Coping with an acute psychosocial challenge: behavioral and physiological responses in young women

The long-term impact of early adverse experience on adaptive functioning: a pilot study integrating measures of mental status, nonverbal communication, and heart rate variability

Background: Childhood maltreatment (CM) can disrupt the development of behavioural and physiological systems, increasing the risk of physical and psychological adverse outcomes across the lifespan. CM may cause interpersonal dysfunctions that impair social communication and lead to dysfunctional activation of the autonomic nervous system. The present exploratory study analyzed the long-term impact of CM from an integrated perspective through the simultaneous assessment of psychological symptoms, social and behavioural communication, and physiological regulation.

Methods: Participants were 55 healthy university students (9 males and 46 females; mean age ± SD = 25.26 ± 2.83 years), who filled out a battery of questionnaires to assess the presence of CM (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire) and psychopathological symptoms (Symptom Check-List-90 Item Revised). Participants were then subjected to a videotaped interview for the assessment of non-verbal behaviour (Ethological Coding System for Interviews) and measurement of tonic heart rate variability (HRV), a measure of physiological adaptability to the environment. We performed Pearson's correlation analysis to evaluate the associations between non-verbal behaviour, HRV, and CM variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to evaluate the independent associations between CM variables on HRV and nonverbal behaviour.

Results: We found an association between more severe CM, increased symptoms-related distress (ps < .001), less submissive behaviour (ps < .018), and decreased tonic HRV (ps < .028). As a result of multiple regression analysis, participants with a history of emotional abuse (R² = .18, p = .002) and neglect (R² = .10, p = .03) were more likely to display decreased submissive behaviour during the dyadic interview. Moreover, early experience of emotional (R² = .21, p = .005) and sexual abuse (R² = .14, p = .04) was associated with decreased tonic HRV.

Conclusion: Our preliminary findings show the utility of analyzing the long-term effects of adverse early experiences at different levels of ‘adaptive functioning’ (the capabilities needed to respond effectively to environmental demands).

Substantial traumatic experiences during childhood, such as emotional abuse, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse were associated with lower heart rate variability levels in a sample of young adults.

Young adults with a history of emotional abuse and neglect were more likely to display decreased submissive behaviour (ethological behaviour) during the dyadic interview.

Severe childhood maltreatment was associated with increased symptoms-related distress, less submissive behaviour (ethological behaviour), and decreased tonic heart rate variability in young adults.

The effects of oral contraceptives on resting autonomic function and the autonomic response to physiological stressors: a systematic review

PURPOSE

This systematic review aimed to summarize how oral contraceptives (OC) affect resting autonomic function and the autonomic response to a variety of physiological stressors.

METHODS

A search strategy was created to retrieve citations investigating physiological responses comparing OC users to non-users (NOC) in response to autonomic reflex activation.

RESULTS

A total of 6148 citations were identified across databases from inception to June 2, 2022, and 3870 citations were screened at the abstract level after deduplication. Then, 133 texts were assessed at full-text level, and only 40 studies met eligibility requirements. Included citations were grouped by the aspect of autonomic function assessed, including autonomic reflex (i.e., baroreflex, chemoreflex, mechanoreflex, metaboreflex, and venoarterial reflex), or indicators (i.e., heart rate variability, pulse wave velocity, and sympathetic electrodermal activity), and physiological stressors that may alter autonomic function (i.e., auditory, exercise, mental or orthostatic stress, altitude, cold pressor test, sweat test, and vasodilatory infusions).

CONCLUSION

OC influence the physiological responses to chemoreflex, mechanoreflex, and metaboreflex activation. In terms of autonomic indices and physiological stressors, there are more inconsistencies within the OC literature, which may be due to estrogen dosage within the OC formulation (i.e., heart rate variability) or the intensity of the stressor (exercise intensity/duration or orthostatic stress). Further research is required to elucidate the effects of OC on these aspects of autonomic function because of the relatively small amount of available research. Furthermore, researchers should more clearly define or stratify OC use by duration, dose, and/or hormone cycling to further elucidate the effects of OC.

Women in their mid-follicular phase outcompete hormonal contraceptive users, an effect partially explained by relatively greater progesterone and cortisol reactivity to competition

Early evidence suggests that hormonal contraceptive (HC) use alters psychological functioning and competitive behavior. Yet, there is limited data on endocrine models for explaining how HC use affects these outcomes. In this pre-registered and open-data study, we test if HC users and naturally cycling (NC) females in their low (mid-follicular) and high (mid-luteal) progesterone phase differ in competitive persistence and whether progesterone and cortisol reactivity mediate of this effect. HC users (N = 73) in the active hormone-exposure phase and NC participants in the mid-follicular (N = 69) or mid-luteal (N = 72) phase completed two behavioral measures of competitive persistence, holding up a weight for time followed by attempting to solve an unsolvable anagram. Participants also completed measures of handgrip strength and self-reported competitiveness as well as gave saliva samples before and after the tasks for hormone assay. Results showed that NC-follicular group had greater competitive persistence in the weight-holding task compared to both NC-luteal (d = 0.38) and HC use (d = 0.43) groups independent of physical strength and self-reported competitiveness covariates. Although anagram task performance showed similar trends for group differences, analyses for this task were inconclusive. Baseline progesterone did not mediate the effect of cycle phase group on competitive persistence. HC users showed relatively blunted cortisol and progesterone reactivity, and this effect partially mediated the difference in competitive persistence between HC users and the NC-follicular group. In sum, results suggest that HC use could downregulate competitive behavior at least partly by dampening cortisol-progesterone reactivity. These findings offer a new endocrine model for understanding HC use and cycle phase effects on motivational and energetic outcomes required for optimal performance in competitive contexts.

Salivary testosterone, testosterone/cortisol ratio and non-verbal behavior in stress

The relationship between hormone release and non-verbal communication under stress conditions is still not sufficiently explored. The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that salivary testosterone concentrations and testosterone/cortisol (T/C) ratios correlate positively with assertive behavior representing a non-aggressive form of dominance during an acute stress situation. As a stress model, a socially evaluated cold pressor test was investigated in healthy men. The non-verbal behavior was analyzed according to the ethological coding system for interviews described by Troisi (1999). Salivary testosterone concentrations did not change throughout the stress test. The T/C ratios decreased significantly over time only in subjects showing high stress perception. The duration of affiliative and the frequency of flight behavior was higher in subjects with high stress perception compared to those with low stress perception. A significant positive correlation between the duration of prosocial behavior and values of T/C ratios was found in the whole sample. The area under the curve values of testosterone positively correlated with the duration of assertive behavior in the group with high stress perception and negatively in the other group. Our findings allow suggesting that the changes in non-verbal behavior during acute psychosocial stress situations may be more pronounced in subjects showing high stress perception. Obtained results motivate further research on a better understanding of the consequences of the lack of sense of full facial expressions, such as wearing face masks, on the balance between hormones and non-verbal behavior under stress conditions.

Psychometric properties of brief-COPE inventory among nurses

Objective

Brief-COPE inventory is widely used to assess coping; however, validation evidence is absent and previous results were inconsistent. This study aimed to validate psychometric properties of this inventory to ensure culturally appropriate usage.

Methods

Preliminary validation study on 423 female nurses from the United Arab Emirates. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with maximum likelihood estimation was computed to test four different previous models. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) protocol was used to determine underlying domain structure of Brief-COPE in this population.

Results

The four previous models on CFA had inadequate fit indexes. Two-factor (22-items) second-order model that explained 37.0% of the total variance with Cronbach’s alpha at 0.81 and 0.88, respectively, was suggested.

Conclusion

This validation of Brief-COPE is timely considering nurses enduring different types of stressors. In addition, cultural diversity needs to be considered in coping research. Re-assessment of this exploratory structure is necessary to ensure accurate measurement of coping strategies.

Resilience and Psychobiological Response to Stress in Older People: The Mediating Role of Coping Strategies

Resilience, the ability to overcome adversity and face stressful demands and experiences, has been strongly associated with successful aging, a low risk of diseases and high mental and physical functioning. This relationship could be based on adaptive coping behaviors, but more research is needed to gain knowledge about the strategies employed to confront social stress. Thus, we aimed to investigate the role of the use of active or passive coping strategies by resilient people in dealing with stressful situations. For this purpose, we measured resilience, coping strategies, and perceived stress in 66 healthy older adults (31 men and 35 women) between 56 and 75 years old who were exposed to stress (Trier Social Stress Test, TSST) or a control situation. The stress response was analyzed at endocrine (cortisol) and psychological (anxiety) levels. In the stress condition, moderated mediation analysis showed a conditional indirect effect of resilience on cortisol reactivity through active coping. However, passive coping strategies did not mediate the resilience-cortisol relationship. In addition, neither active nor passive coping mediated the relationship between resilience and the anxiety response. These results suggest that resilience is associated with active coping strategies, which in turn could explain, at least in part, individual differences in the cortisol response to a psychosocial laboratory stressor. These factors may prevent the development of stress-related pathologies associated with aging and facilitate healthy and satisfactory aging.

Behavioral and physiological stress responses: Within-person concordance during pregnancy

During pregnancy, a woman's emotions can have longstanding implications for both her own and her child's health. Within-person emotional concordance refers to the simultaneous measurement of emotional responses across multiple levels of analysis. This method may provide insight into how pregnant women experience emotions in response to stress. We enrolled 162 pregnant women and assessed concordance through autonomic physiology (electrodermal activity [EDA], respiratory sinus arrhythmia [RSA]), and coded behavior (Prosocial, Flight, Displacement) during the Trier Social Stress Test-Speech. We used multilevel models to examine behavioral-physiological concordance and whether self-reported emotion dysregulation moderated these effects. Participants exhibited EDA-Prosocial concordance, suggesting that prosocial behavior may be a marker of stress. Emotion dysregulation did not moderate concordance. These findings provide novel information about behavioral coping to stress in pregnancy. Given the importance of observed behavior in the maintenance and treatment of psychopathology, these findings may provide a launchpad for future perinatal intervention research.

Recurring sequences of multimodal non-verbal and verbal communication during a human psycho-social stress test: A temporal pattern analysis

BACKGROUND

The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) is a widely used protocol to study human psycho-social stress responses. Quantitative reports of non-verbal behaviors have been carried out by means of the Ethological Coding System for Interviews (ECSI). However, no data have described whether and how non-verbal and verbal behaviors take part in the composition of multimodal sequences of communication during the test.

METHOD

Five non-verbal ECSI categories and four verbal behaviors related with communication were included in the Ethogram. A focal sampling was employed to ensure a high temporal resolution of the behavioral annotation. T-Pattern Analysis was employed to detect statistically-grounded behavioral sequences.

RESULTS

As a first step, frequency, overall duration and mean time length were reported for each component of the Ethogram. Besides, T-Pattern Analysis revealed that communication during TSST is organized according to a complex temporal patterning. We found 51 different sequences (T-patterns): 8 T-patterns included exclusively non-verbal behaviors; 17 T-patterns included verbal behaviors and 26 T-patterns encompassed mixed non-verbal and verbal behaviors. T-patterns were discussed depending on their putative functional meaning since non-verbal behaviors almost did not overlap within patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

The implementation of an Ethogram including non-verbal and verbal components highlights the multimodal human communication in TSST. T-Pattern Analysis unveils the real-time interplay among these components. In this study results are discussed according to Jakobson's six constitutive factors of communication.

Salivary cortisol responses to acute stress vary between allergic and healthy individuals: the role of plasma oxytocin, emotion regulation strategies, reported stress and anxiety

Numerous studies have demonstrated that acute psychological stress, induced by the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) paradigm, affects salivary cortisol secretion and self-reported stress measures including anxiety. Allergy has been related to altered cortisol responsiveness and increased stress vulnerability. Here, we investigated acute stress responses and emotion regulation strategies in cohorts of allergic and healthy individuals. Groups of allergics and healthy individuals were subjected to the TSST and experienced levels of stress and anxiety, as well as emotion regulation strategies, were assessed. Cortisol and oxytocin concentrations were measured in saliva or plasma. The present findings confirm earlier results of altered stress responsiveness in allergic individuals. Acute stress by the TSST evoked higher physiological arousal in allergics by means of salivary cortisol secretion. Allergics also scored higher on emotion suppression. However, individuals who were more likely to use reappraisal recovered more efficiently from the cortisol increase. No such effect for reappraisal was found in the healthy population. No differences in self-reported anxiety and stress emerged between the groups. Plasma oxytocin levels prior to the TSST were significantly higher in allergics. Our data corroborate earlier findings on altered stress susceptibility in allergics. Moreover, we identified differences in emotion regulation and oxytocin secretion which should be further explored. Accounting for the emerging global prevalence of allergy, more in-depth research into the experience of stress, coping strategies and stress-related molecules in allergic people is warranted.Short summaryThis study addressed stress experiences and emotion regulation in allergic and non-allergic adults. Allergics scored higher on emotion suppression, had higher pre-stress concentrations of plasma oxytocin and exhibited a stronger salivary cortisol response to stress than healthy people. The research outcomes indicate that allergic individuals cope less efficiently with acute stress but may benefit from adaptive emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal.

The effect of neurostimulation applied to the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on post-stress adaptation as a function of depressive brooding

Depressive brooding following a stressful event predicts negative affect and neuroendocrine responses related to psychological stress. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has been associated with the top-down regulation of thoughts and emotions, and abnormal neural activity within this region has been associated with increased psychological stress and ruminative thinking. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the modulation of the DLPFC could have beneficial effects on ruminative thoughts and the endocrine response following a self-relevant stressor. Using a sham-controlled within-subjects crossover-design, two sessions of intermittent theta-burst stimulation (iTBS) were administered over the left DLPFC to thirty-eight healthy-volunteers after they were confronted with a social-evaluative stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test. To assess stress recovery, momentary rumination was measured before and after a resting period subsequent to the encounter with the stressor. In addition, cortisol levels were measured between and after the two iTBS sessions that were applied during the stress recovery phase. Overall, iTBS did not significantly influence ruminative thinking and cortisol secretion during the stress recovery phase. However, taking into account participants ruminative tendencies, our results revealed that for participants with higher levels of brooding ruminative thinking remained stable after iTBS, whereas in the sham condition there was a marginal significant increase in ruminative thinking. Moreover, only after iTBS, there was a significant reduction in cortisol secretion (i.e. a faster return to baseline as compared to sham) for high brooders during the recovery from the stressor. These results show that the prefrontal cortex plays a role in stress recovery mechanisms in individuals who are more vulnerable for psychopathology.

Higher Circulating Cortisol in the Follicular vs. Luteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle: A Meta-Analysis

Although results of animal research show that interactions between stress and sex hormones are implicated in the development of affective disorders in women, translation of these findings to patients has been scarce. As a basic step toward advancing this field of research, we analyzed findings of studies which reported circulating cortisol levels in healthy women in the follicular vs. luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. We deemed this analysis critical not only to advance our understanding of basic physiology, but also as an important contrast to the findings of future studies evaluating stress and sex hormones in women with affective disorders. We hypothesized that cortisol levels would be lower in the follicular phase based on the proposition that changes in levels of potent GABAergic neurosteroids, including allopregnanolone, during the menstrual cycle dynamically change in the opposite direction relative to cortisol levels. Implementing strict inclusion criteria, we compiled results of high-quality studies involving 778 study participants to derive a standardized mean difference between circulating cortisol levels in the follicular vs. luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. In line with our hypothesis, our meta-analysis found that women in the follicular phase had higher cortisol levels than women in the luteal phase, with an overall Hedges' g of 0.13 (p < 0.01) for the random effects model. No significant between-study difference was detected, with the level of heterogeneity in the small range. Furthermore, there was no evidence of publication bias. As cortisol regulation is a delicate process, we review some of the basic mechanisms by which progesterone, its potent metabolites, and estradiol regulate cortisol output and circulation to contribute to the net effect of higher cortisol in the follicular phase.

Effects of sex and menstrual cycle phase on cardiac response and alpha- amylase levels in psychosocial stress

The impact of sex and the menstrual cycle phase on the autonomic response to psychosocial stress remains controversial. This study explored autonomic nervous system activity through salivary alpha-amylase, heart rate, and heart rate variability responses to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) in healthy young people. The sample was composed of 25 men, 26 women in the luteal phase, and 25 women in the follicular phase, from 18 to 25 years of age. Participants were exposed to the TSST or a control condition. The results indicate that women in their follicular phase showed a blunted alpha-amylase response to stress compared to men and women in the luteal phase. In addition, men showed higher sympatho-vagal activity in the stress condition compared to the two groups of women. These results confirm that sex and the menstrual cycle phase are potential modulators of autonomic nervous system reactivity to psychosocial stress.

Assessing the antecedents and consequences of threat appraisal of an acute psychosocial stressor: the role of optimism, displacement behavior, and physiological responses

The feeling of stress is increasing in today's societies, particularly in young adults subjected to social evaluative situations in highly competitive academic and work contexts. Threat appraisal is a primary and fundamental reaction when people face a stressful situation. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of dispositional optimism as an antecedent and displacement behavior as a consequence of threat appraisal of a social-evaluative situation of stress. A second objective was to verify the moderating role of physiological responses to stress (heart rate and cortisol reactivity) in the relationship between threat appraisal and displacement behavior. To do this, we combined the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) with ethological analysis, self-report questionnaires, and physiological data. As expected, people who scored higher on dispositional optimism perceived stress as less threatening, and a higher perception of threat was positively related to displacement behavior patterns. Moreover, the results showed that threat appraisal fully mediates the relationship between dispositional optimism and displacement behavior, and that only heart rate reactivity (not cortisol) moderates the relationship between threat appraisal and displacement behavior.

Assessing Performance on an Evaluated Speaking Task

Abstract. Coping with social stress involves cognitive perceptions and the activation of several physiological mechanisms. Our main purpose was to examine how psychological factors such as cognitive appraisal, and particularly self-efficacy, may affect psychophysiological reactivity to social stress and young people’s performance on an evaluated speaking task. Thirty-five university students (18 men and 17 women) were exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and a control condition in a counterbalanced order. Self-efficacy, several dimensions of trait anxiety related to social evaluation, and changes in state anxiety were assessed. Additionally, heart rate and heart rate variability (HRV) were analyzed by means of R-R and r-MSSD parameters, respectively. The results indicate that a positive self-assessment of their own ability to overcome a social threat was related to the predominance of vagal tone and better performance. However, cardiac reactivity was not related to the quality of the performance displayed. In addition, some dimensions of trait anxiety, such as cognitive anxiety and test evaluation anxiety, were negatively associated with self-efficacy and performance. These findings emphasize the relevance of self-efficacy, a key component of cognitive appraisal, in explaining psychophysiological reactivity to social stress. Furthermore, they highlight the importance of some personality characteristics, such as social evaluation anxiety, in explaining performance in specifically related stressful situations, regardless of autonomic activation.

Persistent alteration in behavioural reactivity to a mild social stressor in rhesus monkeys repeatedly exposed to sevoflurane in infancy

BACKGROUND

Socio-emotional development is the expression and management of emotions, which in non-human primates can be examined using responses toward increasing levels of threat. Damage to the limbic system alters socio-emotional development in primates. Thus, neuronal and glial cell loss caused by exposure to general anaesthesia early in infancy might also impact socio-emotional development. We recently reported that repeated sevoflurane exposure in the first month of life alters emotional behaviours at 6 months of age and impairs visual recognition memory after the first year of life in rhesus monkeys. The present study evaluated socio-emotional behaviour at 1 and 2 yr of age in those same monkeys to determine the persistence of altered emotional behaviour.

METHODS

Rhesus monkeys of both sexes were exposed to sevoflurane anaesthesia three times for 4 h each time in the first 6 weeks of life. At 1 and 2 yr of age, they were tested on the human intruder task, a well-established mild acute social stressor.

RESULTS

Monkeys exposed to sevoflurane as infants exhibited normal fear and hostile responses, but exaggerated self-directed (displacement) behaviours, a general indicator of stress and anxiety in non-human primates.

CONCLUSIONS

Early repeated sevoflurane exposure in infant non-human primates results in an anxious phenotype that was first detected at 6 months, and persists for at least 2 yr of age. This is the first demonstration of such a prolonged impact of early anaesthesia exposure on emotional reactivity.

Cortisol reactivity and emotional memory after psychosocial stress in oral contraceptive users

Oral contraceptive (OC) users typically show a blunted or no cortisol response to psychosocial stress. Although most OC regimens include both an inactive (dummy) and active pill phase, studies have not systematically investigated cortisol responses during these pill phases. Further, high levels of cortisol following a stressor diminish retrieval of emotional material, but the effects of stress on memory among OC users are poorly understood. We examined the effects of a psychosocial stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test, vs. a control condition on cortisol responsivity and emotional memory retrieval in women tested either during their active (n = 18) or inactive pill phase (n = 21). In secondary analyses, we quantitatively compared OC users with normally cycling women and showed a significant lack of cortisol response during both active and inactive pill phase. Emotional recall did not differ between active and inactive pill phases. Stress differentially diminished recall of negative words compared with positive or neutral words, but cortisol levels were unrelated to memory performance. These findings indicate that OC users have distinct cortisol and memory responses to stress that are similar between the active and inactive pill phases. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Single Osteopathic Manipulative Therapy Session Dampens Acute Autonomic and Neuroendocrine Responses to Mental Stress in Healthy Male Participants

Context

The efficacy of osteopathic manipulative therapy (OMTh; manipulative care provided by foreign-trained osteopaths) is supported by observational data and patient feedback, but there is still a need for objective, quantitative biomarkers that allow measurement of the underlying mechanisms. No study exploring the protective potential of OMTh for mental stress has been published, to the authors’ knowledge.

Objectives

To explore the modulating effect of OMTh on autonomic neural regulation of the heart and verifiy its ability to influence the activity of the hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.

Methods

Healthy young adult men who had never received OMTh were exposed to either a brief protocol using craniosacral techniques or sham therapy (control) involving the same anatomical areas. A laboratory stress episode consisting of a 5-minute arithmetic task participants were required to perform in front of a committee preceded the therapy sessions. Continuous electrocardiograph recordings were done before, during, and after the stress episode. Heart rate and frequency-domain parameters of heart rate variability (specifically, high-frequency component power in normalized units and the ratio of low-frequency to high-frequency power) were measured to quantify the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system and the state of sympathovagal balance at the level of the heart, respectively. Saliva samples were also collected at points throughout the study to determine cortisol levels.

Results

Osteopathic manipulative therapy reduced the overall chronotropic effect of the stressor (t=−2.9, P<.05) and counteracted the vagal withdrawal and the shift of autonomic balance toward sympathetic prevalence (t=−2.8, P<.05) that were observed in control participants. Moreover, OMTh participants had a much lower overall cortisol level during the mental stressor compared with control participants (t=−2.3, P<.05). Participants in the OMTh group did not show the statistically significant reduction in the amplitude of the cortisol awakening response observed in their control counterparts after the stress episode (control: t=2.7, P<.05; OMT: P=.83).

Conclusion

The application of a single OMTh session to healthy participants induced a faster recovery of heart rate and sympathovagal balance after an acute mental stressor by substantially dampening parasympathetic withdrawal and sympathetic prevalence. The OMTh session also prevented the typical increase in cortisol levels observed immediately after a brief mental challenge.

Sex differences in salivary cortisol reactivity to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST): A meta-analysis

Some, but not all studies using the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) have demonstrated evidence in support of sex differences in salivary cortisol. The aim of the current meta-analysis is to examine sex differences in salivary cortisol following exposure to the TSST. We further explored the effects of modifications to the TSST protocol and procedural variations as potential moderators. We searched articles published from January, 1993 to February, 2016 in MedLine, PsychINFO, and ProQuest Theses and Dissertations. This meta-analysis is based on 34 studies, with a total sample size of 1350 individuals (640 women and 710 men). Using a random effects model, we found significant heterogeneity in salivary cortisol output across sexes, such that men were observed to have higher cortisol values at peak and recovery following the TSST compared to women. Modifications to the sampling trajectory of cortisol (i.e., duration of acclimation, peak sampling time, and duration of recovery) significantly moderated the heterogeneity across both sexes. Further, there are observed sex differences at various time points of the reactive cortisol following the TSST. Lastly, current results suggest that these sex differences can be, at least in part, attributed to variations in methodological considerations across studies. Future research could advance this line of inquiry by using other methods of analyses (e.g., area under the curve; AUC), in order to better understand the effects of methodological variations and their implications for research design.

"Sex differences in a real academic stressor, cognitive appraisal and the cortisol response"

Women and men differ in their physiological and psychological stress response but only a few studies have analyzed this sex difference in a naturalistic setting and focused on cognitive stress appraisal. In the present study, the salivary cortisol concentration of 24 female and 22 male subjects was measured before and several times after an oral academic presentation given by themselves (stress condition) or given by a fellow student (control condition). Feelings of subjective stress and nervousness were assessed simultaneously to the saliva samples and a questionnaire for cognitive stress appraisal was conducted right before the oral presentation. In the stress condition, the presentation led to a significantly higher cortisol increase than in the control condition. Sex differences were shown concerning the subjective stress feelings, which were higher in women, whereas there were no sex differences in cortisol release. Women showed a disadvantageous cognitive appraisal compared to men in both conditions. There was an interaction effect of sex and condition: women reported to feel equally challenged in both conditions whereas men felt significantly more challenged by their own presentation than by the presentations of their fellow students. The result that men's cognitive appraisal was more influenced by an academic stressor than women's and that women felt subjectively more stressed whereas there was no difference concerning the cortisol response is discussed in consideration of evolutional and biological aspects.

How are neuroticism and depression related to the psychophysiological stress response to acute stress in healthy older people?

Neuroticism and depressive symptomatology have been related to a heightened and diminished physiological stress response, which may partly explain their negative relationship with health and wellbeing. Identifying factors that may increase disease vulnerability is especially relevant in older people, whose physiological systems decline. With this in mind, we investigated the influence of neuroticism and depression on the psychophysiological stress response in healthy older people (from 55 to 76years old). A total of 36 volunteers were exposed to a stressful task (Trier Social Stress Test, TSST), while 35 volunteers performed a control non-stressful task. The physiological stress response was assessed through measures of cortisol, alpha-amylase, heart rate (HR). Our results showed that, neuroticism was not related to physiological stress response. However, depression was related to higher cortisol response and lower HR reactivity in the stress condition. In summary, emotional states such as depressive mood seem to amplify the cortisol stress response and reduce the cardiovascular response, whereas more stable dispositions such as neuroticism did not affect stress response in older people. These findings confirm, in healthy older people, the adverse effects of depression, acting on different subsystems of the stress response.