The potential to target CCL5/CCR5 in breast cancer

Targeting the dynamic transcriptional landscape of Treg subpopulations in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: Insights from single-cell RNA sequencing analysis with a focus on CTLA4 and TIGIT

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly lethal malignancy that represents a significant challenge in cancer research and clinical management. In this study, we reanalyzed a published single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) dataset from PDAC and adjacent tissues to investigate the heterogeneity of tumor and normal tissue, specifically focusing on the regulatory T cells (Tregs) and their interactions with other cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Treg cells were identified and clustered into natural Tregs (nTreg) and induced Tregs (iTreg) based on the expression of specific genes. It was found that the number of iTregs was higher in the tumor than in healthy tissues, while the number of n Tregs was higher in healthy tissues. Differential gene expression analysis was performed, and biological process analysis revealed that the Tregs in PDAC were mostly involved in protein targeting and translation pathways. In addition, ligand-receptor pairs between Tregs and other cell types were identified, and the critical communication pathways between Tregs and endothelial and ductal cells were revealed, which could potentially contribute to the immunosuppressive TME of PDAC. These findings provide insights into the role of Tregs in PDAC and their interactions with other cell types in the TME, highlighting potential targets for immunotherapy, such as the inhibitory immune checkpoint receptors CTLA4 and TIGIT, which are known to be expressed on Tregs and have been shown to play a role in suppressing anti-tumor immune responses.

Guardians and Mediators of Metastasis: Exploring T Lymphocytes, Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells, and Tumor-Associated Macrophages in the Breast Cancer Microenvironment

Breast cancers (BCs) are solid tumors composed of heterogeneous tissues consisting of cancer cells and an ever-changing tumor microenvironment (TME). The TME includes, among other non-cancer cell types, immune cells influencing the immune context of cancer tissues. In particular, the cross talk of immune cells and their interactions with cancer cells dramatically influence BC dissemination, immunoediting, and the outcomes of cancer therapies. Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) represent prominent immune cell populations of breast TMEs, and they have important roles in cancer immunoescape and dissemination. Therefore, in this article we review the features of TILs, TAMs, and MDSCs in BCs. Moreover, we highlight the mechanisms by which these immune cells remodel the immune TME and lead to breast cancer metastasis.

MLL1 regulates cytokine-driven cell migration and metastasis

Cell migration is a critical contributor to metastasis. Cytokine production and its role in cancer cell migration have been traditionally associated with immune cells. We find that the histone methyltransferase Mixed-Lineage Leukemia 1 (MLL1) controls 3D cell migration via cytokines, IL-6, IL-8, and TGF-β1, secreted by the cancer cells themselves. MLL1, with its scaffold protein Menin, controls actin filament assembly via the IL-6/8/pSTAT3/Arp3 axis and myosin contractility via the TGF-β1/Gli2/ROCK1/2/pMLC2 axis, which together regulate dynamic protrusion generation and 3D cell migration. MLL1 also regulates cell proliferation via mitosis-based and cell cycle-related pathways. Mice bearing orthotopic MLL1-depleted tumors exhibit decreased lung metastatic burden and longer survival. MLL1 depletion leads to lower metastatic burden even when controlling for the difference in primary tumor growth rates. Combining MLL1-Menin inhibitor with paclitaxel abrogates tumor growth and metastasis, including preexistent metastasis. These results establish MLL1 as a potent regulator of cell migration and highlight the potential of targeting MLL1 in patients with metastatic disease.

Establishment of a diagnostic model based on immune-related genes in children with asthma

Objective

Allergic asthma is driven by an antigen-specific immune response. This study aimed to identify immune-related differentially expressed genes in childhood asthma and establish a classification diagnostic model based on these genes.

Methods

GSE65204 and GSE19187 were downloaded and served as training set and validation set. The immune cell composition was evaluated with ssGSEA algorithm based on the immune-related gene set. Modules that significantly related to the asthma were selected by WGCNA algorithm. The immune-related differentially expressed genes (DE-IRGs) were screened, the protein-protein interaction network and diagnostic model of DE-IRGs was constructed. The pathway and immune correlation analysis of hub DE-IRGs was analyzed.

Results

Eight immune cell types exhibited varying levels of abundance between the asthma and control groups. A total of 112 differentially expressed immune-related genes (DE-IRGs) was identified. Through the application of four ranking methods (MCC, MNC, DEGREE, and EPC), 17 hub DE-IRGs with overlapping significance were further selected. Subsequently, 8 optimized were identified using univariate logistic regression analysis and the LASSO regression algorithm, based on which a robust diagnostic model was constructed. Notably, TNF and CD40LG emerged as direct participants in asthma-related signaling pathways, displaying a positive correlation with the immune cell types of immature B cells, activated B cells, activated CD8 T cells, activated CD4 T cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells.

Conclusion

The diagnostic model constructed using the DE-IRGs (CCL5, CCR5, CD40LG, CD8A, IL2RB, PDCD1, TNF, and ZAP70) exhibited high and specific diagnostic value for childhood asthma. The diagnostic model may contribute to the diagnosis of childhood asthma.

A novel antagonist of the CCL5/CCR5 axis suppresses the tumor growth and metastasis of triple-negative breast cancer by CCR5-YAP1 regulation

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive subtype of breast cancer (BC) with a high mortality rate, and few effective therapeutic strategies are available. CCL5/CCR5 is an appealing immunotherapeutic target for TNBC. However, its signaling mechanism is poorly understood and its direct antagonists have not been reported. Here, we developed a high-throughput screening (HTS) assay for discovering its antagonists. Verteporfin was identified as a more selective and potent antagonist than the known CCR5 antagonist maraviroc. Without photodynamic therapy, verteporfin demonstrated significant inhibition on TNBC tumor growth through immune regulation, remarkable suppression of lung metastasis by cell-intrinsic mechanism, and a significant extension of overall survival in vivo. Mechanistically, CCR5 was found to be essential for expression of the key hippo effector YAP1. It promoted YAP1 transcription via HIF-1α and exerted further control over the migration of CD8+ T, NK, and MDSC immune cells through chemokines CXCL16 and CXCL8 which were identified from RNA-seq. Moreover, the CCR5-YAP1 axis played a vital role in promoting metastasis by modulating β-catenin and core epithelial-mesenchymal transition transcription factors ZEB1 and ZEB2. It is noteworthy that the regulatory relationship between CCR5 and YAP1 was observed across various BC subtypes, TNBC patients, and showed potential relevance in fifteen additional cancer types. Overall, this study introduced an easy-to-use HTS assay that streamlines the discovery of CCL5/CCR5 axis antagonists. Verteporfin was identified as a specific molecular probe of this axis with great potentials as a therapeutic agent for treating sixteen malignant diseases characterized by heightened CCR5 and YAP1 levels.

Engineered Exosomes Carrying miR-588 for Treatment of Triple Negative Breast Cancer Through Remodeling the Immunosuppressive Microenvironment

Background

The morbidity and mortality of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) are still high, causing a heavy medical burden. CCL5, as a chemokine, can be involved in altering the composition of the tumor microenvironment (TME) as well as the immunosuppressive degree, and has become a very promising target for the treatment of TNBC. Dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) in tumor tissues is closely related to tumor progression, and its utilization can be used to achieve therapeutic purposes. Engineered exosomes can avoid the shortcomings of miRNAs and also enhance their targeting and anti-tumor effects through engineering. Therefore, we aimed to create a cRGD-modified exosome for targeted delivery of miR-588 and to investigate its effect in remodeling immunosuppressive TME by anchoring CCL5 in TNBC.

Methods

In this study, we loaded miR-588 into exosomes using electroporation and modified it with cRGD using post insertion to obtain cRGD-Exos/miR-588. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), nanoparticle tracking assay technique (NTA), Western Blots, qPCR, and flow cytometry were applied for its characterization. CCK-8, qPCR and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), in vivo fluorescence imaging system, immunohistochemistry and H&E staining were used to explore the efficacy as well as the mechanism at the cellular level as well as in subcutaneous graft-tumor nude mouse model.

Results

The cRGD-Exos/miR-588 was successfully constructed and had strong TNBC tumor targeting in vitro and in vivo. Meanwhile, it has significant efficacy on TME components affected by CCL5 and the degree of immunosuppression, which can effectively control TNBC with good safety.

Conclusion

In this experiment, cRGD-Exos/miR-588 was prepared to remodel immunosuppressive TME by anchoring CCL5, which is affected by the vicious cycle of immune escape. Overall, cRGD-Exos/miR-588 explored the feasibility of targeting TME for the TNBC treatment, and provided a competitive delivery system for the engineered exosomes to deliver miRNAs for antitumor therapy drug.

Evaluation of regulatory T-cells in cancer immunotherapy: therapeutic relevance of immune checkpoint inhibition

The evolution of the complex immune system is equipped to defend against perilous intruders and concurrently negatively regulate the deleterious effect of immune-mediated inflammation caused by self and nonself antigens. Regulatory T-cells (Tregs) are specialized cells that minimize immune-mediated inflammation, but in malignancies, this feature has been exploited toward cancer progression by keeping the antitumor immune response in check. The modulation of Treg cell infiltration and their induction in the TME (tumor microenvironment) alongside associated inhibitory molecules, both soluble or membranes tethered in the TME, have proven clinically beneficial in boosting the tumoricidal activity of the immune system. Moreover, Treg-associated immune checkpoints pose a greater obstruction in cancer immunotherapy. Inhibiting or blocking active immune checkpoint signaling in combination with other therapies has proven clinically beneficial. This review summarizes the ontogeny of Treg cells and their migration, stability, and function in the TME. We also elucidate the Treg-associated checkpoint moieties that impede effective antitumor activity and harness these molecules for effective and targeted immunotherapy against cancer nuisance.

Serum CXCL10 levels at the start of the second course of atezolizumab plus bevacizumab therapy predict therapeutic efficacy in patients with advanced BCLC stage C hepatocellular carcinoma: A multicenter analysis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Relationships of serum C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) levels with hot immune features have been reported in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, we examined the utility of their levels for predicting the efficacy of atezolizumab plus bevacizumab (Atez/Bev) in patients with HCC.

DESIGN

In total, 98 patients with HCC treated with Atez/Bev were enrolled, and their initial responses were evaluated at least once via dynamic computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging. Serum CCL5 and CXCL10 levels were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay before treatment and at the start of the second course of Atez/Bev therapy, and their relationships with treatment efficacy were determined.

RESULTS

No analyzed factor was associated with the initial therapeutic response. Among the 56 patients with Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) stage C, serum CXCL10 levels at the beginning of course two (CXCL10-2c) tended to be higher in responders than in non-responders in the initial evaluation, and its optimal cutoff level of 690 pg/mL could be used to stratify patients regarding overall survival (OS; high vs. low: not reached vs. 17.6 months, p = 0.034) and progression-free survival (high vs. low: 13.6 vs. 5.1 months, p = 0.014). In multivariate analysis, high CXCL10 levels and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios at the start of course two and Child-Pugh stage A at baseline were independent predictive factors of improved OS.

CONCLUSIONS

Serum CXCL10-2c levels were predictive of Atez/Bev efficacy in patients with BCLC stage C HCC.

The Role and Therapeutic Targeting of CCR5 in Breast Cancer

The G-protein-coupled receptor C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) functions as a co-receptor for the entry of HIV into immune cells. CCR5 binds promiscuously to a diverse array of ligands initiating cell signaling that includes guided migration. Although well known to be expressed on immune cells, recent studies have shown the induction of CCR5 on the surface of breast cancer epithelial cells. The function of CCR5 on breast cancer epithelial cells includes the induction of aberrant cell survival signaling and tropism towards chemo attractants. As CCR5 is not expressed on normal epithelium, the receptor provides a potential useful target for therapy. Inhibitors of CCR5 (CCR5i), either small molecules (maraviroc, vicriviroc) or humanized monoclonal antibodies (leronlimab) have shown anti-tumor and anti-metastatic properties in preclinical studies. In early clinical studies, reviewed herein, CCR5i have shown promising results and evidence for effects on both the tumor and the anti-tumor immune response. Current clinical studies have therefore included combination therapy approaches with checkpoint inhibitors.

Three-Dimensional Breast Cancer Model to Investigate CCL5/CCR1 Expression Mediated by Direct Contact between Breast Cancer Cells and Adipose-Derived Stromal Cells or Adipocytes

The tumor microenvironment (TME) in breast cancer is determined by the complex crosstalk of cancer cells with adipose tissue-inherent cells such as adipose-derived stromal cells (ASCs) and adipocytes resulting from the local invasion of tumor cells in the mammary fat pad. This leads to heterotypic cellular contacts between these cell types. To adequately mimic the specific cell-to-cell interaction in an in vivo-like 3D environment, we developed a direct co-culture spheroid model using ASCs or differentiated adipocytes in combination with MDA-MB-231 or MCF-7 breast carcinoma cells. Co-spheroids were generated in a well-defined and reproducible manner in a high-throughput process. We compared the expression of the tumor-promoting chemokine CCL5 and its cognate receptors in these co-spheroids to indirect and direct standard 2D co-cultures. A marked up-regulation of CCL5 and in particular the receptor CCR1 with strict dependence on cell-cell contacts and culture dimensionality was evident. Furthermore, the impact of direct contacts between ASCs and tumor cells and the involvement of CCR1 in promoting tumor cell migration were demonstrated. Overall, these results show the importance of direct 3D co-culture models to better represent the complex tumor-stroma interaction in a tissue-like context. The unveiling of tumor-specific markers that are up-regulated upon direct cell-cell contact with neighboring stromal cells, as demonstrated in the 3D co-culture spheroids, may represent a promising strategy to find new targets for the diagnosis and treatment of invasive breast cancer.

Identification of key immune genes of osteoporosis based on bioinformatics and machine learning

Introduction

Immunity is involved in a variety of bone metabolic processes, especially osteoporosis. The aim of this study is to explore new bone immune-related markers by bioinformatics method and evaluate their ability to predict osteoporosis.

Methods

The mRNA expression profiles were obtained from GSE7158 in Gene expression Omnibus (GEO), and immune-related genes were obtained from ImmPort database (https://www.immport.org/shared/). immune genes related to bone mineral density(BMD) were screened out for differential analysis. protein-protein interaction (PPIs) networks were used to analyze the interrelationships between different immune-related genes (DIRGs). Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses of DIRGs function were performed. A least absolute shrinkage and selection operation (LASSO) regression model and multiple Support Vector Machine-Recursive Feature Elimination (mSVM-RFE) model were constructed to identify the candidate genes for osteoporosis prediction The receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curves were used to validate the performances of predictive models and candidate genes in GEO database (GSE7158,GSE13850).Through the RT - qPCR verify the key genes differentially expressed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells Finally, we constructed a nomogram model for predicting osteoporosis based on five immune-related genes. CIBERSORT algorithm was used to calculate the relative proportion of 22 immune cells.

Results

A total of 1158 DEGs and 66 DIRGs were identified between high-BMD and low-BMD women. These DIRGs were mainly enriched in cytokine-mediated signaling pathway, positive regulation of response to external stimulus and the cellular components of genes are mostly localized to external side of plasma membrane. And the KEGG enrichment analysis were mainly involved in Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, Neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction,Natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity. Then five key genes (CCR5, IAPP, IFNA4, IGHV3-73 and PTGER1) were identified and used as features to construct a predictive prognostic model for osteoporosis using the GSE7158 dataset.

Conclusion

Immunity plays an important role in the development of osteoporosis.CCR5, IAPP, IFNA4, IGHV3-73 and PTGER1were play an important role in the occurrences and diagnosis of OP.

CKLF1 interference alleviates IL‑1β‑induced inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the extracellular matrix in chondrocytes via CCR5

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a type of joint disease with a rising prevalence and incidence among the elderly across the global population. Chemokine-like factor 1 (CKLF1) is a human cytokine, which has been demonstrated to be involved in the progression of multiple human diseases. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of CKLF1 on OA. The present study was designed to identify the role of CKLF1 in OA and to clarify the regulatory mechanism. The expression levels of CKLF1 and its receptor CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) were examined by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blotting. A Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was used to estimate cell viability. The levels and expression of inflammatory factors were determined by ELISA and RT-qPCR, respectively. Apoptosis was investigated by TUNEL assays and the protein levels of apoptosis-related factors were analyzed by western blotting. RT-qPCR and western blotting were used to examine the expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation-associated proteins and ECM components. Dimethylmethylene blue analysis was used to analyze the production of soluble glycosamine sulfate additive. A co-immunoprecipitation assay was used to confirm the protein interaction between CKLF1 and CCR5. The results revealed that CKLF1 expression was increased in IL-1β-exposed murine chondrogenic ATDC5 cells. Furthermore, CKLF1 silencing enhanced the viability of IL-1β-induced ATDC5 cells, while inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the ECM were reduced. Additionally, CKLF1 knockdown led to decreased CCR5 expression in IL-1β-challenged ATDC5 cells, and CKLF1 bound with CCR5. The enhanced viability, as well as the suppressed inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the ECM, following CKLF1 knockdown in the IL-1β-induced ATDC5 cells were all restored after CCR5 was overexpressed. In conclusion, CKLF1 might serve a detrimental role in the development of OA by targeting its receptor CCR5.

Spatiotemporal Ultrasound-Driven Bioorthogonal Catalytic Therapy

Bioorthogonal chemistry, referring to the rapid and selective synthesis of imaging and/or therapeutic molecules in live animals via transition metal-mediated non-natural chemical transformation without disrupting endogenous reactions, has greatly expanded the tools and techniques for biomedicine. However, owing to safety concerns associated with metal toxicity, selectivity, sensitivity and stability, efficient bioorthogonal reactions that can be reliably executed in complex biological environments remain challenging. In this study, an intelligent, versatile bioorthogonal catalyst based on ultrasmall poly(acrylic acid)-modified copper nanocomplexes (Cu@PAA NCs) to achieve high spatiotemporal catalytic efficacy is established. The catalytic activity of the Cu@PAA NCs can be reversibly regulated via valence state interconversion between Cu(II) and Cu(I) under exogenous ultrasound irradiation, promoting off-target prodrug activation in lesion sites through the Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction. Moreover, ultrasound-triggered electron-hole separation endows the Cu@PAA NCs with robust sonosensitizing ability for sonodynamic therapy. Furthermore, the Cu@PAA NCs exhibit enhanced contrast in magnetic resonance and photoacoustic imaging. Notably, the renal-clearable Cu@PAA NCs exhibit intrinsically benign biocompatibility. This spatiotemporally ultrasound-mediated bioorthogonal catalysis not only expands the repertoire of in situ therapeutic agents but also provides a new avenue for disease theranostics.

Cancer-Associated Adipocytes and Breast Cancer: Intertwining in the Tumor Microenvironment and Challenges for Cancer Therapy

Adipocytes are the main components in breast tissue, and cancer-associated adipocytes (CAAs) are one of the most important components in the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer (BC). Bidirectional regulation was found between CAAs and BC cells. BC facilitates the dedifferentiation of adjacent adipocytes to form CAAs with morphological and biological changes. CAAs increase the secretion of multiple cytokines and adipokines to promote the tumorigenesis, progression, and metastasis of BC by remodeling the extracellular matrix, changing aromatase expression, and metabolic reprogramming, and shaping the tumor immune microenvironment. CAAs are also associated with the therapeutic response of BC and provide potential targets in BC therapy. The present review provides a comprehensive description of the crosstalk between CAAs and BC and discusses the potential strategies to target CAAs to overcome BC treatment resistance.

Upregulation of CCL5/RANTES Gene Expression in the Diaphragm of Mice with Cholestatic Liver Disease

Chronic liver diseases are a group of pathologies affecting the liver with high prevalence worldwide. Among them, cholestatic chronic liver diseases (CCLD) are characterized by alterations in liver function and increased plasma bile acids. Secondary to liver disease, under cholestasis, is developed sarcopenia, a skeletal muscle dysfunction with decreased muscle mass, strength, and physical function. CCL5/RANTES is a chemokine involved in the immune and inflammatory response. Indeed, CCL5 is a myokine because it is produced by skeletal muscle. Several studies show that bile acids induce CCL5/RANTES expression in liver cells. However, it is unknown if the expression of CCL5/RANTES is changed in the skeletal muscle of mice with cholestatic liver disease. We used a murine model of cholestasis-induced sarcopenia by intake of hepatotoxin 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC diet), in which we detected the mRNA levels for ccl5. We determined that mice fed the DDC diet presented high levels of serum bile acids and developed typical features of sarcopenia. Under these conditions, we detected the ccl5 gene expression in diaphragm muscle showing elevated mRNA levels compared to mice fed with a standard diet (chow diet). Our results collectively suggest an increased ccl5 gene expression in the diaphragm muscle concomitantly with elevated serum bile acids and the development of sarcopenia.

Cytokines as Potential Therapeutic Targets and their Role in the Diagnosis and Prediction of Cancers

The death rate from cancer is declining as a result of earlier identification and more advanced treatments. Nevertheless, a number of unfavourable adverse effects, including prolonged, long-lasting inflammation and reduced immune function, usually coexist with anti-cancer therapies and lead to a general decline in quality of life. Improvements in standardized comprehensive therapy and early identification of a variety of aggressive tumors remain the main objectives of cancer research. Tumor markers in those with cancer are tumor- associated proteins that are clinically significant. Even while several tumor markers are routinely used, they don't always provide reliable diagnostic information. Serum cytokines are promising markers of tumor stage, prognosis, and responsiveness to therapy. In fact, several cytokines are currently proposed as potential biomarkers in a variety of cancers. It has actually been proposed that the study of circulatory cytokines together with biomarkers that are particular to cancer can enhance and accelerate cancer diagnosis and prediction, particularly via blood samples that require minimal to the absence of invasion. The purpose of this review was to critically examine relevant primary research literature in order to elucidate the role and importance of a few identified serum cytokines as prospective therapeutic targets in oncological diseases.

SQSTM1/p62 regulate breast cancer progression and metastasis by inducing cell cycle arrest and regulating immune cell infiltration

The autophagy adaptor protein SQSTM1/p62 is overexpressed in breast cancer and has been identified as a metastasis-related protein. However, the mechanism by which SQSTM1/p62 contributes to breast cancer progression and tumor microenvironment remains unclear. This study revealed that silencing SQSTM1/p62 expression suppressed breast cancer progression via regulating cell proliferation and reshaping the tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, we found that SQSTM1/p62 was overexpressed in multiple human cancer tissue types and that was correlated with poor patient overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS). Moreover, we found that short-hairpin RNA (shRNA)-mediated knockdown of p62 expression significantly inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, and promoted cell death in vitro, as well as suppressed breast cancer growth and lung metastasis in vivo. In addition, flow cytometry analysis of splenocytes and tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) indicated that the numbers of CD8α⁺ interferon (IFN)-γ⁺ cells (CTLs) and CD4⁺IFN-γ⁺ (Th1) cells were increased while those of CD4⁺IL-4⁺ (Th2) cells, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) were decreased. RT-PCR analyses showed that the gene expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines changed in the tumor microenvironment. Silencing SQSTM1/p62 suppressed tumor cell lung metastasis. Together, our results provide strong evidence that silencing tumor cell SQSTM1/p62 inhibited tumor growth and metastasis through cell cycle arrest and TME regulation. This finding provides a novel molecular therapeutic strategy for breast cancer progression and metastasis treatment.

CCR5 as a Prognostic Factor in Lower-Grade Glioma is Involved in the Remodeling of the Tumor Microenvironment

Background: Lower-grade gliomas (LGGs) carry a high risk of malignant transformation, leading to severe neurologic deterioration and ultimately, death. The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an essential role in tumor maintenance, progression, and immunotherapy resistance. Therefore, the LGG TME deserves comprehensive exploration for a novel therapeutic target.

Methods: The ESTIMATE algorithm was used to estimate infiltrating stromal and immune cells of LGG patients obtained from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Kaplan–Meier analysis was performed to classify survival differences. TME-related differentially expressed genes were identified between the low- and high-immune/stromal groups. Hub genes were screened by constructing protein–protein interaction networks and performing the Cox regression analysis. Differential analysis, survival analysis, gene set enrichment analysis, and clinical relevance analysis specific to hub genes were evaluated by using the TCGA and the Chinese Glioma Genome Atlas datasets, and the results were validated by qRT-PCR, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry in tissues from LGG patients.

Results: The immune and stromal components in TME were negatively related to patient prognosis. Differentially expressed genes sharing immune score and stromal score were mainly involved in the immune response. C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5), as only a hub gene, was significantly higher in LGG patients than normal patients and negatively correlated with the prognosis of patients. High-expression CCR5 was positively related to immune-related and tumor progression pathways. CCR5 protein expression was higher in LGG with isocitrate dehydrogenase wildtype. Validated results showed that CCR5 was upregulated in LGG tissues at mRNA and protein levels and could affect immune cell infiltration. These results suggested that CCR5 was a potential indicator for the status of TME.

Conclusion: Glioma cells remodel the immune microenvironment through the high expression of CCR5 and lead to a poor prognosis in patients with LGG. The inhibition of CCR5 may contribute to the efficacy of LGG immunotherapy.

Role of chemokine systems in cancer and inflammatory diseases

Chemokines are a large family of small secreted proteins that have fundamental roles in organ development, normal physiology, and immune responses upon binding to their corresponding receptors. The primary functions of chemokines are to coordinate and recruit immune cells to and from tissues and to participate in regulating interactions between immune cells. In addition to the generally recognized antimicrobial immunity, the chemokine/chemokine receptor axis also exerts a tumorigenic function in many different cancer models and is involved in the formation of immunosuppressive and protective tumor microenvironment (TME), making them potential prognostic markers for various hematologic and solid tumors. In fact, apart from its vital role in tumors, almost all inflammatory diseases involve chemokines and their receptors in one way or another. Modulating the expression of chemokines and/or their corresponding receptors on tumor cells or immune cells provides the basis for the exploitation of new drugs for clinical evaluation in the treatment of related diseases. Here, we summarize recent advances of chemokine systems in protumor and antitumor immune responses and discuss the prevailing understanding of how the chemokine system operates in inflammatory diseases. In this review, we also emphatically highlight the complexity of the chemokine system and explore its potential to guide the treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

CCR5 activation and endocytosis in circulating tumor-derived cells isolated from the blood of breast cancer patients provide information about clinical outcome

Background

CCR5 is a motility chemokine receptor implicated in tumor progression, whose activation and subsequent endocytosis may identify highly aggressive breast cancer cell subtypes likely to spread into the circulatory system.

Methods

The MDA-MB-231 cell line was used to model and visualize CCR5 activation by stimulation with RANTES, in an effort to quantify CCR5 endocytosis from the cell surface to the perinuclear space. CCR5 expression was then examined in tumor-associated cells (TACs), consisting of circulating tumor cells and circulating stromal cells, isolated from the peripheral blood of 54 metastatic breast cancer (mBC) patients to evaluate these CCR5 pooling patterns as they relate to progression and survival over 2 years.

Results

In MB231 experiments, it was observed that CCR5 formed ~ 1 micron clusters identified as “CCR5 pools” on the surface of the cell, which in the presence of RANTES were endocytosed and translocated to the cell cytoplasm. When TACs from patients were analyzed, CCR5 pools were observed on the cell surface and translocating to the nuclear area, with CCR5 also having a positive statistical correlation between increased numbers of TACs and increased CCR5 pools on the cells. Further, it was determined that patients with very high numbers of CCR5 (> 10 CCR5 pools), specifically in the circulating stromal cells, were associated with worse progression-free survival (hazard ratio = 4.5, p = 0.002) and worse overall survival (hazard ratio = 3.7, p = 0.014).

Conclusions

Using a liquid biopsy approach, we evaluated two populations of tumor-associated cells emanating from primary tumors, with data suggesting that upregulation of the motility chemokine CCR5 in TACs provides clinically relevant opportunities for treating and tracking drug targetable receptors in mBC.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13058-022-01528-w.

Regulatory T cells: Their role in triple-negative breast cancer progression and metastasis

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive and immunogenic subtype of breast cancer. This tumorigenicity is independent of hormonal or HER2 pathways because of a lack of respective receptor expression. TNBC is extremely prone to drug resistance and early recurrence because of T-regulatory cell (Treg) infiltration into the tumor microenvironment (TME) in addition to other mechanisms like genomic instability. Tumor-infiltrating Tregs interact with both tumor and stromal cells as well as extracellular matrix components in the TME and induce an immune-suppressive phenotype. Hence, treatment of TNBC with conventional therapies remains challenging. Understanding the protective mechanism of Tregs in shielding TNBC from antitumor immune responses in the TME will pave the way for developing novel, immune-based therapeutics. The current review focuses on the role of tumor-infiltrating Tregs in tumor progression and metabolic reprogramming of the TME. The authors have extended their focus to oncotargeting Treg-mediated immune suppression in breast cancer. Because of its potential role in the TME, modulating Treg activity may provide a novel strategic intervention to combat TNBC. Both under laboratory conditions and in clinical trials, currently available anticancer drugs and natural therapeutics as potential agents for targeting Tregs are explored.

CCL5/CCR5 axis in human diseases and related treatments

To defense harmful stimuli or maintain the immune homeostasis, the body produces and recruits a superfamily of cytokines such as interleukins, interferons, chemokines etc. Among them, chemokines act as crucial regulators in defense systems. CCL5/CCR5 combination is known for facilitating inflammatory responses, as well as inducing the adhesion and migration of different T cell subsets in immune responses. In addition, recent studies have shown that the interaction between CCL5 and CCR5 is involved in various pathological processes including inflammation, chronic diseases, cancers as well as the infection of COVID-19. This review focuses on how CCL5/CCR5 axis participates in the pathological processes of different diseases and their relevant signaling pathways for the regulation of the axis. Moreover, we highlighted the gene therapy and chemotherapy studies for treating CCR5-related diseases, including the ongoing clinical trials. The barriers and perspectives for future application and translational research were also summarized.

PET Imaging Radiotracers of Chemokine Receptors

Chemokines and chemokine receptors have been recognized as critical signal components that maintain the physiological functions of various cells, particularly the immune cells. The signals of chemokines/chemokine receptors guide various leukocytes to respond to inflammatory reactions and infectious agents. Many chemokine receptors play supportive roles in the differentiation, proliferation, angiogenesis, and metastasis of diverse tumor cells. In addition, the signaling functions of a few chemokine receptors are associated with cardiac, pulmonary, and brain disorders. Over the years, numerous promising molecules ranging from small molecules to short peptides and antibodies have been developed to study the role of chemokine receptors in healthy states and diseased states. These drug-like candidates are in turn exploited as radiolabeled probes for the imaging of chemokine receptors using noninvasive in vivo imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET). Recent advances in the development of radiotracers for various chemokine receptors, particularly of CXCR4, CCR2, and CCR5, shed new light on chemokine-related cancer and cardiovascular research and the subsequent drug development. Here, we present the recent progress in PET radiotracer development for imaging of various chemokine receptors.

Development and validation of nomogram with tumor microenvironment-related genes and clinical factors for predicting overall survival of endometrial cancer

Background: Tumor microenvironment (TME) has attracted lots of attention with its important role in the tumor development. This study aimed to explore TME- related genes of prognostic value in patients with endometrial cancer (EC) and establish a prediction model for EC.

Methods: The RNA-Seq data and clinicopathological characteristics of 521 subjects were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified based on the immune and stromal scores, which were calculated by the ESTIMATE algorithm. Hub genes were initially screened using the Cytoscape and further selected through Cox regression. Gene correlation analysis was performed in TIMER database. A nomogram was constructed integrating prognosis-related hub genes and clinical factors and validated in the validation group. Risk stratification was performed based on the nomogram.

Results: Three TME-related hub genes (CCR5, FCER1G, and ITGB2) were found with significant prognostic value for EC patients. The expression of CCR5, FCER1G, and ITGB2 were significantly correlated with various immune cells infiltration. Based on the Cox regression, a nomogram was constructed by integrating five predictors (stage, grade, immune score, expression of FCER1G, and ITGB2), with a C-index of 0.765. Discrimination of the model was confirmed in the validation group (C-index: 0.716). The calibration curves for the 3- and 5- year survival indicated good calibration. Patients in high- and low- risk groups presented significantly different survival outcomes (P<0.001) in both discovery and validation group.

Conclusion: TME-related hub genes of prognostic value identified in our study may provide references for the mechanisms underlying EC development and the immunotherapy for EC. The prediction model may help assess the prognosis of EC patients.

Undetected Jawbone Marrow Defects as Inflammatory and Degenerative Signaling Pathways: Chemokine RANTES/CCL5 as a Possible Link Between the Jawbone and Systemic Interactions?

Background

Cytokines, especially chemokines, are of increasing interest in immunology. This study characterizes the little-known phenomenon of “bone marrow defects of the jawbone” (BMDJ) with known overexpression of the chemokine RANTES/CCL5 (R/C).

Purpose

Our investigation clarifies why BMDJ and the intensity of local R/C overexpression are challenging to detect, as examined in patients with seven different systemic immunological diseases. Specifically, we investigate whether R/C overexpression is specific to certain disease groups or if it represents a type of signal disruption found in all systemic immunological diseases.

Patients and Methods

In a total of 301 patients, BMDJ was surgically repaired during clinical practice to reduce “silent inflammation” associated with the presence of jaw-related pathologies. In each case of BMDJ, bone density was measured preoperatively (in Hounsfield units [HU]), while R/C expression was measured postoperatively. Each of the 301 patients suffered from allergies, atypical facial and trigeminal pain, or were diagnosed with neurodegenerative diseases, tumors, rheumatism, chronic fatigue syndrome, or parasympathetic disorders.

Results

In all BMDJ cases, strongly negative HU values indicated decreased bone density or osteolysis. Consistently, all cases of BMDJ showed elevated R/C expression. These findings were consistently observed in every disease group.

Discussion

BMDJ was confirmed in all patients, as verified by the HU measurements and laboratory results related to R/C expression. The hypothesis that a specific subset of the seven disease groups could be distinguished either based on the increased presence of BMDJ and by the overexpression of R/C could not be confirmed. A brief literature review confirms the importance of R/C in the etiology of each of the seven disease groups.

Conclusion

In this research, the crucial role played by BMDJ and the chemokine R/C in inflammatory and immune diseases is discussed for seven groups of patients. Each specific immune disease can be influenced or propelled by BMDJ-derived R/C inflammatory signaling pathways.

Research Trends and Regulation of CCL5 in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) is considered as the most common cancer of urologic neoplasms, and its development and prognosis are associated with many factors. Chemokine receptor signaling combine with advances in advanced clinicopathological characteristics have provided new insights into the molecular landscape of prostate cancer. Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 5 (CCL5) is an important member of the CC subfamily of chemokines. The expression of chemokine CCL5 is positively correlated with poor prognostic features in patients with PCa. Current study suggested that CCL5/CCR5 axis plays a significant role in the proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis, drug resistance of prostate cancer cells and promotes self-renewal of prostate cancer stem cells (PCSCs). Due to the major domination in CCL5 by prostate cancer and the high cancer-specific mortality with prostate cancer, research on the CCL5/CCR5 axis effective antagonists is widespread application. However, challenges for precision oncology of CCL5/CCR5 axis and effective antagonists in CRPC remain. Herein, we summarized the crucial role of CCL5 in promoting the development of PCa and discussed the antitumor application of the antagonists of CCL5/CCR5 axis.

Macrophages and Extracellular Matrix in Breast Cancer: Partners in Crime or Protective Allies?

Solid cancers such as breast tumors comprise a collection of tumor, stromal and immune cells, embedded within a network of tumor-specific extracellular matrix. This matrix is associated with tumor aggression, treatment failure, chemo- and radio-resistance, poor survival and metastasis. Recent data report an immunomodulatory role for the matrix in cancer, via the creation of niches that control the migration, localization, phenotype and function of tumor-infiltrating immune cells, ultimately contributing to escape of immune surveillance. Macrophages are crucial components of the immune infiltrate in tumors; they are associated with a poor prognosis in breast cancer and contribute to shaping the anti-tumor immune response. We and others have described how matrix molecules commonly upregulated within the tumor stroma, such as tenascin-C, fibronectin and collagen, exert a complex influence over macrophage behavior, for example restricting or enhancing their infiltration into the tumor, and driving their polarization towards or away from a pro-tumoral phenotype, and how in turn macrophages can modify matrix production in the tumor to favor tumor growth and metastasis. Targeting specific domains of matrix molecules to reinstate an efficient anti-tumor immune response, and effectively control tumor growth and spread, is emerging as a promising field offering a new angle for cancer therapy. Here, we review current knowledge on the interactions between tumor-associated macrophages and matrix molecules that occur within the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer, and discuss how these pathways can be targeted for new immunotherapies for hard to treat, desmoplastic tumors.

C-C chemokine receptor 5 signaling contributes to cardiac remodeling and dysfunction under pressure overload

Aortic stenosis (AS) leads to chronic pressure overload, cardiac remodeling and eventually heart failure. Chemokines and their receptors have been implicated in pressure overload‑induced cardiac remodeling and dysfunction. In the present study, the role of C‑C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) in pressure overload‑induced cardiac remodeling and dysfunction was investigated in mice subjected to transverse aortic constriction (TAC). Cardiac levels of CCR5 and C‑C motif chemokine ligands (CCLs)3, 4 and 5 were determined by western blotting and reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR, respectively. Cardiac functional parameters were evaluated by echocardiographic and hemodynamic measurements. Myocardial fibrosis was assessed by Masson's trichrome staining and α‑smooth muscle actin immunostaining. Myocardial hypertrophy and inflammatory cell infiltration were evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin staining. Angiotensin II (Ang II)‑induced hypertrophy of H9c2 cardiomyocytes was assessed by F‑actin immunostaining. ERK1/2 and P38 phosphorylation was examined by western blotting. TAC mice exhibited higher myocardial CCL3, CCL4, CCL5 and CCR5 levels compared with sham mice. Compared with sham mice, TAC mice also exhibited impaired cardiac function along with myocardial hypertrophy, fibrosis and inflammatory cell infiltration. TAC‑induced cardiac remodeling and dysfunction were effectively ameliorated by administration of anti‑CCR5 but not by IgG control antibody. Mechanistically, increased ERK1/2 and P38 phosphorylation was detected in TAC hearts and Ang II‑stimulated H9c2 cardiomyocytes. Treatment with anti‑CCR5 antibody decreased ERK1/2 and P38 phosphorylation and attenuated Ang II‑induced H9c2 cell hypertrophy. CCR5 inhibition protected against pressure overload‑induced cardiac abnormality. The findings of the present study indicate that ERK1/2 and P38 signaling pathways may be involved in the cardioprotective effects of CCR5 inhibition.

Arenavirus Induced CCL5 Expression Causes NK Cell-Mediated Melanoma Regression

Immune activation within the tumor microenvironment is one promising approach to induce tumor regression. Certain viruses including oncolytic viruses such as the herpes simplex virus (HSV) and non-oncolytic viruses such as the lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) are potent tools to induce tumor-specific immune activation. However, not all tumor types respond to viro- and/or immunotherapy and mechanisms accounting for such differences remain to be defined. In our current investigation, we used the non-cytopathic LCMV in different human melanoma models and found that melanoma cell lines produced high levels of CCL5 in response to immunotherapy. In vivo, robust CCL5 production in LCMV infected Ma-Mel-86a tumor bearing mice led to recruitment of NK cells and fast tumor regression. Lack of NK cells or CCL5 abolished the anti-tumoral effects of immunotherapy. In conclusion, we identified CCL5 and NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity as new factors influencing melanoma regression during virotherapy.

Hypoxia Alters the Expression of CC Chemokines and CC Chemokine Receptors in a Tumor-A Literature Review

Hypoxia, i.e., oxygen deficiency condition, is one of the most important factors promoting the growth of tumors. Since its effect on the chemokine system is crucial in understanding the changes in the recruitment of cells to a tumor niche, in this review we have gathered all the available data about the impact of hypoxia on β chemokines. In the introduction, we present the chronic (continuous, non-interrupted) and cycling (intermittent, transient) hypoxia together with the mechanisms of activation of hypoxia inducible factors (HIF-1 and HIF-2) and NF-κB. Then we describe the effect of hypoxia on the expression of chemokines with the CC motif: CCL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL7, CCL8, CCL11, CCL13, CCL15, CCL16, CCL17, CCL18, CCL19, CCL20, CCL21, CCL22, CCL24, CCL25, CCL26, CCL27, CCL28 together with CC chemokine receptors: CCR1, CCR2, CCR3, CCR4, CCR5, CCR6, CCR7, CCR8, CCR9, and CCR10. To better understand the effect of hypoxia on neoplastic processes and changes in the expression of the described proteins, we summarize the available data in a table which shows the effect of individual chemokines on angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and recruitment of eosinophils, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), regulatory T cells (T_reg), and tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) to a tumor niche.

CCR5-Mediated Signaling Is Involved in Invasion of Glioblastoma Cells in Its Microenvironment

The chemokine CCL5/RANTES is a versatile inflammatory mediator, which interacts with the receptor CCR5, promoting cancer cell interactions within the tumor microenvironment. Glioblastoma is a highly invasive tumor, in which CCL5 expression correlates with shorter patient survival. Using immunohistochemistry, we identified CCL5 and CCR5 in a series of glioblastoma samples and cells, including glioblastoma stem cells. CCL5 and CCR5 gene expression were significantly higher in a cohort of 38 glioblastoma samples, compared to low-grade glioma and non-cancerous tissues. The in vitro invasion of patients-derived primary glioblastoma cells and glioblastoma stem cells was dependent on CCL5-induced CCR5 signaling and is strongly inhibited by the small molecule CCR5 antagonist maraviroc. Invasion of these cells, which was enhanced when co-cultured with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), was inhibited by maraviroc, suggesting that MSCs release CCR5 ligands. In support of this model, we detected CCL5 and CCR5 in MSC monocultures and glioblastoma-associated MSC in tissue sections. We also found CCR5 expressing macrophages were in close proximity to glioblastoma cells. In conclusion, autocrine and paracrine cross-talk in glioblastoma and, in particular, glioblastoma stem cells with its stromal microenvironment, involves CCR5 and CCL5, contributing to glioblastoma invasion, suggesting the CCL5/CCR5 axis as a potential therapeutic target that can be targeted with repositioned drug maraviroc.

Biological and Clinical Significance of the CCR5/CCL5 Axis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Despite the improvement in survival for patients with liver cancer (LCa) in recent decades, only one in five patients survive for 5 years after diagnosis. Thus, there is an urgent need to find new treatment options to improve patient survival. For various cancers, including LCa, the chemokine CCL5 (RANTES) facilitates tumor progression and metastasis. Since the function of the CCR5/CCL5 interaction in LCa cell proliferation and migration is poorly understood, the present study was undertaken to investigate the role of the CCR5/CCL5 axis in these processes. Flow cytometry, RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence techniques were used to quantify the expression of CCR5 and CCL5 in LCa cells. To determine the biological significance of CCR5 expressed by LCa cell lines, a tissue microarray of LCas stained for CCR5 and CCL5 was analyzed. The results showed higher expression (p < 0.001) of CCR5 and CCL5 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissues compared to non-neoplastic liver tissues. Furthermore, to delineate the role of the CCR5/CCL5 interaction in LCa cell proliferation and migration, various LCa cells were treated with maraviroc, a CCR5 antagonist, in the presence of CCL5. These data demonstrated the biological and clinical significance of the CCR5/CCL5 axis in LCa progression. The targeting of this axis is a promising avenue for the treatment of LCa.

CCR5 and CCR5Δ32 in bacterial and parasitic infections: Thinking chemokine receptors outside the HIV box

The CCR5 molecule was reported in 1996 as the main HIV-1 co-receptor. In that same year, the CCR5Δ32 genetic variant was described as a strong protective factor against HIV-1 infection. These findings led to extensive research regarding the CCR5, culminating in critical scientific advances, such as the development of CCR5 inhibitors for the treatment of HIV infection. Recently, the research landscape surrounding CCR5 has begun to change. Different research groups have realized that, since CCR5 has such important effects in the chemokine system, it could also affect other different physiological systems. Therefore, the effect of reduced CCR5 expression due to the presence of the CCR5Δ32 variant began to be further studied. Several studies have investigated the role of CCR5 and the impacts of CCR5Δ32 on autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, various types of cancer, and viral diseases. However, the role of CCR5 in diseases caused by bacteria and parasites is still poorly understood. Therefore, the aim of this article is to review the role of CCR5 and the effects of CCR5Δ32 on bacterial (brucellosis, osteomyelitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis and infection by Chlamydia trachomatis) and parasitic infections (toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease and schistosomiasis). Basic information about each of these infections was also addressed. The neglected role of CCR5 in fungal disease and emerging studies regarding the action of CCR5 on regulatory T cells are briefly covered in this review. Considering the "renaissance of CCR5 research," this article is useful for updating researchers who develop studies involving CCR5 and CCR5Δ32 in different infectious diseases.

Engineered scPDL1-DM1 drug conjugate with improved in vitro analysis to target PD-L1 positive cancer cells and intracellular trafficking studies in cancer therapy

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADC), precisely deliver a cytotoxic agent to antigen-expressing tumor cells by using specific binding strategies of antibodies. The ADC has shown the ability of potent bio-therapeutics development but indefinite stoichiometric linkage and full-length antibody penetration compromised the field of its advancement. Single chain variable fragments convention instead of the full-length antibody may overcome the challenge of rapid penetration and internalization. Programmed cell death ligand-1 interaction with PD-1 has recently revolutionized the field of immunotherapy. We systematically designed scPDL1-DM1 drug conjugate by linking scFv-PD-L1 proteins (scFv) with maytansinoids (DM1) cytotoxic agent through succinimidyl trans-4-maleimidylmethyl cyclohexane-1- carboxylate (SMCC) linker. Binding affinity was confirmed by immunocytochemistry, spectrophotometry and gel electrophoresis analysis. The scPDL1-DM1 showed specific binding with PD-L1 positive tumor cells and retained in vitro anti-cell proliferation activity. The intracellular trafficking of the drug was evaluated in A549 cancer cell lines, and maximum trafficking was observed after two hours of incubation. The generated drug can be utilized as a potent tool for site-specific conjugation, predicting specificity in vitro activities with extended range against PD-L1 positive cancer cells and can be utilized for further in vivo testing and clinical therapeutics development.

The G protein coupled receptor CCR5 in cancer

The G coupled protein receptor CC chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) has the unusual characteristic in humans of being a developmentally non-essential gene that participates in several pathological processes including infection with HIV (Dean et al., 1996; Gupta et al., 2019; Samson et al., 1996), progression of stroke (Joy et al., 2019), osteoporosis (Xie et al., 2019) and the metastasis of cancer (Jiao et al., 2018; Velasco-Velazquez et al., 2012, 2014) (Reviewed in: Jiao, Nawab, et al., 2019; Jiao, Wang, & Pestell, 2019). The importance of CCR5 in HIV led to recent genetic engineering of humans to recreate a non-functional CCR5 gene. Thus, although the application of gene-editing tools, to manipulate human embryos is prohibited in the United States, and China. at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing in Hong Kong (http://www.nationalacademies.org/), it was claimed that CRISPR-Cas9 systems had been used to edit the CCR5 gene in twin baby girls. The importance of CCR5 in stroke has led to clinical trials using maraviroc (NCT03172026). The key function of CCR5 in cancer metastasis and homing (Jiao et al., 2018; Jiao, Nawab, et al., 2019; Velasco-Velazquez et al., 2012, 2014) has led to three active clinical trials for metastatic cancer using CCR5 antagonists (Jiao, Nawab, et al., 2019; Jiao, Wang, & Pestell, 2019). Thus, it was surprising to find that the all-cause mortality rate in individuals who are homozygous for the CCR5△32 allele in the United Kingdom normal population was increased >20% increase, with an almost 2 year reduction overall lifespan (Wei & Nielsen, 2019). The current review herein discusses the distinct functions of CCR5 in human disease and potential avenues for further research.

Association of Chemokine (C-C Motif) Receptor 5 and Ligand 5 with Recovery from Major Depressive Disorder and Related Neurocognitive Impairment

INTRODUCTION

Inflammatory processes play an important role in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD), but their relevance for specific symptoms such as neurocognitive impairment is rarely investigated.

METHODS

In this observational study, we investigated the changes of leukocyte chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 5 (CCR5) and ligand 5 (CCL5) mRNA levels and inflammatory cytokines in 60 MDD patients before (PRE) and after 5 weeks (W5) of antidepressive treatment in relation to therapy response and alterations in cognitive functions by means of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB). We hypothesized that elevated CCR5 and CCL5 levels in depressed patients would decrease upon treatment and could differ with regard to cognitive impairment associated with MDD.

RESULTS

Both CCR5 and CCL5 levels were significantly decreased in the responder group compared to nonresponders even before treatment. The cytokine IL-6 as a marker of inflammation in depression did not show a difference before treatment in future responders versus nonresponders, but decreased significantly upon antidepressive therapy. Regarding neurocognitive impairment in MDD patients, an increased misperception of the emotion "anger" after 5 weeks of treatment proved to be associated with a more pronounced change in CCR5, and the perception of the emotion "disgust" became faster along with a stronger decrease in CCL5 over the same time. Executive functions typically impaired in MDD patients were not markedly associated with alterations in CCR5/CCL5.

DISCUSSION

CCR5 and CCL5 are important in the targeting of immune cells by HIV. This is the first study providing valuable hints that both CCR5 and CCL5 might also serve as markers of therapy response prediction in MDD. Regarding neurocognitive impairment in depression, CCR5 and CCL5 did not reveal characteristic changes upon MDD treatment such as executive functions, which are probably delayed. However, changes of emotional perception appear to be an earlier responding feature.

1,3-Dicaffeoylquinic acid targeting 14-3-3 tau suppresses human breast cancer cell proliferation and metastasis through IL6/JAK2/PI3K pathway

14-3-3τ plays a critical role in tumorigenesis and metastasis of breast cancer and can be used as new drug target protein. Dicaffeoylquinic acids (DCQAs), natural products, have antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, the anticancer effects of DCQAs on breast cancer cells MCF-7, MDA-MB-231 cell lines and mechanism in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) were investigated. First, we screened for DCQAs that could bind to 14-3-3τ and had a significant inhibitory effect on breast cancer cells. MTT, colony formation, transwell migration, and flow cytometric assays revealed that 1,3-DCQA was the best one of 14-3-3τ binding protein from DCQAs against breast cancer cell proliferation and metastasis but safe for normal cells. Through molecular docking simulation, overexpression and knockdown assays, we confirmed that 14-3-3τ was one of 1,3-DCQA target protein. Eukaryotic transcriptome sequencing and western blot analysis demonstrated that 1,3-DCQA binds to 14-3-3τ to prevent breast cancer proliferation and metastasis via Jak/PI3K/Akt and Raf/ERK pathway, which promote IL6 and CSF3 expression raised by CREB (CREBBP, CREB5) and induced cell apoptosis via Bad/Bax/caspase 9 signaling pathway. Our results provided evidence that 1,3-DCQA can be used as a novel lead compound against breast cancer by inhibition of 14-3-3 protein.

Identification of differentially expressed lncRNAs and mRNAs in luminal-B breast cancer by RNA-sequencing

Background

Luminal B cancers show much worse outcomes compared to luminal A. This present study aims to screen key lncRNAs and mRNAs correlated with luminal-B breast cancer.

Methods

Luminal-B breast cancer tissue samples and adjacent tissue samples were obtained from 4 patients with luminal-B breast cancer. To obtain differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs) and lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) between luminal-B breast cancer tumor tissues and adjacent tissues, RNA-sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were performed. Functional annotation of DEmRNAs and protein-protein interaction networks (PPI) construction were performed. DEmRNAs transcribed within a 100 kb window up- or down-stream of DElncRNAs were searched, which were defined as cis nearby-targeted DEmRNAs of DElncRNAs. DElncRNA-DEmRNA co-expression networks were performed. The mRNA and lncRNA expression profiles were downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database to validate the expression patterns of selected DEmRNAs and DElncRNAs.

Results

A total of 1178 DEmRNAs and 273 DElncRNAs between luminal-B breast cancer tumor tissues and adjacent tissues were obtained. Hematopoietic cell lineage, Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) and Primary immunodeficiency were significantly enriched KEGG pathways in luminal-B breast cancer. FN1, EGFR, JAK3, TUBB3 and PTPRC were five hub proteins of the PPI networks. A total of 99 DElncRNAs-nearby-targeted DEmRNA pairs and 1878 DElncRNA-DEmRNA co-expression pairs were obtained. Gene expression results validated in TCGA database were consistent with our RNA-sequencing results, generally.

Conclusion

This study determined key genes and lncRNAs involved in luminal-B breast cancer, which expected to present a new avenue for the diagnosis and treatment of luminal-B breast cancer.

A functional interaction between the CCR5 and CD34 molecules expressed in hematopoietic cells can support (or even promote) the development of cancer

Inflammation and angiogenesis are linked to the development of cancer since both can support the establishment of a tumor-prone microenvironment. The CCR5 is a major regulatory molecule involved in inflammation. The CD34 molecule is commonly described as a hematopoietic stem cell marker, and CD34⁺ cells are involved in the regulation of distinct physiological processes, including angiogenesis. CCR5 participates in the development of various types of cancer, and recently, a reduced CCR5 expression was associated with low CD34⁺ cell counts in human cord blood. A naturally occurring genetic variant of the CCR5 gene, the so-called CCR5Δ32 polymorphism, consists of a 32 base-pair deletion in the DNA, interfering in the CCR5 protein levels on the cell surface. When in homozygosis, this variant leads to a total absence of CCR5 expression on the cell surface. In heterozygous individuals, CCR5 surface levels are reduced. Based on these key findings, we hypothesize that a functional interaction can connect CCR5 and CD34 molecules (giving rise to a “CCR5-CD34 axis”). According to this, a CCR5-CD34 interaction can potentially support the development of different types of cancer. Consequently, the lack of CCR5 in association with reduced CD34⁺ cell counts could indicate a protective factor against the development of cancer. It is required to characterize in detail the functional relationship between CCR5 and CD34 proteins, as well as the real influence of both molecules on the susceptibility and development of cancer at population level. If our hypothesis is confirmed, the CCR5-CD34 axis may be a potential target in the development of anti-cancer therapies.

Cytokine CCL5 and receptor CCR5 axis in glioblastoma multiforme

Background

Glioblastoma is the most frequent and aggressive brain tumour in humans with median survival from 12 to 15 months after the diagnosis. This is mostly due to therapy resistant glioblastoma stem cells in addition to intertumour heterogeneity that is due to infiltration of a plethora of host cells. Besides endothelial cells, mesenchymal stem cells and their differentiated progenies, immune cells of various differentiation states, including monocytes, comprise resident, brain tumour microenvironment. There are compelling evidence for CCL5/CCR5 in the invasive and metastatic behaviour of many cancer types. CCR5, a G-protein coupled receptor, known to function as an essential co-receptor for HIV entry, is now known to participate in driving tumour heterogeneity, the formation of cancer stem cells and the promotion of cancer invasion and metastasis. Clinical trials have recently opened targeting CCR5 using a humanized monoclonal antibody (leronlimab) for metastatic triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) or a small molecule inhibitor (maraviroc) for metastatic colon cancer. There are important CCL5 and CCR5 structure and signalling mechanisms in glioblastoma. In addition, the CCL5/CCR5 axis directs infiltration and interactions with monocytes/macrophages and mesenchymal stem cells, comprising glioblastoma stem cell niches.

Conclusions

CCR5 is highly expressed in glioblastoma and is associated with poor prognosis of patients. CCL5/CCR5 is suggested to be an excellent new target for glioblastoma therapy. The molecular mechanisms, by which chemoattractant and receptor respond within the complex tissue microenvironment to promote cancer stem cells and tumour heterogeneity, should be considered in forthcoming studies.

T Regulatory Cells and Priming the Suppressive Tumor Microenvironment

Treg play a central role in maintenance of self tolerance and homeostasis through suppression of self-reactive T cell populations. In addition to that role, Treg also survey cancers and suppress anti-tumor immune responses. Thus, understanding the unique attributes of Treg-tumor interactions may permit control of this pathologic suppression without interfering with homeostatic self-tolerance. This review will define the unique role of Treg in cancer growth, and the ways by which Treg inhibit a robust anti-tumor immune response. There will be specific focus placed on Treg homing to the tumor microenvironment (TME), TME formation of induced Treg (iTreg), mechanisms of suppression that underpin cancer immune escape, and trophic nonimmunologic effects of Treg on tumor cells.

Recent Advances Targeting CCR5 for Cancer and Its Role in Immuno-Oncology

Experiments of nature have revealed the peculiar importance of the G-protein-coupled receptor, C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5), in human disease since ancient times. The resurgence of interest in heterotypic signals in the onset and progression of tumorigenesis has led to the current focus on CCR5 as an exciting new therapeutic target for metastatic cancer with clinical trials now targeting breast and colon cancer. The eutopic expression of CCR5 activates calcium signaling and thereby augments regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation and migration to sites of inflammation. The misexpression of CCR5 in epithelial cells, induced upon oncogenic transformation, hijacks this migratory phenotype. CCR5 reexpression augments resistance to DNA-damaging agents and is sufficient to induce cancer metastasis and "stemness". Recent studies suggest important cross-talk between CCR5 signaling and immune checkpoint function. Because CCR5 on Tregs serves as the coreceptor for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) entry, CCR5-targeted therapeutics used in HIV, [small molecules (maraviroc and vicriviroc) and a humanized mAb (leronlimab)], are now being repositioned in clinical trials as cancer therapeutics. As CCR5 is expressed on a broad array of tumors, the opportunity for therapeutic repositioning and the rationale for combination therapy approaches are reviewed herein.

The Diagnostic Significance of PDGF, EphA7, CCR5, and CCL5 Levels in Colorectal Cancer

In this study, we compared the levels of C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5), C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), and EphrinA7 (EphA7) in patients with colorectal carcinoma and healthy controls in order to investigate the significance and usability of these potential biomarkers in early diagnosis of colorectal cancer. The study included 70 colorectal carcinoma patients and 40 healthy individuals. The CCR5, CCL5, PDGF, and EphA7 levels were measured using ELISA in blood samples. PDGF-BB, EphA7, CCR5, and CCL5 levels of the patients with colorectal carcinoma were significantly higher compared to the control group (p < 0.001 for each comparison). Our logistic regression analysis (the area under the curve was 0.958) supports the notion that PDGF-BB, EphA7, and CCL5 are potential biomarkers for the diagnosis of colon cancer. The sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values were found to be 87.9%, 87.5%, 92.1%, and 81.4%, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first study that investigates the relationship between colorectal carcinoma and the four biomarkers CCL5, CCR5, PDGF, and EphA7. The significantly elevated levels of all these parameters in the patient group compared to the healthy controls indicate that they can be used for the early diagnosis of colorectal carcinoma.

Physical Activity Plus Energy Restriction Prevents 4T1.2 Mammary Tumor Progression, MDSC Accumulation, and an Immunosuppressive Tumor Microenvironment

Physical activity and the prevention of weight gain decrease breast cancer incidence and improve survival. Unraveling the biological mechanisms underlying these cancer prevention effects is difficult because activity and dietary restriction are often linked. The goal of this study was to determine whether physical activity (PA), preventing weight gain via energy restriction (ER), or the combination was most effective in delaying tumor growth, reducing metastatic progression, and improving survival in the 4T1.2 mammary tumor model. Furthermore, we determined whether any of these interventions prevented the expansion of protumor immunosuppressive cells and altered the tumor microenvironment (TME). Female BALB/c mice (n = 7-20/group) were randomized to sedentary (SED) or PA wheel cages and fed ad libitum (AL) or 90% of control food intake (ER). After 8 weeks on the interventions, mice were inoculated with 5 × 10⁴ 4T1.2^luc cells into the 4th mammary fat pad and continued on their respective intervention. PA+ER significantly delayed primary tumor growth (final tumor volume, 0.193 ± 0.042 vs. 0.369 ± 0.049 cm³, P < 0.001), reduced metastatic burden in the lungs (0.72 ± 0.36 vs. 16.27 ± 6.98, P = 0.054) and increased survival (median survival, 68 vs 40 days, P = 0.043) compared with SED+AL mice. PA+ER also reduced the expression level of metastatic and immunosuppressive genes and resulted in favorable changes in immune cell infiltrates in the tumor. These data suggest that both PA and ER are needed to reduce tumor growth, delay metastatic progression, and improve survival, and that this protection is associated with changes in immune-mediated mechanisms.

Low-Dose Maraviroc, an Antiretroviral Drug, Attenuates the Infiltration of T Cells into the Central Nervous System and Protects the Nigrostriatum in Hemiparkinsonian Monkeys

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder in humans. Despite intense investigation, no effective therapy is available to stop the progression of this disease. It is becoming clear that both innate and adaptive immune responses are active in PD. Accordingly, we have reported a marked increase in RANTES and eotaxin, chemokines that are involved in T cell trafficking, in vivo in the substantia nigra (SN) and the serum of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-intoxicated hemiparkinsonian monkeys. Because RANTES and eotaxin share a common receptor, CCR5, we examined the efficacy of maraviroc, an inhibitor of CCR5 and a Food and Drug Administration-approved drug against HIV infection, in hemiparkinsonian rhesus monkeys. First, we found glial limitans injury, loss of GFAP immunostaining, and infiltration of T cells across the endothelial monolayer in SN of hemiparkinsonian monkeys. However, oral administration of a low dose of maraviroc protected glia limitans partially, maintained the integrity of endothelial monolayer, reduced the infiltration of T cells, attenuated neuroinflammation, and decreased α-synucleinopathy in the SN. Accordingly, maraviroc treatment also protected both the nigrostriatal axis and neurotransmitters and improved motor functions in hemiparkinsonian monkeys. These results suggest that low-dose maraviroc and other CCR5 antagonists may be helpful for PD patients.

Cooperation between Constitutive and Inducible Chemokines Enables T Cell Engraftment and Immune Attack in Solid Tumors

We investigated the role of chemokines in regulating T cell accumulation in solid tumors. CCL5 and CXCL9 overexpression was associated with CD8⁺ T cell infiltration in solid tumors. T cell infiltration required tumor cell-derived CCL5 and was amplified by IFN-γ-inducible, myeloid cell-secreted CXCL9. CCL5 and CXCL9 coexpression revealed immunoreactive tumors with prolonged survival and response to checkpoint blockade. Loss of CCL5 expression in human tumors was associated with epigenetic silencing through DNA methylation. Reduction of CCL5 expression caused tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) desertification, whereas forced CCL5 expression prevented Cxcl9 expression and TILs loss, and attenuated tumor growth in mice through IFN-γ. The cooperation between tumor-derived CCL5 and IFN-γ-inducible CXCR3 ligands secreted by myeloid cells is key for orchestrating T cell infiltration in immunoreactive and immunoresponsive tumors.

Efficient development and expression of scFv recombinant proteins against PD-L1 surface domain and potency in cancer therapy

PD-L1 is a 40 kDa trans-membrane protein of B7 family and an important T cell regulator. Binding of PD-L1 and PD-1 inhibits proliferation and activation of T cell results cell exhaustion. This phenomenon can be reversed by blocking PD-L1/PD-1 interactions with single chain variables fragment (scFv) fusion proteins and by direct inhibition of tumor cells with drug conjugates. The human phage-displayed scFv library was utilized to generate scFv against the PD-L1 antigen by affinity bio-panning. The positive clones were selected by continuous transfection of bacterial cells and sequence analysis. The binding affinity and specificity of the scFv and antibody fragments were determined by using surface plasmon resonance biosensor, western blot analysis, and immunofluorescence assay. After three rounds of panning selection, about 30% of clones have a binding affinity with targeted PD-L1 antigen. Eight positive clones with accurate sequences were isolated and analyzed for binding affinity with PD-L1 antigen. Three of those with accurate sequences and binding affinity were selected for the recombinant formation and soluble expression by Escherichia coli host machinery. The highly positive recombinant clones with the exact orientation of FR and CDR domains were developed and can be used as a drug carrier tools in ADC formation or direct inhibition of immune checkpoint in cancer immunotherapy. The conjugate achieved its initial potency and need efficient improvement to enhance direct tumor suppression and bio-therapeutics strategies enrichment.

Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors: New Targets for Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a clinically validated treatment for many cancers to boost the immune system against tumor growth and dissemination. Several strategies are used to harness immune cells: monoclonal antibodies against tumor antigens, immune checkpoint inhibitors, vaccination, adoptive cell therapies (e.g., CAR-T cells) and cytokine administration. In the last decades, it is emerging that the chemokine system represents a potential target for immunotherapy. Chemokines, a large family of cytokines with chemotactic activity, and their cognate receptors are expressed by both cancer and stromal cells. Their altered expression in malignancies dictates leukocyte recruitment and activation, angiogenesis, cancer cell proliferation, and metastasis in all the stages of the disease. Here, we review first attempts to inhibit the chemokine system in cancer as a monotherapy or in combination with canonical or immuno-mediated therapies. We also provide recent findings about the role in cancer of atypical chemokine receptors that could become future targets for immunotherapy.

CCR5 blockage by maraviroc: a potential therapeutic option for metastatic breast cancer

PURPOSE

Bone metastasis is observed in up to 70% of breast cancer patients. The currently available treatment options are palliative in nature. Chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) has gained attention as therapeutic target in various malignancies. Here, we investigated the effects of targeting CCR5 by its antagonist maraviroc in metastatic breast cancer cells.

METHODS

In response to maraviroc exposure, cytotoxicity was assessed using an MTT proliferation assay, whereas the effects on colony formation and migration were assessed using colony formation, transwell chamber migration and scratch wound healing assays, respectively. Apoptosis-related activities were investigated using nuclear staining, annexin-V FITC staining and Western blotting. Cell cycle changes were analysed using flow cytometry and qRT-PCR for cell cycle relevant genes. A nude rat model for breast cancer bone metastasis was used to evaluate the in vivo efficacy of CCR5 targeting by maraviroc. Circulatory levels of the three cognate ligands for CCR5 (CCL3, CCL4, CCL5) were analysed in sera of breast cancer patients using ELISA.

RESULTS

We found that blockade of CCR5 attenuated the proliferation, colony formation and migration of metastatic breast cancer cells, and induced apoptosis and arrest in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Expression profiling highlighted the involvement of cell cycle related signalling cascades. We also found that treatment with maraviroc significantly inhibited bone metastasis in nude rats implanted with MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Finally, we found that the circulatory levels of three cognate ligands for the CCR5 receptor varied between breast cancer patients and healthy controls.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that targeting CCR5 may be an effective strategy to combat breast cancer bone metastasis.

High expression of CCR5 in melanoma enhances epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis via TGFβ1

Chemokine receptors are highly expressed in various cancers and play crucial roles in tumor progression. However, their expression patterns and functions in melanoma are unclear. The present study aimed to identify the chemokine receptors that play critical roles in melanoma progression and unravel the underlying molecular mechanisms. We found that CCR5 was more abundant in melanoma cells than normal cells and was positively associated with tumor malignancy in clinical patients. Animal experiments suggested that CCR5 deficiency in B16/F10 or A375 cells suppressed primary tumor growth and lung metastasis, whereas CCR5 overexpression in B16/F0 cells enhanced primary tumor growth and lung metastasis. CCR5 played a critical role in proliferation and migration of melanoma cells in vitro. Importantly, CCR5 was required for maintenance of the mesenchymal phenotype of metastatic melanoma cells. Mechanistically, CCR5 positively regulated expression of TGFβ1, which in turn induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition and migration via PI3K/AKT/GSK3β signaling. Collectively, our results establish a critical role of CCR5 expressed by melanoma cells in cancer progression and reveal the novel mechanisms controlling this process, which suggests the prognostic value of CCR5 in melanoma patients and provides novel insights into CCR5-targeted strategies for melanoma treatment. Copyright © 2018 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.