still unclear. In this study, we analyzed the kinetics of immune mediators in human nervous cells in vitro, infected with two strains of T. gondii. Human neuroblast cell line (SH SY5Y), microglial (CMH5) and endothelial cells (Hbmec) were infected separately by RH (type I) or PRU (type II) strains for 8 h, 14 h, 24 h and 48 h (ratio 1 cell: 2 tachyzoites). Pro-inflammatory protein expression was different between the two strains and among different human nervous cells. The cytokines IL-6, IL-8 and the chemokines MCP-1 and GROα, and SERPIN E1 were significantly increased in CMH5 and SH SY5Y at 24 h pi. At this point of infection, the parasite burden declined in microglial cells and neurons, but remained high in endothelial cells. This differential effect on the early parasite multiplication may be correlated with a higher production of immune mediators by neurons and microglial cells compared to endothelial cells. Regarding strain differences, PRU strain, but not RH strain, stimulates all cells to produce pro-inflammatory growth factors, G-CSF and GM-CSF. These proteins could increase the inflammatory effect of this type II strain. These results suggest that the different protein expression profiles depend on the parasitic strain and on the human nervous cell type, and that this could be at the origin of diverse brain lesions caused by T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour Mammari
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology Institute, Limoges, France; University of Limoges, National Center for Scientific Research France 3503 Institute of Genomic, Environment, Immunity, Health and Therapy, Limoges, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Philippe Vignoles
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology Institute, Limoges, France; University of Limoges, National Center for Scientific Research France 3503 Institute of Genomic, Environment, Immunity, Health and Therapy, Limoges, France
| | - Mohamad Adnan Halabi
- National Center for Scientific Research France 7276, France 3503 Institute of Genomic, Environment, Immunity, Health and Therapy, University of Limoges, Faculty of Pharmacy, Limoges, France
| | - Marie Laure Darde
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology Institute, Limoges, France; University of Limoges, National Center for Scientific Research France 3503 Institute of Genomic, Environment, Immunity, Health and Therapy, Limoges, France
- Universitary Hospital, Department of Parasitology, Biological Resource Centre for Toxoplasma, Limoges, France
| | - Bertrand Courtioux
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research 1094, Tropical Neuroepidemiology Institute, Limoges, France; University of Limoges, National Center for Scientific Research France 3503 Institute of Genomic, Environment, Immunity, Health and Therapy, Limoges, France
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