Suppression (but not reappraisal) impairs subsequent error detection: an ERP study of emotion regulation's resource-depleting effect

Phasic affective signals by themselves do not regulate cognitive control

Cognitive control is a set of mechanisms that help us process conflicting stimuli and maintain goal-relevant behaviour. According to the Affective Signalling Hypothesis, conflicting stimuli are aversive and thus elicit (negative) affect, moreover - to avoid aversive signals - affective and cognitive systems work together by increasing control and thus, drive conflict adaptation. Several studies have found that affective stimuli can indeed modulate conflict adaptation, however, there is currently no evidence that phasic affective states not triggered by conflict also trigger improved cognitive control. To investigate this possibility, we intermixed trials of a conflict task and trials involving the passive viewing of emotional words. We tested whether affective states induced by affective words in a given trial trigger improved cognitive control in a subsequent conflict trial. Applying Bayesian analysis, the results of four experiments supported the lack of adaptation to aversive signals, both in terms of valence and arousal. These results suggest that phasic affective states by themselves are not sufficient to elicit an increase in control.

Childhood trauma predicts blunted error monitoring in adulthood: An event-related potential study

Abuse and neglect have detrimental consequences on emotional and cognitive functioning during childhood and adolescence, including error monitoring, which is a critical aspect of cognition that has been implicated in certain internalizing and externalizing psychopathologies. It is unclear, however, whether (a) childhood trauma has effects on error monitoring and, furthermore whether, (b) error monitoring mediates the relation between childhood trauma and psychopathology in adulthood. To this end, in a large sample of young adults (ages 18-30) who were oversampled for psychopathology (N = 390), the present study assessed relations between childhood trauma and error-related negativity (ERN), which is a widely used neurophysiological indicator of error monitoring. Cumulative childhood trauma predicted ERN blunting, as did two specific types of traumas: sexual abuse and emotional neglect. Furthermore, the ERN partially mediated the effects of cumulative childhood trauma and emotional neglect on externalizing-related symptoms. Future studies should further examine the relations between childhood trauma and error monitoring in adulthood, which can help to inform intervention approaches.

Event-Related Potentials Index Prediction Error Signalling During Perceptual Processing of Emotional Facial Expressions

Humans use socially relevant stimuli to guide perceptual processing of the surrounding environment, with emotional stimuli receiving preferential attention due to their social importance. Predictive coding theory asserts this cognitive process occurs efficiently by combining predictions about what is to be perceived with incoming sensory information, generating prediction errors that are then used to update future predictions. Recent evidence has identified differing neural activity that demonstrates how spatial and feature-based attention may interact with prediction, yet how emotion-guided attention may influence this relationship remains unknown. In the present study, participants viewed a display of two faces in which attention, prediction, and emotion were manipulated, and responded to a face expressing a specific emotion (anger or happiness). The N170 was found to be enhanced by unpredictable as opposed to predictable stimuli, indicating that it indexes general prediction error signalling processes. The N300 amplitudes were also enhanced by unpredictable stimuli, but they were also affected by the attentional status of angry but not happy faces, suggesting that there are differences in prediction error processes indexed by the N170 and N300. Overall, the findings suggest that the N170 and N300 both index violations of expectation for spatial manipulations of stimuli in accordance with prediction error responding processes.

Discrimination Without Intoxication: The Role of Controlled Processes in the Promotion of Racial Bias After Viewing Alcohol-Related Cues

Viewing alcohol-related cues (e.g., advertisements) is known to promote expressions of racial bias and aggression through the temporary promotion of reflexive or impulsive responding. However, this increased automaticity may be inhibited by thoughtful control of behavior. We examined the role of controlled processes in the suppression of racial bias following alcohol cue exposure across two experiments. Experiment 1 (N = 125) indicated reduced control of behavior promoted greater expressions of racial bias after viewing alcohol-related cues. Experiment 2 (N = 71) replicated these effects, suggesting individuals with lower neural indices of control, indexed by reduced amplitudes of the error-related negativity (ERN), similarly express greater racial bias after viewing alcohol-related cues. These findings replicate previous work suggesting alcohol-related cues promote impulsivity and application of negative racial stereotypes. Yet, whether this automaticity manifests into behavioral expressions of racial bias depends on the availability to engage self-control to inhibit these socially undesirable responses.

Aversiveness of errors and the error-related negativity (ERN): A systematic review on the affective states' manipulations findings

Error-related negativity (ERN) has been used to investigate neural mechanisms underlying error processing and conflict monitoring. Recent evidence highlights that affective and motivational states modulate the ERN and that aversiveness of errors plays a vital role in error monitoring. Therefore, our primary objective was to systematically evaluate and describe the influence of affect state-related manipulations on the ERN. A total of 51 publications identified from PsyInfo, PubMed, and PsyArticles databases were included following the Prisma procedures for systematic reviews. Papers were analyzed using sample attributes, psychological paradigms, and states manipulations. The present study shows that the ERN component has recurrently appeared to be sensitive to manipulations of affective states in the reviewed literature. However, conclusive findings concerning the affect state-dependent properties of the ERN remain elusive. Results are discussed considering heterogeneity in paradigms, variables, and the state-trait interactions. Furthermore, recommendations for future high-quality studies are provided along with the necessity of upcoming high-power replication attempts and more studies with positive affect manipulations.

Postpartum Stress and Neural Regulation of Emotion among First-Time Mothers

Early parenting relies on emotion regulation capabilities, as mothers are responsible for regulating both their own emotional state and that of their infant during a time of new parenting-related neural plasticity and potentially increased stress. Previous research highlights the importance of frontal cortical regions in facilitating effective emotion regulation, but few studies have investigated the neural regulation of emotion among postpartum women. The current study employed a functional neuroimaging (fMRI) approach to explore the association between perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and the neural regulation of emotion in first-time mothers. Among 59 postpartum mothers, higher perceived stress during the postpartum period was associated with less self-reported use of cognitive reappraisal in everyday life, and greater use of emotion suppression. While viewing standardized aversive images during the Emotion Regulation Task (ERT), mothers were instructed to experience their natural emotional state (Maintain) or to decrease the intensity of their negative emotion by using cognitive reappraisal (Reappraise). Whole-brain analysis revealed a two-way interaction of perceived stress x condition in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) at p < .05 cluster-wise corrected, controlling for postpartum months and scanner type. Higher levels of perceived stress were associated with heightened right DLPFC activity while engaging in cognitive reappraisal versus naturally responding to negative stimuli. Higher right DLPFC activity during Reappraise versus Maintain was further associated with elevated parenting stress. Findings suggest that stress and everyday reappraisal use is reflected in mothers' neural regulation of emotion and may have important implications for their adaptation to parenthood.

The costs of over-control in anorexia nervosa: evidence from fMRI and ecological momentary assessment

A growing body of evidence suggests that a high level of self-control may, despite its positive effects, influence cognitive processing in an unfavorable manner. However, the affective costs of self-control have only rarely been investigated. Anorexia nervosa (AN) is an eating disorder that is often characterized by excessive self-control. Here, we used fMRI to explore whether over-control in AN may have negative affective consequences. 36 predominantly adolescent female AN patients and 36 age-matched healthy controls (HC) viewed negative and neutral pictures during two separate fMRI sessions before and after 10 min of rest. We tested whether abnormally elevated neural activity during the initial presentation in a brain region broadly implicated in top-down control, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), could predict subsequent activation in limbic areas relevant to bottom-up affective processing. Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA), we also tested for associations between the aforementioned neuroimaging markers and negative affective states in the two weeks following the experiment. fMRI data revealed that higher initial activation of the dlPFC in AN predicted increased amygdala reactivity during the second fMRI session, which in turn was related to increased self-reported tension during two weeks following the scan. These data suggest that over-control in AN patients may come at a cost including negative affective states on a short (minutes) as well as a longer time scale (days). This mechanism may significantly contribute to the persistence of AN.

Emotional reactivity, suppression of emotions and response inhibition in emotional eaters: A multi-method pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Emotional eating has been associated with high emotional reactivity, suppression of negative emotions and inhibitory control difficulties. The current study aimed to address the association of these factors and their combined effect on emotional eating.

METHOD

Twenty-eight participants conducted an emotional Go/Nogo task including pictures of neutral, negative and positive scenes and an additional emotion suppression condition. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity was recorded continuously. Emotional eating and habitual emotion suppression were assessed through questionnaires. Emotional reactivity to affective pictures was measured through a visual analogue scale and the amplitude of the electrophysiological late positive potential (LPP). Inhibition parameters were assessed behaviorally (i.e., commission errors) and through event-related potentials of the EEG (i.e., N2/P3-amplitudes).

RESULTS

The trait questionnaire data revealed that emotional eating was not correlated with habitual emotion suppression. During the emotional Go/Nogo paradigm, higher emotional eating scores were positively related to higher LPP amplitudes in response to negative affective scenes. Inhibitory control capacities were not related to emotional eating while watching neutral or negative pictures, but higher emotional eating scores were associated with more commission errors when negative emotions were suppressed.

DISCUSSION

Emotional eating tendencies seem to be related to higher reactivity when confronted with negative affective information and inhibitory control deficits may arise especially when an effort is made to suppress these negative emotions. Therefore, a focus on adaptive emotion regulation in treatments of emotional eating seems to be important; solely targeting inhibitory control capacities may not be sufficient in order to help people with emotional eating to regulate their food intake.

More restriction, more overeating: conflict monitoring ability is impaired by food-thought suppression among restrained eaters

Numerous studies have shown that restrained eating is not an effective weight loss strategy. Restrained eaters often suppress their desires and thoughts about tasty food, which makes it more difficult to control themselves in subsequent eating behavior. The ego depletion impairs conflict monitoring abilities. Therefore, this study explored the effects of food thoughts suppression on restrained eaters' conflict monitoring. Therefore, this study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) methods to explore changes in the activity of brain regions involved in conflict monitoring when restrained eaters choose between high- and low-calorie foods after either suppressing or not suppressing thoughts about food. The results showed that, compared to the control condition, after suppression of such thoughts, restrained eaters chose more high-calorie foods and displayed decreased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex-an important region in charge of conflict monitoring. At the same time, the functional coupling of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the precuneus increased. Our findings suggest that restrained eaters' suppression of thoughts about tasty food could lead to a decline in their ability to monitor conflicts between current behaviors and goals, which in turn leads to unhealthy eating behavior.

Conflict monitoring and the affective-signaling hypothesis-An integrative review

Conflict-monitoring theory proposes that conflict between incompatible responses is registered by a dedicated monitoring system, and that this conflict signal triggers changes of attentional filters and adapts control processes according to the current task demands. Extending the conflict-monitoring theory, it has been suggested that conflict elicits a negative affective reaction, and that it is this affective signal that is monitored and then triggers control adaptation. This review article summarizes research on a potential signaling function of affect for cognitive control. First, we provide an overview of the conflict-monitoring theory, discuss neurophysiological and behavioral markers of monitoring and control adaptation, and introduce the affective-signaling hypothesis. In a second part, we review relevant studies that address the questions of (i) whether conflict elicits negative affect, (ii) whether negative affect is monitored, and (iii) whether affect modulates control. In sum, the reviewed literature supports the claim that conflict and errors trigger negative affect and provides some support for the claim that affect modulates control. However, studies on the monitoring of negative affect and the influence of phasic affect on control are ambiguous. On the basis of these findings, in a third part, we critically reassess the affective-signaling hypothesis, discuss relevant challenges to this account, and suggest future research strategies.

Clinical and Neurophysiological Correlates of Emotion and Food Craving Regulation in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa

Background: Difficulties in emotion regulation and craving regulation have been linked to eating symptomatology in patients with anorexia nervosa (AN), contributing to the maintenance of their eating disorder. Methods: To investigate clinical and electrophysiological correlates of these processes, 20 patients with AN and 20 healthy controls (HC) completed a computerized task during EEG recording, where they were instructed to down-regulate negative emotions or food craving. Participants also completed self-report measures of emotional regulation and food addiction. The P300 and Late Positive Potential (LPP) ERPs were analysed. Results: LPP amplitudes were significantly smaller during down-regulation of food craving among both groups. Independent of task condition, individuals with AN showed smaller P300 amplitudes compared to HC. Among HC, the self-reported use of re-appraisal strategies positively correlated with LPP amplitudes during emotional regulation task, while suppressive strategies negatively correlated with LPP amplitudes. The AN group, in comparison to the HC group, exhibited greater food addiction, greater use of maladaptive strategies, and emotional dysregulation. Conclusions: Despite the enhanced self-reported psychopathology among AN, both groups indicated neurophysiological evidence of food craving regulation as evidenced by blunted LPP amplitudes in the relevant task condition. Further research is required to delineate the mechanisms associated with reduced overall P300 amplitudes among individuals with AN.

Temporal dynamics of error-related corrugator supercilii and zygomaticus major activity: Evidence for implicit emotion regulation following errors

According to feedback control models, errors are monitored and inform subsequent control adaptations. Despite these cognitive consequences, errors also have affective consequences. It has been suggested that errors elicit negative affect which might be functional for control adaptations. The present research is concerned with the temporal dynamics of error-related affect. Therefore, we ask how affective responses to errors change over time. Two experiments assessed performance in a Stroop-like task in combination with online measures of facial electromyography that index affective responses specific for muscles that are associated with the expression of negative (corrugator supercilii) and positive affect (zygomaticus major). After errors, corrugator activity first increased relative to correct trials but then decreased (below correct trials) for later time bins. Zygomaticus activity showed a concomitant inverse pattern following errors, such that an initial decrease was followed by a later increase relative to correct trials. Together, this biphasic response in both facial muscles suggests that early negative responses to errors turn into increasingly more positive ones over time. Error-triggered electromyography did marginally predict behavioral adjustments following errors at the inter-individual, but not at the intra-individual level, providing only limited evidence for a functional role of error-related affect for immediate changes in behavior. However, the dynamics of error-related electromyography points to the role of implicit emotion regulation during task performance. We propose that this process helps to maintain homeostasis of positive and negative affect which in the long term could facilitate adaptive behavior.

After-effects of self-control: The reward responsivity hypothesis

Exercising self-control can be phenomenologically aversive. Insofar as individuals strive to maintain a positive emotional state, one consequence of exercising self-control may thus be a temporarily tuning toward or amplification of reward-related impulses (perhaps arising to countermand the aversive feelings that stem from self-control). Reward-relevant after-effects are relatively underappreciated in self-control research. In the current paper, we review theory and research pertaining to the idea that exercising self-control increases reward responsivity. First, we review theoretical models of self-control focusing on the relationship between control systems and reward systems. Second, we review behavioral studies regarding the effects of exercising self-control on subsequent reactivity to food, money, drugs, and positive emotional images. Third, we review findings from functional neuroimaging and electroencephalographic research pertaining to the reward responsivity hypothesis. We then call for additional research to integrate how, when, and under what circumstances self-control exertion influences reward processing. Such an endeavor will help to advance research and theory on self-control by offering a more precise characterization of the dynamic interactions between control systems and reward systems.

Distraction and Expressive Suppression Strategies in Regulation of High- and Low-Intensity Negative Emotions

The current study compared the effectiveness of distraction, an antecedent-focused strategy that involves diverting an individual’s attention away from affective terms, and expressive suppression, a response-focused strategy that involves inhibiting conscious emotion-expressive behavior during an emotionally aroused state, in the regulation of high- and low-intensity unpleasant stimuli, using event-related potentials (ERPs). Sixteen participants completed an emotion regulation experiment in which they passively viewed high- or low-intensity unpleasant images (view), solved a mathematical equation presented on high- or low-intensity negative images (distraction), or suppressed their emotional expression in response to high- or low-intensity unpleasant images (suppression). Their negative experiences after implementation of these strategies were rated by participants on a 1–9 scale. We mainly found that compared with expressive suppression, distraction yielded greater attenuation of the early phase of centro-parietal LPP when the participants responded to high-intensity stimuli. In the low-intensity condition, distraction, but not expressive suppression, effectively decreased the early phase of LPP. The findings suggest that expressive suppression works as early as distraction in the high-intensity condition; more importantly, distraction is superior to expressive suppression in regulating negative emotion, which is influenced by emotional intensity.

Mindful awareness of feelings increases neural performance monitoring

Mindfulness has been associated with enhanced performance monitoring; however, little is known about the processes driving this apparent neurocognitive benefit. Here, we tested whether focusing present-moment awareness toward the nonjudgmental experience of emotion facilitates rapid neural responses to negative performance outcomes (i.e., mistakes). In particular, we compared whether directing present-moment awareness toward emotions or thoughts would enhance the neurophysiological correlates of performance monitoring: the error-related negativity (ERN) and the error positivity (Pe). Participants were randomly assigned to either a thought-focused or an emotion-focused group, and first they completed a preinduction go/no-go task. Subsequently, the groups followed inductions that promoted mindful attention toward either thoughts or emotions, before completing a final postinduction go/no-go session. The results indicated that emotion-focused participants demonstrated higher neural sensitivity to errors in the time course of the ERN, whereas focusing on thoughts had no effect on performance monitoring. In contrast, neither induction procedure altered the amplitude of the later Pe component. Although our manipulations also induced changes in behavior, the ERN effects remained significant after controlling for performance. Thus, our results suggest that mindfulness meditation boosts early neural performance monitoring (ERN amplitude), specifically through meditation's influence on affective processing.

Performance monitoring during a minimal group manipulation

The on-going (self-)monitoring of our behaviour is inextricably intertwined with the surrounding social context. In this study, we investigated whether a minimal group paradigm assigning individuals to arbitrary group categories is powerful enough to induce changes in behavioural, psychophysiological and event-related potential correlates of performance monitoring. Following arbitrary group assignment based on ostensible task performance and a group identification task, 22 volunteers performed a flanker-task during both in-group and out-group contexts, while electroencephalography was performed. More errors were committed in the out-group compared with the in-group context. Error-related negativity amplitudes were larger for in-group compared with out-group errors. However, subsequent processing reflected in late Pe amplitudes and stimulus-driven conflict reflected in N2 amplitudes were not affected by the group context. Heart rate deceleration (during both correct and incorrect trials) tended to be more pronounced during the out-group compared with the in-group context. This surprising observation was corroborated by subjective ratings of performance satisfaction, in which participants reported higher satisfaction with their out-group performance. This study identified specific stimulus evaluation processes to be affected by a minimal group manipulation and demonstrated thereby transient top-down effects of a social context manipulation on performance monitoring.