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Bowblis JR, Brunt CS, Xu H, Grabowski DC. Understanding Nursing Home Spending And Staff Levels In The Context Of Recent Nursing Staff Recommendations. Health Aff (Millwood) 2023; 42:197-206. [PMID: 36745835 DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.2022.00692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
To provide context for evaluating proposed nursing home staff regulations, we examined the proportion of facility revenues spent on nursing staff, as well as nursing staff levels in hours worked and paid per resident day, in 2019. Nationally, the median proportion of revenues spent on nursing staff was 33.9 percent, and median nursing staff levels were 3.67 hours worked and 4.08 hours paid per resident day. Facilities with higher shares of Medicaid residents spent a larger share of revenues on nursing staff but had lower staffing levels. States varied significantly with respect to median spending on nursing staff (26.8-44.0 percent of revenues) and median nursing staff levels (3.2-5.6 hours worked and 3.6-5.7 hours paid per resident day). These findings indicate that raising the proportion of revenues spent by nursing homes on nursing staff to a regulated minimum would not guarantee the achievement of adequate nursing staff levels unless it was paired with other regulatory mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Huiwen Xu
- Huiwen Xu, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
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2
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Mascayano F, Bello I, Andrews H, Arancibia D, Arratia T, Burrone MS, Conover S, Fader K, Jorquera MJ, Gomez M, Malverde S, Martínez-Alés G, Ramírez J, Reginatto G, Restrepo-Henao A, Rosencheck RA, Schilling S, Smith TE, Soto-Brandt G, Tapia E, Tapia T, Velasco P, Wall MM, Yang LH, Cabassa LJ, Susser E, Dixon L, Alvarado R. OnTrack Chile for people with early psychosis: a study protocol for a Hybrid Type 1 trial. Trials 2022; 23:751. [PMID: 36064643 PMCID: PMC9444092 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-022-06661-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Substantial data from high-income countries support early interventions in the form of evidence-based Coordinated Specialty Care (CSC) for people experiencing First Episode Psychosis (FEP) to ameliorate symptoms and minimize disability. Chile is unique among Latin American countries in providing universal access to FEP services through a national FEP policy that mandates the identification of FEP individuals in primary care and guarantees delivery of community-based FEP treatments within a public health care system. Nonetheless, previous research has documented that FEP services currently provided at mental health clinics do not provide evidence-based approaches. This proposal aims to address this shortfall by first adapting OnTrackNY (OTNY), a CSC program currently being implemented across the USA, into OnTrackChile (OTCH), and then examine its effectiveness and implementation in Chile. METHODS The Dynamic Adaptation Process will be used first to inform the adaptation and implementation of OTCH to the Chilean context. Then, a Hybrid Type 1 trial design will test its effectiveness and cost and evaluate its implementation using a cluster-randomized controlled trial (RCT) (N = 300 from 21 outpatient clinics). The OTCH program will be offered in half of these outpatient clinics to individuals ages 15-35. Usual care services will continue to be offered at the other clinics. Given the current COVID-19 pandemic, most research and intervention procedures will be conducted remotely. The study will engage participants over the course of 2 years, with assessments administered at enrollment, 12 months, and 24 months. Primary outcomes include implementation (fidelity, acceptability, and uptake) and service outcomes (person-centeredness, adherence, and retention). Secondary outcomes comprise participant-level outcomes such as symptoms, functioning, and recovery orientation. Over the course of the study, interviews and focus groups with stakeholders will be conducted to better understand the implementation of OTCH. DISCUSSION Findings from this study will help determine the feasibility, effectiveness, and cost for delivering CSC services in Chile. Lessons learned about facilitators and barriers related to the implementation of the model could help inform the approach needed for these services to be further expanded throughout Latin America. TRIAL REGISTRATION www. CLINICALTRIALS gov NCT04247711 . Registered 30 January 2020. TRIAL STATUS The OTCH trial is currently recruiting participants. Recruitment started on March 1, 2021, and is expected to be completed by December 1, 2022. This is the first version of this protocol (5/12/2021).
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Affiliation(s)
- Franco Mascayano
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, USA.,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, USA
| | - Iruma Bello
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, USA.,Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, USA
| | - Howard Andrews
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, United States
| | - Diego Arancibia
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de O'Higgins, Rancagua, Chile.,Research and Postgraduate Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Central, Santiago, Chile
| | - Tamara Arratia
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de O'Higgins, Rancagua, Chile
| | | | - Sarah Conover
- Silberman School of Social Work, Hunter College, New York, USA
| | - Kim Fader
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, USA
| | - Maria Jose Jorquera
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mauricio Gomez
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sergio Malverde
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gonzalo Martínez-Alés
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, USA
| | - Jorge Ramírez
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gabriel Reginatto
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de O'Higgins, Rancagua, Chile
| | - Alexandra Restrepo-Henao
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, USA.,Epidemiology Research Group, National School of Public Health, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Robert A Rosencheck
- Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA New England Mental Illness, West Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sara Schilling
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Thomas E Smith
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, USA.,Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, USA
| | - Gonzalo Soto-Brandt
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eric Tapia
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Tamara Tapia
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Paola Velasco
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de O'Higgins, Rancagua, Chile
| | | | - Lawrence H Yang
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, USA.,School of Global Public Health, New York University, New York, USA
| | - Leopoldo J Cabassa
- George Warren Brown School of Social Work, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Ezra Susser
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, USA.,New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, USA
| | - Lisa Dixon
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, USA.,Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, USA
| | - Rubén Alvarado
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de O'Higgins, Rancagua, Chile. .,Department of Public Health, School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile.
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Orth J, Li Y, Simning A, Temkin-Greener H. Severe Behavioral Health Manifestations in Nursing Homes: Associations with Service Availability? J Am Geriatr Soc 2020; 68:2643-2649. [PMID: 33460044 PMCID: PMC8269953 DOI: 10.1111/jgs.16772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES Despite high prevalence of behavioral health (BH) manifestations among nursing home (NH) residents, availability of BH services in this care setting is often inadequate. Our objective was to examine associations between availability of BH services and the presence of severe depression, suicidal ideation (SI), and severe aggressive behaviors (ABs) among NH residents. DESIGN Cross-sectional. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS This study used 2017 survey data about BH service availability obtained from 1,051 NHs. The Minimum Data Set (MDS) was used to identify long-stay residents in these facilities (N = 101,238) and the prevalence of BH manifestations. Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regressions were used. MEASUREMENTS We constructed measures of three severe BH manifestations based on the MDS: presence of depression, SI, and ABs. Three independent measures of service availability based on survey items asked about degrees of inadequate (1) staff BH education, (2) coordination/collaboration between facility/community providers, and (3) facility infrastructure (ie, ability to make referrals/transport residents to services). RESULTS Odds of severe depression were 21% higher (odds ratio [OR] = 1.21; P < .001) when NHs reported inadequate BH staff education. Residents with SI had 13% higher odds (OR = 1.13; P = .027) of living in NHs that reported inadequate coordination between facility and community providers. Severe ABs were 10% more likely among residents in NHs reporting inadequate facility infrastructure (OR = 1.10; P = .002) and 7% more likely in facilities with self-reported inadequate coordination between facility/community providers (OR = 1.07; P = .019). Several facility-level factors (eg, staffing, training, turnover) were also statistically significantly associated with these severe BH manifestations. CONCLUSION Residents in NHs reporting inadequate BH services were more likely to experience adverse severe BH manifestations even after controlling for individual and facility-level risk factors. Higher nurse staffing and more staff psychiatric training were associated with lower prevalence of severe BH manifestations. Policy changes and modifications to Medicaid NH reimbursements may be warranted to better incentivize NHs to improve provision of BH services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Orth
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY
| | - Yue Li
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY
| | - Adam Simning
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY
| | - Helena Temkin-Greener
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY
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Weech-Maldonado R, Pradhan R, Dayama N, Lord J, Gupta S. Nursing Home Quality and Financial Performance: Is There a Business Case for Quality? INQUIRY : A JOURNAL OF MEDICAL CARE ORGANIZATION, PROVISION AND FINANCING 2019; 56:46958018825191. [PMID: 30739511 PMCID: PMC6376502 DOI: 10.1177/0046958018825191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2018] [Revised: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
This study examines the relationship between nursing home quality and financial performance to assess whether there is a business case for quality. Secondary data sources included the Online Survey Certification and Reporting (OSCAR), Certification and Survey Provider Enhanced Reporting (CASPER), Medicare Cost Reports, Minimum Data Set (MDS 2.0), Area Resource File (ARF), and LTCFocus for all free-standing, nongovernment nursing homes for 2000 to 2014. Data were analyzed using panel data linear regression with facility and year fixed effects. The dependent variable, financial performance, consisted of the operating margin. The independent variables comprised nursing home quality measures that capture the three dimensions of Donabedian's structure-process-outcomes framework: structure Registered Nurse (RN) hours per resident day, Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN) hours per resident day, Certified Nursing Assistant (CNA) hours per resident day, RN skill mix), process (facility-acquired restraints, facility-acquired catheters, pressure ulcer prevention, and restorative ambulation), and outcomes (facility-acquired contractures, facility-acquired pressure ulcers, hospitalizations per resident, rehospitalizations, and health deficiencies). Control variables included size, average acuity index, market competition, per capita income, and Medicare Advantage penetration rate. This study found that the operating margin was lower in nursing homes that reported higher LPN hours per resident day and higher RN skill mix (structure); higher use of catheters, lower pressure ulcer prevention, and lower restorative ambulation (process); and more residents with contractures, pressure ulcers, hospitalizations and health deficiencies (outcomes). The results suggest that there is a business case for quality, whereas nursing homes that have better processes and outcomes of care perform better financially.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rohit Pradhan
- University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, USA
| | - Neeraj Dayama
- University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, USA
| | | | - Shivani Gupta
- The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, USA
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White C. Medicare's Prospective Payment System for Skilled Nursing Facilities: Effects on Staffing and Quality of Care. INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing 2016; 42:351-66. [PMID: 16568928 DOI: 10.5034/inquiryjrnl_42.4.351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
In 1998, Medicare began phasing in a new prospective payment system (PPS) for skilled nursing facilities (SNFs). This paper measures facility-level changes in nurse staffing and quality at freestanding SNFs from 1997 (pre-PPS) to 2001 (post-PPS). Findings show a positive but small association between changes in payment levels and changes in nurse staffing. Among for-profits, the elimination of cost reimbursement is associated with a large drop in nurse staffing. Additionally, the elimination of cost reimbursement is associated with worsening in one of four measures of quality of care; however, the quality results are not statistically robust.
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6
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Rosenheck RA, Leslie DL, Sint KJ, Lin H, Li Y, McEvoy JP, Byerly MJ, Hamer RM, Swartz MS, Stroup TS. Cost-Effectiveness of Long-Acting Injectable Paliperidone Palmitate Versus Haloperidol Decanoate in Maintenance Treatment of Schizophrenia. Psychiatr Serv 2016; 67:1124-1130. [PMID: 27247177 PMCID: PMC5048499 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ps.201500447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study assessed the relative cost-effectiveness of haloperidol decanoate (HD), a first-generation long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotic, and paliperidone palmitate (PP), a second-generation LAI antipsychotic. METHODS A double-blind, randomized 18-month clinical trial conducted at 22 clinical research sites in the United States compared the cost-effectiveness of HD and PP among 311 adults with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder who had been clinically assessed as likely to benefit from an LAI antipsychotic. Patients were randomly assigned to monthly intramuscular injections of HD (25-200 mg) or PP (39-234 mg) for up to 24 months. Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) were measured by a schizophrenia-specific algorithm based on the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale and side-effect assessments; total health care costs were assessed from the perspective of the health system. RESULTS Mixed-model analysis showed that PP was associated with .0297 greater QALYs over 18 months (p=.03) and with $2,100 more in average costs per quarter for inpatient and outpatient services and medication compared with HD (p<.001). Bootstrap analysis with 5,000 replications showed an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for PP of $508,241 per QALY (95% confidence interval=$122,390-$1,582,711). Net health benefits analysis showed a .98 probability of greater cost-effectiveness for HD compared with PP at an estimated value of $150,000 per QALY and a .50 probability of greater cost-effectiveness at $500,000 per QALY. CONCLUSIONS HD was more cost-effective than PP, suggesting that PP's slightly greater benefits did not justify its markedly higher costs, which are likely to fall once the medication's patent expires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Rosenheck
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Douglas L Leslie
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Kyaw J Sint
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Haiqun Lin
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Yue Li
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Joseph P McEvoy
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Matthew J Byerly
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Robert M Hamer
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - Marvin S Swartz
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
| | - T Scott Stroup
- Dr. Rosenheck is with the Department of Psychiatry, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut, and with the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, West Haven (e-mail: ). Dr. Leslie is with the Department of Public Health Sciences and Psychiatry, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Mr. Sint, Dr. Lin, and Mr. Li are with the Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut. Dr. McEvoy is with the Medical College of Georgia, Georgia Regents University, Augusta. Dr. Byerly is with the Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas. Dr. Hamer, who is deceased, was with the Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, at the time of this study. He was a beloved colleague, and we will miss his friendship, intelligence, and collegiality and will remember his special contributions to our field. Dr. Swartz is with the Department of Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina. Dr. Stroup is with the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York
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Xing J, Mukamel DB, Glance LG, Zhang N, Temkin-Greener H. Medicaid Reimbursement and the Quality of Nursing Home Care: A Case Study of Medi-Cal Long-Term Care Reimbursement Act of 2004 in California. WORLD MEDICAL & HEALTH POLICY 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/wmh3.194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Miller EA. Bureaucratic Policy Making on Trial: Medicaid Nursing Facility Reimbursement, 1988-1998. Med Care Res Rev 2016; 63:189-216. [PMID: 16595411 DOI: 10.1177/1077558705285297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Few systematically assess the determinants of Medicaid nursing facility reimbursement. Consequently, this article examines what factors influenceprogram administrators’decisions regarding nursing facility cost report data—the basic information states use to establish payment. Whereas elected officials focus primarily on how much is spent on nursing homes, state Medicaid officials assume primary responsibility for the esoteric and highly technical dimensions that help make spending goals a reality. Findings indicate that the federal government influenced state policy by enabling provider litigation under the Boren Amendment. They also indicate that program administrators responded rationally to fiscal and economic concerns, and that states with stronger administrative capacity were better able to overcome obstacles to sustaining desired policies. Although results reveal that states with more powerful nursing home lobbies tended to implement more generous systems, they fail to reveal significant associations between cost report year and lobbying activity on behalf of the elderly.
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Rosenheck R, Leslie D, Sint K, Lin H, Robinson DG, Schooler NR, Mueser KT, Penn DL, Addington J, Brunette MF, Correll CU, Estroff SE, Marcy P, Robinson J, Severe J, Rupp A, Schoenbaum M, Kane JM. Cost-Effectiveness of Comprehensive, Integrated Care for First Episode Psychosis in the NIMH RAISE Early Treatment Program. Schizophr Bull 2016; 42:896-906. [PMID: 26834024 PMCID: PMC4903057 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbv224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
This study compares the cost-effectiveness of Navigate (NAV), a comprehensive, multidisciplinary, team-based treatment approach for first episode psychosis (FEP) and usual Community Care (CC) in a cluster randomization trial. Patients at 34 community treatment clinics were randomly assigned to either NAV (N = 223) or CC (N = 181) for 2 years. Effectiveness was measured as a one standard deviation change on the Quality of Life Scale (QLS-SD). Incremental cost effectiveness ratios were evaluated with bootstrap distributions. The Net Health Benefits Approach was used to evaluate the probability that the value of NAV benefits exceeded its costs relative to CC from the perspective of the health care system. The NAV group improved significantly more on the QLS and had higher outpatient mental health and antipsychotic medication costs. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was $12 081/QLS-SD, with a .94 probability that NAV was more cost-effective than CC at $40 000/QLS-SD. When converted to monetized Quality Adjusted Life Years, NAV benefits exceeded costs, especially at future generic drug prices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Rosenheck
- Department of Psychiatry and Public Health, Yale Medical School, New Haven, CT;
| | - Douglas Leslie
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, PA
| | - Kyaw Sint
- Department of Psychiatry and Public Health, Yale Medical School, New Haven, CT
| | - Haiqun Lin
- Department of Psychiatry and Public Health, Yale Medical School, New Haven, CT
| | | | - Nina R Schooler
- Psychiatry Research, Zucker Hillside Hospital, North Shore-Long Island Jewish, Glen Oaks, NY; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY; Department of Psychiatry, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY
| | - Kim T Mueser
- Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation, Departments of Occupational Therapy, Psychiatry, and Psychology, Boston University, Boston, MA
| | - David L Penn
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; School of Psychology, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jean Addington
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Department of Psychiatry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Mary F Brunette
- Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH; Bureau of Behavioral Health, DHHS, Concord, NH
| | | | - Sue E Estroff
- Department of Social Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Patricia Marcy
- Psychiatry Research, Zucker Hillside Hospital, North Shore-Long Island Jewish, Glen Oaks, NY
| | | | | | - Agnes Rupp
- National Institute of Mental Health, Rockville, MD
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HE DAIFENG, KONETZKA RTAMARA. Public Reporting and Demand Rationing: Evidence from the Nursing Home Industry. HEALTH ECONOMICS 2015; 24:1437-51. [PMID: 25236842 PMCID: PMC7480085 DOI: 10.1002/hec.3097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2013] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 07/11/2014] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This paper examines an under-explored unintended consequence of public reporting: the potential for demand rationing. Public reporting, although intended to increase consumer access to high-quality products, may have provided the perverse incentive for high-quality providers facing fixed capacity and administrative pricing to avoid less profitable types of residents. Using data from the nursing home industry before and after the implementation of the public reporting system in 2002, we find that high-quality nursing homes facing capacity constraints reduced admissions of less profitable Medicaid residents while increasing the more profitable Medicare and private-pay admissions, relative to low-quality nursing homes facing no capacity constraints. These effects, although small in magnitude, are consistent with provider rationing of demand on the basis of profitability and underscore the important role of institutional details in designing effective public reporting systems for regulated industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- DAIFENG HE
- Department of Economics, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA, USA
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Harrington C, Ross L, Kang T. Hidden Owners, Hidden Profits, and Poor Nursing Home Care: A Case Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HEALTH SERVICES 2015; 45:779-800. [PMID: 26159173 DOI: 10.1177/0020731415594772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The study examined the ownership transparency, financial accountability, and quality indicators of a regional for-profit nursing home chain in California, using a case study methodology to analyze data on the chain's ownership and management structure, financial data, staffing levels, deficiencies and complaints, and litigation. Secondary data were obtained from regulatory and cost reports and litigation cases. Qualitative descriptions of ownership and management were presented and quantitative analyses were conducted by comparing financial and quality indicators with other California for-profit chains, for-profit non-chains, and nonprofit nursing home groups in 2011. The chain's complex, interlocking individual and corporate owners and property companies obscured its ownership structure and financial arrangements. Nursing and support services expenditures were lower than nonprofits and administrative costs were higher than for-profit non-chains. The chain's nurse staffing was lower than expected staffing levels; its deficiencies and citations were higher than in nonprofits; and a number of lawsuits resulted in bankruptcy. Profits were hidden in the chain's management fees, lease agreements, interest payments to owners, and purchases from related-party companies. Greater ownership transparency and financial accountability requirements are needed to ensure regulatory oversight and quality of care.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leslie Ross
- University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Taewoon Kang
- University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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12
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Thomas KS, Mor V. Providing more home-delivered meals is one way to keep older adults with low care needs out of nursing homes. Health Aff (Millwood) 2014; 32:1796-802. [PMID: 24101071 DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.2013.0390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Programs that help older adults live independently in the community can also deliver net savings to states on the costs of long-term supports and services. We estimate that if all states had increased by 1 percent the number of adults age sixty-five or older who received home-delivered meals in 2009 under Title III of the Older Americans Act, total annual savings to states' Medicaid programs could have exceeded $109 million. The projected savings primarily reflect decreased Medicaid spending for an estimated 1,722 older adults with low care needs who would no longer require nursing home care--instead, they could remain at home, sustained by home-delivered meals. Twenty-six states could have realized net savings in 2009 from the expansion of their home-delivered meals programs, while twenty-two states would have incurred net costs. Programs such as home-delivered meals have the potential to provide substantial savings to some states' Medicaid programs.
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13
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The effects of RN staffing hours on nursing home quality: A two-stage model. Int J Nurs Stud 2014; 51:409-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Dementia affects a large and growing number of older adults in the United States. The monetary costs attributable to dementia are likely to be similarly large and to continue to increase. METHODS In a subsample (856 persons) of the population in the Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a nationally representative longitudinal study of older adults, the diagnosis of dementia was determined with the use of a detailed in-home cognitive assessment that was 3 to 4 hours in duration and a review by an expert panel. We then imputed cognitive status to the full HRS sample (10,903 persons, 31,936 person-years) on the basis of measures of cognitive and functional status available for all HRS respondents, thereby identifying persons in the larger sample with a high probability of dementia. The market costs associated with care for persons with dementia were determined on the basis of self-reported out-of-pocket spending and the utilization of nursing home care; Medicare claims data were used to identify costs paid by Medicare. Hours of informal (unpaid) care were valued either as the cost of equivalent formal (paid) care or as the estimated wages forgone by informal caregivers. RESULTS The estimated prevalence of dementia among persons older than 70 years of age in the United States in 2010 was 14.7%. The yearly monetary cost per person that was attributable to dementia was either $56,290 (95% confidence interval [CI], $42,746 to $69,834) or $41,689 (95% CI, $31,017 to $52,362), depending on the method used to value informal care. These individual costs suggest that the total monetary cost of dementia in 2010 was between $157 billion and $215 billion. Medicare paid approximately $11 billion of this cost. CONCLUSIONS Dementia represents a substantial financial burden on society, one that is similar to the financial burden of heart disease and cancer. (Funded by the National Institute on Aging.).
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Bowblis JR, Hyer K. Nursing home staffing requirements and input substitution: effects on housekeeping, food service, and activities staff. Health Serv Res 2013; 48:1539-50. [PMID: 23445455 DOI: 10.1111/1475-6773.12046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the effect of minimum nurse staffing requirements on the subsequent employment of nursing home support staff. DATA SOURCES Nursing home data from the Online Survey Certification and Reporting (OSCAR) System merged with state nurse staffing requirements. STUDY DESIGN Facility-level housekeeping, food service, and activities staff levels are regressed on nurse staffing requirements and other controls using fixed effect panel regression. DATA EXTRACTION METHOD OSCAR surveys from 1999 to 2004. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Increases in state direct care and licensed nurse staffing requirements are associated with decreases in the staffing levels of all types of support staff. CONCLUSIONS Increased nursing home nurse staffing requirements lead to input substitution in the form of reduced support staffing levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Bowblis
- Department of Economics, Farmer School of Business, Miami University, E. High Street, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
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16
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Profiling the Multidimensional Needs of New Nursing Home Residents: Evidence to Support Planning. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2012; 13:487.e9-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jamda.2012.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2011] [Revised: 01/13/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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17
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Wagner LM, McDonald SM, Castle NG. Nursing home deficiency citations for physical restraints and restrictive side rails. West J Nurs Res 2012; 35:546-65. [PMID: 22390907 DOI: 10.1177/0193945912437382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This article examines whether nursing home facility-level characteristics are associated with the likelihood of receiving deficiency citations for physical restraints, including restrictive side rails. Data from the on-line survey certification of automated records were used to calculate odds ratios for facility-level characteristics associated with these deficiency citations. Repeat records from 2000 to 2007 were combined to produce longitudinal data. The results of this study show that restraint/side rail deficiency citations were negatively associated with higher staffing levels of registered nurses and licensed practical nurses (p ≤ .001) and higher Medicaid reimbursement rates (p ≤ .01). Citations were positively associated with greater nurse aide staffing (p ≤ .01) and higher quality-of-care deficiency citation percentiles (p ≤ .001). The extent of physical restraint and restrictive side rail misuse within nursing homes appears to vary according to various facility characteristics. It is less clear how internal processes within a facility bring about these observed patterns of variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Wagner
- New York University College of Nursing, New York 10003, USA.
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18
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The effect of Medicaid nursing home reimbursement policy on Medicare hospice use in nursing homes. Med Care 2011; 49:797-802. [PMID: 21862905 DOI: 10.1097/mlr.0b013e318223c0ae] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To understand how changes in Medicaid nursing home (NH) reimbursement policy and rates affect a NH's approach to end-of-life care (ie, its use of hospice). METHODS This longitudinal study merged US NH decedents' (1999 to 2004) resident assessment data (MDS) with Part A claims data to determine the proportion of a NH's decedents using hospice. Freestanding NHs across the 48 contiguous US states were included. A NH-level analytic file was merged with NH survey (ie, OSCAR) and area resource file data, and with annual data on state Medicaid NH rates, case-mix reimbursement policies, and hospice certificate of need (CON). NH fixed-effect (within) regression analysis examined the effect of changing state policies, controlling for differing time trends in CON and case-mix states and for facility-level and county-level attributes. Models were stratified by urban/rural status. RESULTS A $10 increase in the Medicaid rate resulted in a 0.41% [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.275, 0.553] increase in hospice use in urban NHs and a 0.37% decrease (95% CI: -0.676, -0.063) in rural NHs not adjacent to urban areas. There was a nonstatistically significant increase in rural NHs adjacent to urban areas. Introduction of case-mix reimbursement resulted in a 2.14% (95% CI: 1.388, 2.896) increase in hospice use in urban NHs, with comparable increases in rural NHs. CONCLUSIONS This study supports and extends previous research by showing changes in Medicaid NH reimbursement policies affect a NH's approach to end-of-life care. It also shows how policy changes can have differing effects depending on a NH's urban/rural status.
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Bowblis JR. Staffing ratios and quality: an analysis of minimum direct care staffing requirements for nursing homes. Health Serv Res 2011; 46:1495-516. [PMID: 21609329 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2011.01274.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the impact of minimum direct care staffing (MDCS) requirements on nurse staffing levels, nurse skill mix, and quality. DATA SOURCES U.S. nursing home facility data from the Online Survey Certification and Reporting (OSCAR) System merged with MDCS requirements. STUDY DESIGN; Facility-level outcomes of nurse staffing levels, nurse skill mix, and quality measures are regressed on the level of nurse staffing required by MDCS requirements in the prior year and other controls using fixed effect panel regression. Quality measures are care practices, resident outcomes, and regulatory deficiencies. DATA EXTRACTION METHOD Analysis used all OSCAR surveys from 1999 to 2004, resulting in 17,552 unique facilities with a total of 94,371 survey observations. PRINCIPLE FINDINGS The effect of MDCS requirements varied with reliance of the nursing home on Medicaid. Higher MDCS requirements increase nurse staffing levels, while their effect on nurse skill mix depends on the reliance of the nursing home on Medicaid. MDCS have mixed effects on care practices but are generally associated with improved resident outcomes and meeting regulatory standards. CONCLUSIONS MDCS requirements change staffing levels and skill mix, improve certain aspects of quality, but can also lead to use of care practices associated with lower quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Bowblis
- Department of Economics, Farmer School of Business, Miami University, 800 E. High Street, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
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Mor V, Intrator O, Unruh MA, Cai S. Temporal and Geographic variation in the validity and internal consistency of the Nursing Home Resident Assessment Minimum Data Set 2.0. BMC Health Serv Res 2011; 11:78. [PMID: 21496257 PMCID: PMC3097253 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6963-11-78] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Minimum Data Set (MDS) for nursing home resident assessment has been required in all U.S. nursing homes since 1990 and has been universally computerized since 1998. Initially intended to structure clinical care planning, uses of the MDS expanded to include policy applications such as case-mix reimbursement, quality monitoring and research. The purpose of this paper is to summarize a series of analyses examining the internal consistency and predictive validity of the MDS data as used in the "real world" in all U.S. nursing homes between 1999 and 2007. Methods We used person level linked MDS and Medicare denominator and all institutional claim files including inpatient (hospital and skilled nursing facilities) for all Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries entering U.S. nursing homes during the period 1999 to 2007. We calculated the sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV) of diagnoses taken from Medicare hospital claims and from the MDS among all new admissions from hospitals to nursing homes and the internal consistency (alpha reliability) of pairs of items within the MDS that logically should be related. We also tested the internal consistency of commonly used MDS based multi-item scales and examined the predictive validity of an MDS based severity measure viz. one year survival. Finally, we examined the correspondence of the MDS discharge record to hospitalizations and deaths seen in Medicare claims, and the completeness of MDS assessments upon skilled nursing facility (SNF) admission. Results Each year there were some 800,000 new admissions directly from hospital to US nursing homes and some 900,000 uninterrupted SNF stays. Comparing Medicare enrollment records and claims with MDS records revealed reasonably good correspondence that improved over time (by 2006 only 3% of deaths had no MDS discharge record, only 5% of SNF stays had no MDS, but over 20% of MDS discharges indicating hospitalization had no associated Medicare claim). The PPV and sensitivity levels of Medicare hospital diagnoses and MDS based diagnoses were between .6 and .7 for major diagnoses like CHF, hypertension, diabetes. Internal consistency, as measured by PPV, of the MDS ADL items with other MDS items measuring impairments and symptoms exceeded .9. The Activities of Daily Living (ADL) long form summary scale achieved an alpha inter-consistency level exceeding .85 and multi-item scale alpha levels of .65 were achieved for well being and mood, and .55 for behavior, levels that were sustained even after stratification by ADL and cognition. The Changes in Health, End-stage disease and Symptoms and Signs (CHESS) index, a summary measure of frailty was highly predictive of one year survival. Conclusion The MDS demonstrates a reasonable level of consistency both in terms of how well MDS diagnoses correspond to hospital discharge diagnoses and in terms of the internal consistency of functioning and behavioral items. The level of alpha reliability and validity demonstrated by the scales suggest that the data can be useful for research and policy analysis. However, while improving, the MDS discharge tracking record should still not be used to indicate Medicare hospitalizations or mortality. It will be important to monitor the performance of the MDS 3.0 with respect to consistency, reliability and validity now that it has replaced version 2.0, using these results as a baseline that should be exceeded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Mor
- Department of Community Health and Center for Gerontology & Health Care Research, Brown University Medical School, Box G-S121, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
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Mor V, Gruneir A, Feng Z, Grabowski DC, Intrator O, Zinn J. The effect of state policies on nursing home resident outcomes. J Am Geriatr Soc 2011; 59:3-9. [PMID: 21198463 DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2010.03230.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To test the effect of changes in Medicaid reimbursement on clinical outcomes of long-stay nursing home (NH) residents. DESIGN Longitudinal, retrospective study of NHs, merging aggregated resident-level quality measures with facility characteristics and state policy survey data. SETTING All free-standing NHs in urban counties with at least 20 long-stay residents per quarter (length of stay > 90 days) in the continental United States between 1999 and 2005. PARTICIPANTS Long-stay NH residents INTERVENTIONS Annual state Medicaid average per diem reimbursement and the presence of case-mix reimbursement in each year. MEASUREMENTS Quarterly facility-aggregated, risk-adjusted quality-of-care measures surpassing a threshold for functional (activity of daily living) decline, physical restraint use, pressure ulcer incidence or worsening, and persistent pain. RESULTS All outcomes showed an improvement trend over the study period, particularly physical restraint use. Facility fixed-effect regressions revealed that a $10 increase in Medicaid payment increased the likelihood of a NH meeting quality thresholds by 9% for functional decline, 5% for pain control, and 2% for pressure ulcers but not reduced use of physical restraints. Facilities in states that increased Medicaid payment most showed the greatest improvement in outcomes. The introduction of case-mix reimbursement was unrelated to quality improvement. CONCLUSION Improvements in the clinical quality of NH care have been achieved, particularly where Medicaid payment has increased, generally from a lower baseline. Although this is a positive finding, challenges to implementing efficient reimbursement policies remain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Mor
- Center for Gerontology and Health Care Research and Department of Community Health, Alpert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA.
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Abstract
Deficiency citations for safety violations in U.S. nursing homes from 2000 to 2007 are examined (representing a panel of 119,472 observations). Internal (i.e., operating characteristics of the facility), organizational factors (i.e., characteristics of the facility itself), and external factors (i.e., characteristics outside of the influence of the organization) associated with these deficiency citations are examined. The findings show that nursing homes increasingly receive deficiency citations for resident safety issues. Low staffing levels, poor quality of care, and an unfavorable Medicaid mix (occupancy and reimbursement) are associated with the likelihood of receiving deficiency citations for safety violations. In many cases, this likely influences the quality of life and quality of care of residents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas G Castle
- Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
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Grabowski DC, Feng Z, Intrator O, Mor V. Medicaid bed-hold policy and Medicare skilled nursing facility rehospitalizations. Health Serv Res 2010; 45:1963-80. [PMID: 20403059 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2010.01104.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To analyze the effect of states' Medicaid bed-hold policies on the 30-day rehospitalization of Medicare postacute skilled nursing facility (SNF) residents. DATA SOURCES Minimum data set assessments were merged with Medicare claims and eligibility files for all first-time SNF admissions (N = 3,322,088) over the period 2000 through 2005; states' Medicaid bed-hold policies were obtained via survey. STUDY DESIGN Regression specification incorporating facility fixed effects to examine changes in Medicaid bed-hold policies on the likelihood of a 30-day SNF rehospitalization. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Using a continuous measure of bed-hold generosity, state Medicaid bed-hold was positively related to Medicare SNF rehospitalization. Specifically, the introduction of a bed-hold policy with average generosity increases Medicare rehospitalizations by 1.8 percent, representing roughly 12,000 SNF rehospitalizations at a cost to Medicare of approximately U.S.$100 million over our study period. CONCLUSIONS Although facilities do not receive a Medicaid bed-hold payment for Medicare SNF stays, we found that the adoption of more generous policies led to greater SNF rehospitalizations. This type of spillover is largely ignored in current discussions of Medicare payment reforms such as bundled payment. Neither Medicare nor Medicaid has an incentive to internalize the risks and benefits of its actions as they affect the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Grabowski
- Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, 180 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115-5899, USA.
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Stallard E, Kinosian B, Zbrozek AS, Yashin AI, Glick HA, Stern Y. Estimation and validation of a multiattribute model of Alzheimer disease progression. Med Decis Making 2010; 30:625-38. [PMID: 21183754 PMCID: PMC4392765 DOI: 10.1177/0272989x10363479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To estimate and validate a multiattribute model of the clinical course of Alzheimer disease (AD) from mild AD to death in a high-quality prospective cohort study, and to estimate the impact of hypothetical modifications to AD progression rates on costs associated with Medicare and Medicaid services. DATA AND METHODS The authors estimated sex-specific longitudinal Grade of Membership (GoM) models for AD patients (103 men, 149 women) in the initial cohort of the Predictors Study (1989-2001) based on 80 individual measures obtained every 6 mo for 10 y. These models were replicated for AD patients (106 men, 148 women) in the 2nd Predictors Study cohort (1997-2007). Model validation required that the disease-specific transition parameters be identical for both Predictors Study cohorts. Medicare costs were estimated from the National Long Term Care Survey. RESULTS Sex-specific models were validated using the 2nd Predictors Study cohort with the GoM transition parameters constrained to the values estimated for the 1st Predictors Study cohort; 57 to 61 of the 80 individual measures contributed significantly to the GoM models. Simulated, cost-free interventions in the rate of progression of AD indicated that large potential cost offsets could occur for patients at the earliest stages of AD. CONCLUSIONS AD progression is characterized by a small number of parameters governing changes in large numbers of correlated indicators of AD severity. The analysis confirmed that the progression of AD represents a complex multidimensional physiological process that is similar across different study cohorts. The estimates suggested that there could be large cost offsets to Medicare and Medicaid from the slowing of AD progression among patients with mild AD. The methodology appears generally applicable in AD modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Stallard
- Department of Sociology and Center for Population Health and Aging, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
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Feng Z, Lee YS, Kuo S, Intrator O, Foster A, Mor V. Do Medicaid wage pass-through payments increase nursing home staffing? Health Serv Res 2010; 45:728-47. [PMID: 20403054 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2010.01109.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the impact of state Medicaid wage pass-through policy on direct-care staffing levels in U.S. nursing homes. DATA SOURCES Online Survey Certification and Reporting (OSCAR) data, and state Medicaid nursing home reimbursement policies over the period 1996-2004. STUDY DESIGN A fixed-effects panel model with two-step feasible-generalized least squares estimates is used to examine the effect of pass-through adoption on direct-care staff hours per resident day (HPRD) in nursing homes. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS A panel data file tracking annual OSCAR surveys per facility over the study period is linked with annual information on state Medicaid wage pass-through and related policies. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Among the states introducing wage pass-through over the study period, the policy is associated with between 3.0 and 4.0 percent net increases in certified nurse aide (CNA) HPRD in the years following adoption. No discernable pass-through effect is observed on either registered nurse or licensed practical nurse HPRD. CONCLUSIONS State Medicaid wage pass-through programs offer a potentially effective policy tool to boost direct-care CNA staffing in nursing homes, at least in the short term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanlian Feng
- Center for Gerontology and Health Care Research, Brown University, 121 South Main Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
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Thomas KS, Hyer K, Andel R, Weech-Maldonado R. The Unintended Consequences of Staffing Mandates in Florida Nursing Homes: Impacts on Indirect-Care Staff. Med Care Res Rev 2009; 67:555-73. [DOI: 10.1177/1077558709353325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Research on nursing staff ratios and quality of care in nursing homes prompted Florida to implement minimum nursing staff ratios for certified nursing assistants (CNAs) in 2001. Using the contingency theory, the authors investigated the response to this mandate and its potential effects on indirect-care staff. This study used the Online Survey, Certification, and Reporting (OSCAR) staffing data for freestanding Florida nursing homes between the years 1999 and 2004. Piecewise regression growth curve models were investigated to test whether the percentage of Medicaid residents is associated with change in indirect-care staffing levels. The number of indirect-care staff hours per 100 residents declined significantly following the mandated increase in nursing staff, particularly among facilities with a low percentage of Medicaid residents. This may have stemmed from a partial transfer of indirect-care to CNAs and was exacerbated in facilities that received less additional reimbursement to pay for CNA increases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ross Andel
- University of South Florida Tampa, FL, USA
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Miller EA, Wang L. Maximizing federal Medicaid dollars: nursing home provider tax adoption, 2000-2004. JOURNAL OF HEALTH POLITICS, POLICY AND LAW 2009; 34:899-930. [PMID: 20018986 DOI: 10.1215/03616878-2009-031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Since Medicaid is jointly financed by the federal and state governments, state officials have sought to offset state expenditures by maximizing federal contributions. One such strategy is to adopt a provider tax, which enables states to collect revenues from providers; those revenues are then used to pay for services rendered to Medicaid recipients, thereby leveraging federal matching dollars without concomitant increases in state expenditures. The number of states adopting a nursing home tax increased from thirteen to thirty-one between 2000 and 2004. This study seeks to identify the factors that spurred the rapid increase in nursing home provider taxes following implementation of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997. Results indicate that states with more powerful nursing home lobbies, lower proportions of private pay nursing home residents, worse fiscal health, weaker fiscal capacity, broader Medicaid eligibility, and nursing home supply restrictions were more likely to adopt. This implies that state officials react rationally to prevailing fiscal and programmatic circumstances when formulating policy under Medicaid and that providers seek relief, in part, from the adverse fiscal consequences of federal policy changes by promoting policy change at the state level.
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Grabowski DC, Aschbrenner KA, Feng Z, Mor V. Mental illness in nursing homes: variations across States. Health Aff (Millwood) 2009; 28:689-700. [PMID: 19414877 DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.28.3.689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Placing people with mental illnesses in nursing homes is an important policy concern. Using nursing home Minimum Data Set assessments from 2005, we found much variation across states in both the rates of mental illness among nursing home admissions and the estimated rates of admission among people with mental illnesses. We also found that newly admitted people with mental illnesses were younger and more likely to become long-stay residents than those admitted with other conditions. Taken together, these results suggest that state-level mental health and nursing home factors may influence the likelihood of long-term nursing home use for people with mental illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Grabowski
- Health Care Policy, at Harvard Medical School in Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
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Abstract
PURPOSE We determine the rate of nursing home closures for 7 years (1999-2005) and examine internal (e.g., quality), organizational (e.g., chain membership), and external (e.g., competition) factors associated with these closures. DESIGN AND METHOD The names of the closed facilities and dates of closure from state regulators in all 50 states were obtained. This information was linked to the Online Survey, Certification, and Reporting data, which contains information on internal, organizational, and market factors for almost all nursing homes in the United States. RESULTS One thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine facilities closed over this time period (1999-2005). The average annual rate of closure was about 2 percent of facilities, but the rate of closure was found to be increasing. Nursing homes with higher rates of deficiency citations, hospital-based facilities, chain members, small bed size, and facilities located in markets with high levels of competition were more likely to close. High Medicaid occupancy rates were associated with a high likelihood of closure, especially for facilities with low Medicaid reimbursement rates. IMPLICATIONS As states actively debate about how to redistribute long-term care services/dollars, our findings show that they should be cognizant of the potential these decisions have for facilitating nursing home closures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas G Castle
- Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
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King AB, Tosteson ANA, Wong JB, Solomon DH, Burge RT, Dawson-Hughes B. Interstate variation in the burden of fragility fractures. J Bone Miner Res 2009; 24:681-92. [PMID: 19063680 PMCID: PMC3276341 DOI: 10.1359/jbmr.081226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2008] [Revised: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 12/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Demographic differences may produce interstate variation in the burden of osteoporosis. We estimated the burden of fragility fractures by race/ethnicity, age, sex, and service site across five diverse and populous states. State inpatient databases for 2000 were used to describe hospital fracture admissions, and a Markov decision model was used to estimate annual fracture incidence and cost for populations >or=50 yr of age for 2005-2025 in Arizona (AZ), California (CA), Florida (FL), Massachusetts (MA), and New York (NY). In 2000, mean hospital charges for incident fractures varied 1.7-fold across states. For hip fracture, mean charges ranged from $16,700 (MA) to $29,500 (CA), length of stay from 5.3 (AZ) to 8.9 days (NY), and discharge rate to long-term care from 43% (NY) to 71% (CA). In 2005, projected fracture incidence rates ranged from 199 (CA) to 266 (MA) per 10,000. Total cost ranged from $270 million (AZ) to $1,434 million (CA). Men accounted for 26-30% of costs. Across states, hip fractures constituted on average 77% of costs; "other" fractures (e.g., leg, arm), 10%; pelvic, 6%; vertebral, 5%; and wrist, 2%. By 2025, Hispanics are projected to represent 20% of fractures in AZ and CA and Asian/Other populations to represent 27% of fractures in NY. In conclusion, state initiatives to prevent fractures should include nonwhite populations and men, as well as white women, and should address fractures at all skeletal sites. Interstate variation in service utilization merits further evaluation to determine efficient and effective disease management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison B King
- Public Policy and Government Relations, Procter & Gamble Health Care, Norwich, New York 13815-0191, USA.
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Annual expenditures for nursing home care: private and public payer price growth, 1977 to 2004. Med Care 2009; 47:295-301. [PMID: 19194339 DOI: 10.1097/mlr.0b013e3181893f8e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Long-term nursing home care is primarily funded by out-of-pocket payments and public Medicaid programs. Few studies have explored price growth in nursing home care, particularly trends in the real cost of a year spent in a nursing home. OBJECTIVES To evaluate changes in private and public prices for annual nursing home care from 1977 to 2004, and to compare nursing home price growth to overall price growth and growth in the price of medical care. RESEARCH DESIGN We estimated annual private prices for nursing home care between 1977 and 2004 using data from the National Nursing Home Survey. We compared private nursing home price growth to public prices obtained from surveys of state Medicaid offices, and evaluated the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Price Indexes to compare prices for nursing homes, medical care, and general goods and services over time. RESULTS Annual private pay nursing homes prices grew by 7.5% annually from $8645 in 1977 to $60,249 in 2004. Medicaid prices grew by 6.7% annually from $9491 in 1979 to $48,056 in 2004. Annual price growth for private pay nursing home care outpaced medical care and other goods and services (7.5% vs. 6.6% and 4.4%, respectively) between 1977 and 2004. CONCLUSIONS The recent rapid growth in nursing home prices is likely to persist, because of an aging population and greater disability among the near-elderly. The result will place increasing financial pressure on Medicaid programs. Better data on nursing prices are critical for policy-makers and researchers.
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Park J, Stearns SC. Effects of state minimum staffing standards on nursing home staffing and quality of care. Health Serv Res 2008; 44:56-78. [PMID: 18823448 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00906.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impact of state minimum staffing standards on the level of staffing and quality of nursing home care. DATA SOURCES Online Survey and Certification Reporting System (OSCAR) merged with the Area Resource File from 1998 through 2001. STUDY DESIGN Between 1998 and 2001, 16 states implemented or expanded staffing standards in excess of federal requirements, creating a natural experiment in comparison with facilities in states without new standards. Difference-in-differences models using facility fixed effects were estimated to determine the effect of state standards. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS OSCAR data were linked to the data on market conditions and state policies. A total of 55,248 facility-year observations from 15,217 freestanding facilities were analyzed. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Increased standards resulted in small staffing increases for facilities with staffing initially below or close to new standards. Yet the standards were associated with reductions in restraint use and the number of total deficiencies at all types of facilities. CONCLUSIONS Mandated staffing standards affect only low-staff facilities facing potential for penalties, and effects are small. Selected facility-level outcomes may show improvement at all facilities due to a general response to increased standards or to other quality initiatives implemented at the same time as staffing standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongyoung Park
- Division of General Internal Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 1234 Blockley Hall, 423 Guardian Drive, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Intrator O, Schleinitz M, Grabowski DC, Zinn J, Mor V. Maintaining continuity of care for nursing home residents: effect of states' Medicaid bed-hold policies and reimbursement rates. Health Serv Res 2008. [PMID: 18783452 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475‐6773.2008.00898.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent public concern in response to states' intended repeal of Medicaid bed-hold policies and report of their association with higher hospitalization rates prompts examination of these policies in ensuring continuity of care within the broader context of Medicaid policies. DATA SOURCES/STUDY DESIGN Minimum Data Set assessments of long-stay nursing home residents in April-June 2000 linked to Medicare claims enabled tracking residents' hospitalizations during the ensuing 5 months and determining hospital discharge destination. Multinomial multilevel models estimated the effect of state policies on discharge destination controlling for resident, hospitalization, nursing home, and market characteristics. RESULTS Among 77,955 hospitalizations, 5,797 (7.4 percent) were not discharged back to the baseline nursing home. Bed-hold policies were associated with lower odds of transfer to another nursing home (AOR=0.55, 95 percent CI 0.52-0.58) and higher odds of hospitalization (AOR=1.36), translating to 9.5 fewer nursing home transfers and 77.9 more hospitalizations per 1,000 residents annually, and costing Medicaid programs about $201,311. Higher Medicaid reimbursement rates were associated with lower odds of transfer. CONCLUSIONS Bed-hold policies were associated with greater continuity of NH care; however, their high cost compared with their small impact on transfer but large impact on increased hospitalizations suggests that they may not be effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orna Intrator
- Brown University, Box G-S121-6, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
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Intrator O, Schleinitz M, Grabowski DC, Zinn J, Mor V. Maintaining continuity of care for nursing home residents: effect of states' Medicaid bed-hold policies and reimbursement rates. Health Serv Res 2008; 44:33-55. [PMID: 18783452 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00898.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent public concern in response to states' intended repeal of Medicaid bed-hold policies and report of their association with higher hospitalization rates prompts examination of these policies in ensuring continuity of care within the broader context of Medicaid policies. DATA SOURCES/STUDY DESIGN Minimum Data Set assessments of long-stay nursing home residents in April-June 2000 linked to Medicare claims enabled tracking residents' hospitalizations during the ensuing 5 months and determining hospital discharge destination. Multinomial multilevel models estimated the effect of state policies on discharge destination controlling for resident, hospitalization, nursing home, and market characteristics. RESULTS Among 77,955 hospitalizations, 5,797 (7.4 percent) were not discharged back to the baseline nursing home. Bed-hold policies were associated with lower odds of transfer to another nursing home (AOR=0.55, 95 percent CI 0.52-0.58) and higher odds of hospitalization (AOR=1.36), translating to 9.5 fewer nursing home transfers and 77.9 more hospitalizations per 1,000 residents annually, and costing Medicaid programs about $201,311. Higher Medicaid reimbursement rates were associated with lower odds of transfer. CONCLUSIONS Bed-hold policies were associated with greater continuity of NH care; however, their high cost compared with their small impact on transfer but large impact on increased hospitalizations suggests that they may not be effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orna Intrator
- Brown University, Box G-S121-6, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
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Gruneir A, Miller SC, Feng Z, Intrator O, Mor V. Relationship between state medicaid policies, nursing home racial composition, and the risk of hospitalization for black and white residents. Health Serv Res 2008; 43:869-81. [PMID: 18454772 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00806.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine racial differences in the risk of hospitalization for nursing home (NH) residents. DATA SOURCES National NH Minimum Data Set, Medicare claims, and Online Survey Certification and Reporting data from 2000 were merged with independently collected Medicaid policy data. STUDY DESIGN One hundred and fifty day follow-up of 516,082 long-stay residents. PRINCIPLE FINDINGS 18.5 percent of white and 24.1 percent of black residents were hospitalized. Residents in NHs with high concentrations of blacks had 20 percent higher odds (95 percent confidence interval [CI]=1.15-1.25) of hospitalization than residents in NHs with no blacks. Ten-dollar increments in Medicaid rates reduced the odds of hospitalization by 4 percent (95 percent CI=0.93-1.00) for white residents and 22 percent (95 percent CI=0.69-0.87) for black residents. CONCLUSIONS Our findings illustrate the effect of contextual forces on racial disparities in NH care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gruneir
- Kunin-Lunenfeld Applied Research Unit, Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care, Toronto, ON M6A 2E1, Canada
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Zhang NJ, Unruh L, Wan TTH. Has the Medicare prospective payment system led to increased nursing home efficiency? Health Serv Res 2008; 43:1043-61. [PMID: 18454780 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00798.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
RESEARCH OBJECTIVE To assess the impact of recent Medicare prospective payment system (PPS) changes on efficiency in skilled nursing homes. DATA SOURCE/STUDY SETTING Medicare Cost Reports (MCR), On-line Survey Certification and Reporting System (OSCAR), Area Resource Files (ARF), a Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) hospital wage index website, a Consumer Price Index (CPI) database, and a survey of state Medicaid reimbursement rates. The sample was 8,361 nursing homes in the Medicare Cost Report databases from the years 1997 to 2003. STUDY DESIGN Data-envelopment analyses (DEA) calculated efficiency scores for three separate DEA models: unadjusted, acuity-adjusted, and acuity-and-quality-adjusted efficiency. The efficiency scores from these models were regressed on the Medicare PPS changes (the Balanced Budget Act [BBA], the Balanced Budget Refinement Act [BBRA] and the Benefits Improvement and Protection Act) and other organizational and market explanatory variables using a panel-data truncated regression. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Mean values for all efficiency measures decreased over time, the acuity-quality-adjusted efficiency measures decreasing the most. All policy variables were significantly negatively related to all efficiency measures. Higher nurse staffing was negatively related to efficiency in all but the acuity-quality-adjusted model. Other explanatory variables varied in their relationships to the efficiency variables. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that the reimbursement policy changes had a significantly negative impact on efficiency. Higher nurse staffing contributed to lower efficiency only when efficiency was not adjusted for quality. Various organizational and market factors also played significant roles in all efficiency models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Jackie Zhang
- Doctoral Program in Public Affairs, College of Health and Public Affairs, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the relationship between the use of the Minimum Data Set (MDS) for determining Medicaid reimbursement to nursing facilities and the MDS Quality Indicators examining nursing facility residents' mental health. DATA SOURCES The 2004 National MDS facility Quality Indicator reports served as the dependent variables. Explanatory variables were based on the 2004 Online Survey Certification and Reporting system (OSCAR) and an examination of existing reports, a review of the State Medicaid Plans, and State Medicaid personnel. STUDY DESIGN Multilevel regression models were used to account for the hierarchical structure of the data. DATA COLLECTION MDS and OSCAR data were linked by facility identifiers and subsequently linked with state-level variables. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The use of the MDS for determining Medicaid reimbursement was associated with higher (poorer) quality indicator values for all four mental health quality indicators examined. This effect was not found in four comparison quality indicators. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that documentation of mental health symptoms may be influenced by economic incentives. Policy makers should be cautioned from using these measures as the basis for decision making, such as with pay-for-performance initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Bellows
- Center for Health and Public Policy Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 140 Warren Hall #7360, Berkeley, CA 94720-7360, USA
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Grabowski DC, Zhanlian Feng, Mor V. Medicaid nursing home payment and the role of provider taxes. Med Care Res Rev 2008; 65:514-27. [PMID: 18369236 DOI: 10.1177/1077558708315968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the context of recent state budget shortfalls and the repeal of the Boren Amendment, state Medicaid expenditures for nursing home care were considered a potential target for payment cuts. The authors examine this issue using data from a survey of state nursing home payment policies. Results indicate that aggregate inflation-adjusted Medicaid payment rates steadily increased through 2004, and this growth is partly attributable to the adoption of nursing home provider taxes in many states. A recent proposal to cap provider taxes, if enacted, may lead to a decrease in Medicaid payment rates for nursing home care.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the effects of ownership conversions on nursing home performance. DATA SOURCE Online Survey, Certification, and Reporting system data from 1993 to 2004, and the Minimum Data Set (MDS) facility reports from 1998 to 2004. STUDY DESIGN Regression specification incorporating facility fixed effects, with terms to identify trends in the pre- and postconversion periods. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The annual rate of nursing home conversions almost tripled between 1994 and 2004. Our regression results indicate converting facilities are generally different throughout the pre/postconversion years, suggesting little causal effect of ownership conversions on nursing home performance. Before and after conversion, nursing homes converting from nonprofit to for-profit status generally exhibit deterioration in their performance, while nursing homes converting from for-profit to nonprofit status generally exhibit improvement. CONCLUSIONS Policy makers have expressed concern regarding the implications of ownership conversions for nursing home performance. Our results imply that regulators and policy makers should not only monitor the outcomes of nursing home conversions, but also the targets of these conversions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Grabowski
- Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, 180 Longwood Avenue, Boston, MA 02115-5899, USA.
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Grabowski DC, O’Malley AJ, Barhydt NR. The Costs And Potential Savings Associated With Nursing Home Hospitalizations. Health Aff (Millwood) 2007; 26:1753-61. [DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.26.6.1753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Intrator O, Grabowski DC, Zinn J, Schleinitz M, Feng Z, Miller S, Mor V. Hospitalization of nursing home residents: the effects of states' Medicaid payment and bed-hold policies. Health Serv Res 2007; 42:1651-71. [PMID: 17610442 PMCID: PMC1955269 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00670.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Hospitalizations of nursing home residents are costly and expose residents to iatrogenic disease and social and psychological harm. Economic constraints imposed by payers of care, predominantly Medicaid policies, are hypothesized to impact hospitalizations. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING Federally mandated resident assessments were merged with Medicare claims and eligibility files to determine hospitalizations and death within 150 days of baseline assessment. Nursing home and market characteristics were obtained from the Online Survey Certification and Reporting, and the Area Resource File, respectively. States' average daily Medicaid nursing home payments and bed-hold policies were obtained independently. STUDY DESIGN Prospective cohort study of 570,614 older (> or =65-year-old), non-MCO (Medicare Managed Care), long-stay (> or =90 days) residents in 8,997 urban, freestanding nursing homes assessed between April and June 2000, using multilevel models to test the impact of state policies on hospitalizations controlling for resident, nursing home, and market characteristics. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Overall, 99,379 (17.4 percent) residents were hospitalized with rates varying from 8.4 percent in Utah to 24.9 percent in Louisiana. Higher Medicaid per diem was associated with lower odds of hospitalizations (5 percent lower for each $10 above average $103.5, confidence intervals [CI] 0.91-0.99). Hospitalization odds were higher by 36 percent in states with bed-hold policies (CI: 1.12-1.63). CONCLUSIONS State Medicaid bed-hold policy and per-diem payment have important implications for nursing home hospitalizations, which are predominantly financed by Medicare. This study emphasizes the importance of properly aligning state Medicaid and federal Medicare policies in regards to the subsidy of acute, maintenance, and preventive care in the nursing home setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orna Intrator
- Brown University, Box G-ST2, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Patients who receive prolonged mechanical ventilation have high resource utilization and relatively poor outcomes, especially the elderly, and are increasing in number. The economic implications of prolonged mechanical ventilation provision, however, are uncertain and would be helpful to providers and policymakers. Therefore, we aimed to determine the lifetime societal value of prolonged mechanical ventilation. DESIGN AND PATIENTS Adopting the perspective of a healthcare payor, we developed a Markov model to determine the cost effectiveness of providing mechanical ventilation for at least 21 days to a 65-yr-old critically ill base-case patient compared with the provision of comfort care resulting in withdrawal of ventilation. Input data were derived from the medical literature, Medicare, and a recent large cohort study of ventilated patients. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS We determined lifetime costs and survival, quality-adjusted life expectancy, and cost effectiveness as reflected by costs per quality-adjusted life-year gained. Providing prolonged mechanical ventilation to the base-case patient cost "dollars"55,460 per life-year gained and "dollars"82,411 per quality-adjusted life-year gained compared with withdrawal of ventilation. Cost-effectiveness ratios were most sensitive to variation in age, hospital costs, and probability of readmission, although less sensitive to postacute care-facility costs. Specifically, incremental costs per quality-adjusted life-year gained by prolonged mechanical ventilation provision exceeded "dollars"100,000 with age >or=68 and when predicted 1-yr mortality was >50%. CONCLUSIONS The cost effectiveness of prolonged mechanical ventilation provision varies dramatically based on age and likelihood of poor short- and long-term outcomes. Identifying patients likely to have unfavorable outcomes, lowering intensity of care for appropriate patients, and reducing costly readmissions should be future priorities in improving the value of prolonged mechanical ventilation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher E. Cox
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, (see below), , (p) 919-681-5919; (f) 919-681-9936
| | - Shannon S. Carson
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, , (p) 919-843-4393; (f) 919-966-7013
| | - Joseph A. Govert
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, (see below), , (p) 919-681-5919; (f) 919-681-9936
| | - Lakshmipathi Chelluri
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA, , (p) 412-647 5387; (f) 412-647-8060
| | - Gillian D. Sanders
- Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Duke Clinical Research Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, , (p) 919-668-7824; (f) 919-668-7060
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Gruneir A, Miller SC, Intrator O, Mor V. Hospitalization of Nursing Home Residents With Cognitive Impairments: The Influence of Organizational Features and State Policies. THE GERONTOLOGIST 2007; 47:447-56. [PMID: 17766666 DOI: 10.1093/geront/47.4.447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to quantify the effect of specific nursing home features and state Medicaid policies on the risk of hospitalization among cognitively impaired nursing home residents. DESIGN AND METHODS We used multilevel logistic regression to estimate the odds of hospitalization among long-stay (>90 days) nursing home residents against the odds of remaining in the nursing home over a 5-month period, controlling for covariates at the resident, nursing home, and county level. We stratified analyses by resident diagnosis of dementia. RESULTS Of 359,474 cognitively impaired residents, 49% had a diagnosis of dementia. Of those, 16% were hospitalized. The probability of hospitalization was negatively associated with the presence of a dementia special care unit (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.90, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.86-0.94) and with a high prevalence of dementia in the nursing home (AOR = 0.96, 95% CI = 0.88-1.03). Higher Medicaid payment rates were associated with reduced likelihood of hospitalization (AOR = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.90-1.00), whereas any bed-hold policy substantially increased that likelihood (AOR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.12-1.86). We observed similar results for residents without a dementia diagnosis. IMPLICATIONS Directed management of chronic conditions, as indicated by facilities' investment in special care units, reduces the risk of hospitalization, but the effect of bed-hold policies illustrates how fragmentation in the financing system impedes these efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gruneir
- Department of Community Health, Brown Medical School, Box G-S120, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
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44
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Intrator O, Grabowski DC, Zinn J, Schleinitz M, Feng Z, Miller S, Mor V. Hospitalization of nursing home residents: the effects of states' Medicaid payment and bed-hold policies. Health Serv Res 2007. [PMID: 17610442 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475‐6773.2006.00670.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Hospitalizations of nursing home residents are costly and expose residents to iatrogenic disease and social and psychological harm. Economic constraints imposed by payers of care, predominantly Medicaid policies, are hypothesized to impact hospitalizations. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING Federally mandated resident assessments were merged with Medicare claims and eligibility files to determine hospitalizations and death within 150 days of baseline assessment. Nursing home and market characteristics were obtained from the Online Survey Certification and Reporting, and the Area Resource File, respectively. States' average daily Medicaid nursing home payments and bed-hold policies were obtained independently. STUDY DESIGN Prospective cohort study of 570,614 older (> or =65-year-old), non-MCO (Medicare Managed Care), long-stay (> or =90 days) residents in 8,997 urban, freestanding nursing homes assessed between April and June 2000, using multilevel models to test the impact of state policies on hospitalizations controlling for resident, nursing home, and market characteristics. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Overall, 99,379 (17.4 percent) residents were hospitalized with rates varying from 8.4 percent in Utah to 24.9 percent in Louisiana. Higher Medicaid per diem was associated with lower odds of hospitalizations (5 percent lower for each $10 above average $103.5, confidence intervals [CI] 0.91-0.99). Hospitalization odds were higher by 36 percent in states with bed-hold policies (CI: 1.12-1.63). CONCLUSIONS State Medicaid bed-hold policy and per-diem payment have important implications for nursing home hospitalizations, which are predominantly financed by Medicare. This study emphasizes the importance of properly aligning state Medicaid and federal Medicare policies in regards to the subsidy of acute, maintenance, and preventive care in the nursing home setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orna Intrator
- Brown University, Box G-ST2, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Many studies have examined quality effects of nursing facility (NF) staffing, but few have examined effects of unionization. Concerned with possible effects of unionization on quality, we analyzed unionization and local market climate of unionization, predicting both complaints (reflecting either quality problems or better monitoring and advocacy) and the substantiation of serious complaints (indicating major quality problems). METHOD Data were analyzed on California freestanding NFs in 1999 (N = 1,155). OLS regression was employed to predict both quality complaints and serious violations, the latter both controlling and not controlling for numbers of complaints. RESULTS Unionized NFs showed more complaints than did non-unionized NFs. Non-unionized NFs had more serious violations, particularly when the proportion of other county facilities unionized was higher. DISCUSSION These findings suggest that unionization enhances problem reporting while, especially in stronger union environments, reducing the incidence of serious quality violations.
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Feng Z, Grabowski DC, Intrator O, Mor V. The effect of state medicaid case-mix payment on nursing home resident acuity. Health Serv Res 2006; 41:1317-36. [PMID: 16899009 PMCID: PMC1797088 DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00545.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the relationship between Medicaid case-mix payment and nursing home resident acuity. DATA SOURCES Longitudinal Minimum Data Set (MDS) resident assessments from 1999 to 2002 and Online Survey Certification and Reporting (OSCAR) data from 1996 to 2002, for all freestanding nursing homes in the 48 contiguous U.S. states. STUDY DESIGN We used a facility fixed-effects model to examine the effect of introducing state case-mix payment on changes in nursing home case-mix acuity. Facility acuity was measured by aggregating the nursing case-mix index (NCMI) from the MDS using the Resource Utilization Group (Version III) resident classification system, separately for new admits and long-stay residents, and by an OSCAR-derived index combining a range of activity of daily living dependencies and special treatment measures. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS We followed facilities over the study period to create a longitudinal data file based on the MDS and OSCAR, respectively, and linked facilities with longitudinal data on state case-mix payment policies for the same period. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Across three acuity measures and two data sources, we found that states shifting to case-mix payment increased nursing home acuity levels over the study period. Specifically, we observed a 2.5 percent increase in the average acuity of new admits and a 1.3 to 1.4 percent increase in the acuity of long-stay residents, following the introduction of case-mix payment. CONCLUSIONS The adoption of case-mix payment increased access to care for higher acuity Medicaid residents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanlian Feng
- Center for Gerontology and Health Care Research, Brown University, 2 Stimson Avenue, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Abstract
Publicly reporting information stimulates providers' efforts to improve the quality of health care. The availability of mandated, uniform clinical data in all nursing homes and home health agencies has facilitated the public reporting of comparative quality data. This article reviews the conceptual and technical challenges of applying information about the quality of long-term care providers and the evidence for the impact of information-based quality improvement. Quality "tools" have been used despite questions about the validity of the measures and their use in selecting providers or offering them bonus payments. Although the industry now realizes the importance of quality, research still is needed on how consumers use this information to select providers and monitor their performance and whether these efforts actually improve the outcomes of care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Mor
- Department of Community Health and Center for Gerontology and Health Care Research, Brown University School of Medicine, Box G-A418, Providence, RI 02192, USA.
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Hoffmann DE, Tarzian AJ. Dying in America--an examination of policies that deter adequate end-of-life care in nursing homes. THE JOURNAL OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS : A JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF LAW, MEDICINE & ETHICS 2005; 33:294-309. [PMID: 16083088 DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720x.2005.tb00495.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The quality of end-of-life care in this country is often poor. There is abundant literature indicating that dying individuals do not receive adequate pain medication or palliative care, are tethered to machines and tubes in a way that challenges their dignity and autonomy, and are not helped to deal with the emotional grief and psychological angst that may accompany the dying process. While this is true for individuals in many settings, it seems to be especially true for individuals in nursing homes. This is somewhat puzzling given that (1) considerable resources have been devoted to bringing public attention to this problem, (2) we have the knowledge and expertise to provide such care, and (3) we have a government-financed benefit that covers this type of care - the Medicare hospice benefit (MHB).While utilization of hospice care has increased during the last decade, there is considerable evidence that hospice care remains underutilized particularly in the long term care setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane E Hoffmann
- Law & Health Care Program at the University of Maryland School of Law, USA
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Miller SC, Mor V. The opportunity for collaborative care provision: the presence of nursing home/hospice collaborations in the U.S. states. J Pain Symptom Manage 2004; 28:537-47. [PMID: 15589079 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2004.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/04/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study estimated the proportion of U.S. nursing homes (NHs) collaborating with Medicare hospices and identified state-level factors associated with this collaboration. Collaboration was classified as present when at least one of a NH's residents dying in July through December, 2000 received hospice. Seventy-six percent of NHs (n=12,174) had hospice collaborations, with proportions ranging from 37% in Wyoming to 96% in Florida. State-level factors associated with greater collaboration included having a lower proportion of persons 65+ residing in rural areas, lower NH occupancy and larger hospices, and Medicaid NH reimbursement which was not case-mixed and was paid directly to NHs (not to hospices) for hospice-enrolled residents. Considering the high amount of estimated NH/hospice collaboration, care provision by both NHs and hospices appears to be a potentially viable approach for providing comprehensive end-of-life care in the majority of U.S. NHs. Findings suggest the rural composition of a state as well as its policies and healthcare market characteristics either foster or discourage NH/hospice collaboration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan C Miller
- Department of Community Health, and Center for Gerontology and Health Care Research, Brown University School of Medicine, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
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