Estradiol-ERβ2 signaling axis confers growth and migration of CRPC cells through TMPRSS2-ETV5 gene fusion

Estrogenic Activity of Derris scandens Stem Extract and its Major Compounds Using MCF-7 Cell Proliferation Assay and Estrogen-Related Gene Expression

Derris scandens, which contains isoflavones and prenylated derivatives, has analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties and is an ingredient in traditional Thai medicine for perimenopause and menopause. However, the estrogenic activity of D. scandens has not yet been explored. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the estrogenic activity of the stem extract of D. scandens and its isoflavone derivatives. In this study, we conducted a proliferation assay in MCF-7 cells, and used quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction to assess gene expression. We found that the relative cell proliferation of the compounds (1 µM) was ranked in the following order as compared to 0.1 nM 17β-estradiol (100%): genistein (97.84%) > derrisisoflavone A (83.17%) > genistein-7-O-[α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-glucopyranoside] (69.55%) > 6,8-diprenylgenistein (51.91%) > lupalbigenin (18.72%). Furthermore, cotreatment with 1 µM lupalbigenin and 0.1 nM 17β-estradiol was performed, which decreased cell proliferation to 80.38%. In vitro results suggest that lupalbigenin has an estrogen-antagonistic effect. At a dose of 1 µM, genistein had the strongest efficacy in increasing the expression of human estrogen receptor β by 4.0-fold compared to the control. Furthermore, genistein-7-O-[α-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 6)]-β-glucopyranoside augmented the gene expression of human estrogen receptor α and human estrogen receptor β by 1.5- and 3.4-fold, respectively. Prenylated derivatives of genistein (derrisisoflavone A, 6,8-diprenylgenistein, and lupalbigenin) significantly suppressed the gene expression of the human androgen receptor. The administration of the crude extract at 10 µg/mL significantly suppressed human androgen receptor (0.6-fold) and transmembrane protease serine 2 (0.1-fold) expression but did not significantly affect human estrogen receptor α and human estrogen receptor β gene expression. This herbal medicine may be safe for estrogen-exposed breast cancer patients.

ETV5 facilitates tumor progression in head-neck squamous cell carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

E26 transformation-specific (ETS) factors have emerged as key mediators underlying human tumorigenesis. Here, we sought to characterize the expression pattern, biological roles, and clinical significance of ETS Variant Transcription Factor 5 (ETV5) in head neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC).

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

ETV5 expression pattern in HNSCC was determined by bioinformatics interrogations and immunohistochemical staining in primary samples. The associations between its abundance with clinicopathological parameters, and patient survival were evaluated. Colony formation, CCK-8, flow cytometry, wound healing, and Transwell invasion assays, as well as xenograft models, were utilized to determine the phenotypic changes after ETV5 silencing in vitro and vivo. The potential binding of ETV5 in the Slug promoter was determined by ChIP-qPCR.

RESULTS

ETV5 was significantly overexpressed in HNSCC samples. Its overexpression is significantly associated with aggressiveness features and reduced survival. ETV5 knockdown significantly inhibited cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and induced apoptosis in vitro, and impaired tumor growth in vivo. Moreover, ETV5-activated Slug transcription by binding its promoter region in HNSCC cells. Patients with ETV5highSlughigh had the worst survival across multiple HNSCC cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reveal that ETV5 serves as a novel prognostic biomarker and putative oncogene for HNSCC progression likely by activating Slug transcription.

Anastrozole Protects against Human Coronavirus Infection by Ameliorating the Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Inflammatory Response

The common human coronavirus (HCoV) exhibits mild disease with upper respiratory infection and common cold symptoms. HCoV-OC43, one of the HCoVs, can be used to screen drug candidates against SARS-CoV-2. We determined the antiviral effects of FDA/EMA-approved drug anastrozole (AZ) on two human coronaviruses, HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E, using MRC-5 cells in vitro. The AZ exhibited antiviral effects against HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E infection. Subsequent studies focused on HCoV-OC43, which is related to the SARS-CoV-2 family. AZ exhibited anti-viral effects and reduced the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β. It also inhibited NF-κB translocation to effectively suppress the inflammatory response. AZ reduced intracellular calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, including mitochondrial ROS and Ca2+, induced by the virus. AZ inhibited the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components and cleaved IL-1β, suggesting that it blocks NLRP3 inflammasome activation in HCoV-OC43-infected cells. Moreover, AZ enhanced cell viability and reduced the expression of cleaved gasdermin D (GSDMD), a marker of pyroptosis. Overall, we demonstrated that AZ exhibits antiviral activity against HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E. We specifically focused on its efficacy against HCoV-OC43 and showed its potential to reduce inflammation, inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation, mitigate mitochondrial dysfunction, and suppress pyroptosis in infected cells.

ETV1 Positively Correlated With Immune Infiltration and Poor Clinical Prognosis in Colorectal Cancer

Objective

Numerous studies recently suggested that the immune microenvironment could influence the development of colorectal cancer (CRC). These findings implied that the infiltration of immune cells could be a promising prognostic biomarker for CRC.

Methods

Furthermore, the Oncomine database and R2 platform analysis were applied in our research to validate CRC clinical prognosis via expression levels of polyoma enhancer activator 3 (PEA3) members. We explored the correlation of ETV1, ETV4, and ETV5 with tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TIICs) in CRC tumor microenvironments via the Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER) and Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA). Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was used to validate our CRC clinical data.

Results

Our findings indicated that the upregulation of PEA3 members including ETV1 and ETV5 was positively associated with poor prognosis in CRC patients. Meanwhile, ETV1 and ETV5 may play significant roles in the development progress of CRC. Furthermore, ETV1 tends to be associated with immune infiltration of CRC, especially with cancer-associated fibroblasts and M2 macrophages.

Conclusion

These findings revealed that ETV1 and ETV5 played significant roles in the development of CRC. Moreover, ETV1 was significantly associated with the infiltration of cancer-associated fibroblasts and M2 macrophages in CRC. Targeting ETV1 can be a potential auspicious approach for CRC treatment.

Basic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 infection. What endocrine systems could be implicated?

Although SARS-CoV-2 viral attacks starts by the interaction of spike protein (S Protein) to ACE2 receptor located at the cell surface of respiratory tract and digestive system cells, different endocrine targets, endocrine organs and metabolic conditions are of fundamental relevance for understanding disease progression and special outcomes, in particular those of fatal consequences for the patient. During pandemic, moreover, a specific phenotype of COVID-19 metabolic patient has been described, characterized by being at particular risk of worse outcomes. In the present paper we describe the mechanism of viral interaction with endocrine organs, emphasizing the specific endocrine molecules of particular relevance explaining COVID-19 disease evolution and outcomes.

Drug Repurposing for the Identification of Compounds with Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Capability via Multiple Targets

Since 2019, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been rapidly spreading worldwide, causing hundreds of millions of infections. Despite the development of vaccines, insufficient protection remains a concern. Therefore, the screening of drugs for the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is reasonable and necessary. This study utilized bioinformatics for the selection of compounds approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration with therapeutic potential in this setting. In addition, the inhibitory effect of these compounds on the enzyme activity of transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), papain-like protease (PLpro), and 3C-like protease (3CLpro) was evaluated. Furthermore, the capability of compounds to attach to the spike-receptor-binding domain (RBD) was considered an important factor in the present assessment. Finally, the antiviral potency of compounds was validated using a plaque reduction assay. Our funnel strategy revealed that tamoxifen possesses an anti-SARS-CoV-2 property owing to its inhibitory performance in multiple assays. The proposed time-saving and feasible strategy may accelerate drug screening for COVID-19 and other diseases.

Estrogen and Estrogen Receptor Modulators: Potential Therapeutic Strategies for COVID-19 and Breast Cancer

Owing to the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, we need to pay a particular focus on the impact of coronavirus infection on breast cancer patients. Approximately 70% of breast cancer patients express estrogen receptor (ER), and intervention therapy for ER has been the primary treatment strategy to prevent the development and metastasis of breast cancer. Recent studies have suggested that selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) are a potential therapeutic strategy for COVID-19. With its anti-ER and anti-viral combined functions, SERMs may be an effective treatment for COVID-19 in patients with breast cancer. In this review, we explore the latent effect of SERMs, especially tamoxifen, and the mechanism between ER and virus susceptibility.

The secret identities of TMPRSS2: Fertility factor, virus trafficker, inflammation moderator, prostate protector and tumor suppressor

The human TMPRSS2 gene is pathogenetically implicated in both coronaviral lung infection and prostate cancer, suggesting its potential as a drug target in both contexts. SARS-COV-2 spike polypeptides are primed by the host transmembrane TMPRSS2 protease, triggering virus fusion with epithelial cell membranes followed by an endocytotic internalisation process that bypasses normal endosomal activation of cathepsin-mediated innate immunity; viral co-opting of TMPRSS2 thus favors microbial survivability by attenuating host inflammatory responses. In contrast, most early hormone-dependent prostate cancers express TMPRSS2:ERG fusion genes arising from deletions that eliminate the TMPRSS2 coding region while juxtaposing its androgen-inducible promoter and the open reading frame of ERG, upregulating pro-inflammatory ERG while functionally disabling TMPRSS2. Moreover, inflammatory oxidative DNA damage selects for TMPRSS2:ERG-fused cancers, whereas patients treated with antiinflammatory drugs develop fewer of these fusion-dependent tumors. These findings imply that TMPRSS2 protects the prostate by enabling endosomal bypass of pathogens which could otherwise trigger inflammation-induced DNA damage that predisposes to TMPRSS2:ERG fusions. Hence, the high oncogenic selectability of TMPRSS2:ERG fusions may reflect a unique pro-inflammatory synergy between androgenic ERG gain-of-function and fusogenic TMPRSS2 loss-of-function, cautioning against the use of TMPRSS2-inhibitory drugs to prevent or treat early prostate cancer.

Anti-tumor activities of Panax quinquefolius saponins and potential biomarkers in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Prostate carcinoma is the second most common cancer among men worldwide. Developing new therapeutic approaches and diagnostic biomarkers for prostate cancer (PC) is a significant need. The Chinese herbal medicine Panax quinquefolius saponins (PQS) have been reported to show anti-tumor effects. We hypothesized that PQS exhibits anti-cancer activity in human PC cells and we aimed to search for novel biomarkers allowing early diagnosis of PC.

METHODS

We used the human PC cell line DU145 and the prostate epithelial cell line PNT2 to perform cell viability assays, flow cytometric analysis of the cell cycle, and FACS-based apoptosis assays. Microarray-based gene expression analysis was used to display specific gene expression patterns and to search for novel biomarkers. Western blot and quantitative real-time PCR were performed to demonstrate the expression levels of multiple cancer-related genes.

RESULTS

Our data showed that PQS inhibited the viability of DU145 cells and induced cell cycle arrest at the G1 phase. A significant decrease in DU145 cell invasion and migration were observed after 24 h treatment by PQS. PQS up-regulated the expression levels of p21, p53, TMEM79, ACOXL, ETV5, and SPINT1 while it down-regulated the expression levels of bcl2, STAT3, FANCD2, DRD2, and TMPRSS2.

CONCLUSION

PQS promoted cells apoptosis and inhibited the proliferation of DU145 cells, which suggests that PQS may be effective for treating PC. TMEM79 and ACOXL were expressed significantly higher in PNT2 than in DU145 cells and could be novel biomarker candidates for PC diagnosis.

Estrogen and Androgen Receptor Inhibitors: Unexpected Allies in the Fight Against COVID-19

Translational Relevance

No prophylactic treatments for COVID-19 have been clearly proven and found. In this pandemic context, cancer patients constitute a particularly fragile population that would benefit the best from such treatments, a present unmet need. TMPRSS2 is essential for COVID-19 replication cycle and it is under androgen control. Estrogen and androgen receptor dependent cues converge on TMPRSS2 regulation through different mechanisms of action that can be blocked by the use of hormonal therapies. We believe that there is enough body of evidence to foresee a prophylactic use of hormonal therapies against COVID-19 and this hypothesis can be easily tested on cohorts of breast and prostate cancer patients who follow those regimens. In case of pandemic, if the protective effect of hormonal therapies will be proven on cancer patients, the use of specific hormonal therapies could be extended to other oncological groups and to healthy individuals to decrease the overall risk of infection by SARS-CoV-2.

Given the COVID-19 coronavirus emergency, a special focus is needed on the impact of this rapidly spreading viral infection on cancer patients. Androgen receptor (AR) signaling in the transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) regulation is emerging as an important determinant of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) susceptibility. In our study, we analyzed AR and TMPRSS2 expression in 17,352 normal and 9,556 cancer tissues from public repositories and stratified data according to sex and age. The emerging picture is that some patient groups may be particularly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection and may benefit from antiandrogen- or tamoxifen-based therapies. These findings are relevant to choose proper treatments in order to protect cancer patients from concomitant SARS-CoV-2 contagion and related symptoms and put forward the idea that hormonal therapies could be used as prophylactic agents against COVID-19.

Function and regulation of the PEA3 subfamily of ETS transcription factors in cancer

The PEA3 subfamily is a subgroup of the E26 transformation-specific (ETS) family. Its members, ETV1, ETV4, and ETV5, have been found to be overexpressed in multiple cancers. The deregulation of ETV1, ETV4, and ETV5 induces cell growth, invasion, and migration in various tumor cells, leading to tumor progression, metastasis, and drug resistance. Therefore, exploring drugs or therapeutic targets that target the PEA3 subfamily may contribute to the clinical treatment of tumor patients. In this review, we introduce the structures and functions of the PEA3 subfamily members, systematically review their main roles in various tumor cells, analyze their prognostic and diagnostic value, and, finally, introduce several molecular targets and therapeutic drugs targeting ETV1, ETV4, and ETV5. We conclude that targeting a series of upstream regulators and downstream target genes of the PEA3 subfamily may be an effective strategy for the treatment of ETV1/ETV4/ETV5-overexpressing tumors.

Repurposing existing drugs for COVID-19: an endocrinology perspective

BACKGROUND

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a multi-systemic infection caused by the novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), that has become a pandemic. Although its prevailing symptoms include anosmia, ageusia, dry couch, fever, shortness of brief, arthralgia, myalgia, and fatigue, regional and methodological assessments vary, leading to heterogeneous clinical descriptions of COVID-19. Aging, uncontrolled diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and exposure to androgens have been correlated with worse prognosis in COVID-19. Abnormalities in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) and the androgen-driven transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) have been elicited as key modulators of SARS-CoV-2.

MAIN TEXT

While safe and effective therapies for COVID-19 lack, the current moment of pandemic urges for therapeutic options. Existing drugs should be preferred over novel ones for clinical testing due to four inherent characteristics: 1. Well-established long-term safety profile, known risks and contraindications; 2. More accurate predictions of clinical effects; 3. Familiarity of clinical management; and 4. Affordable costs for public health systems. In the context of the key modulators of SARS-CoV-2 infectivity, endocrine targets have become central as candidates for COVID-19. The only endocrine or endocrine-related drug class with already existing emerging evidence for COVID-19 is the glucocorticoids, particularly for the use of dexamethasone for severely affected patients. Other drugs that are more likely to present clinical effects despite the lack of specific evidence for COVID-19 include anti-androgens (spironolactone, eplerenone, finasteride and dutasteride), statins, N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), ACE inhibitors (ACEi), angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB), and direct TMPRSS-2 inhibitors (nafamostat and camostat). Several other candidates show less consistent plausibility. In common, except for dexamethasone, all candidates have no evidence for COVID-19, and clinical trials are needed.

CONCLUSION

While dexamethasone may reduce mortality in severely ill patients with COVID-19, in the absence of evidence of any specific drug for mild-to-moderate COVID-19, researchers should consider testing existing drugs due to their favorable safety, familiarity, and cost profile. However, except for dexamethasone in severe COVID-19, drug treatments for COVID-19 patients must be restricted to clinical research studies until efficacy has been extensively proven, with favorable outcomes in terms of reduction in hospitalization, mechanical ventilation, and death.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Lung Cancer: Potential Therapeutic Modalities

Human coronaviruses, especially SARS-CoV-2, are emerging pandemic infectious diseases with high morbidity and mortality in certain group of patients. In general, SARS-CoV-2 causes symptoms ranging from the common cold to severe conditions accompanied by lung injury, acute respiratory distress syndrome in addition to other organs' destruction. The main impact upon SARS-CoV-2 infection is damage to alveolar and acute respiratory failure. Thus, lung cancer patients are identified as a particularly high-risk group for SARS-CoV-2 infection and its complications. On the other hand, it has been reported that SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2), that promotes cellular entry of this virus in concert with host proteases, principally transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2). Today, there are no vaccines and/or effective drugs against the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. Thus, manipulation of key entry genes of this virus especially in lung cancer patients could be one of the best approaches to manage SARS-CoV-2 infection in this group of patients. We herein provide a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of the role of ACE-2 and TMPRSS2 genes, as key entry elements as well as therapeutic targets for SARS-CoV-2 infection, which can help to better understand the applications and capacities of various remedial approaches for infected individuals, especially those with lung cancer.

ETV5 overexpression contributes to tumor growth and progression of thyroid cancer through PIK3CA

AIMS

Thyroid cancer is a common endocrine malignancy and sex hormone plays an important role in it. We have previously shown that activation of estrogen receptor (ER) α promotes thyroid cancer cell proliferation and invasion. Here, we attempted to investigate the role of ETS variant 5 (ETV5) on estrogen drived thyroid malignancy.

MAIN METHODS

Ten patients with follicular thyroid cancer were enrolled in this study. Cell proliferation and migration ability were analyzed by CCK-8 assay and cell migration assay, respectively. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-PCR and luciferase assay were conducted to analyze the relationship of ETV5 and PIK3CA.

KEY FINDINGS

ETV5 is highly expressed in thyroid tissues from patients with follicular thyroid cancer as well as in FTC133 cells. 17b-estradiol or overexpression of ERα induced an increase in ETV5 protein level in FTC133 cells. Knockdown of ETV5 inhibited FTC133 cell proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition, while 17b-estradiol could not correct this effect. Additionally, the level of PIK3CA was markedly decreased in ETV5 knockdown cells and had a positive correlation with ETV5 in thyroid cancer patients. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-PCR analysis and luciferase assay confirmed that ETV5 directly targeted PIK3CA and that ETV5 was bound to the promoter region of PIK3CA. In addition, PIK3CA overexpression abrogated ETV5-induced cell growth, migration and epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

SIGNIFICANCE

ETV5 enhanced cell proliferation, migration, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition through the PIK3CA signaling pathway, indicating that ETV5 may be a therapeutic target in thyroid cancer.

Differential Actions of Estrogen Receptor α and β via Nongenomic Signaling in Human Prostate Stem and Progenitor Cells

Human prostate stem and progenitor cells express estrogen receptor (ER)α and ERβ and exhibit proliferative responses to estrogens. In this study, membrane-initiated estrogen signaling was interrogated in human prostate stem/progenitor cells enriched from primary epithelial cultures and stem-like cell lines from benign and cancerous prostates. Subcellular fractionation and proximity ligation assays localized ERα and ERβ to the cell membrane with caveolin-1 interactions. Exposure to 17β-estradiol (E2) for 15 to 60 minutes led to sequential phosphorylation of signaling molecules in MAPK and AKT pathways, IGF1 receptor, epidermal growth factor receptor, and ERα, thus documenting an intact membrane signalosome that activates diverse downstream cascades. Treatment with an E2-dendrimer conjugate or ICI 182,870 validated E2-mediated actions through membrane ERs. Overexpression and knockdown of ERα or ERβ in stem/progenitor cells identified pathway selectivity; ERα preferentially activated AKT, whereas ERβ selectively activated MAPK cascades. Furthermore, prostate cancer stem-like cells expressed only ERβ, and brief E2 exposure activated MAPK but not AKT cascades. A gene subset selectively regulated by nongenomic E2 signaling was identified in normal prostate progenitor cells that includes BGN, FOSB, FOXQ1, and MAF. Membrane-initiated E2 signaling rapidly modified histone methyltransferases, with MLL1 cleavage observed downstream of phosphorylated AKT and EZH2 phosphorylation downstream of MAPK signaling, which may jointly modify histones to permit rapid gene transcription. Taken together, the present findings document ERα and ERβ membrane-initiated signaling in normal and cancerous human prostate stem/progenitor cells with differential engagement of downstream effectors. These signaling pathways influence normal prostate stem/progenitor cell homeostasis and provide novel therapeutic sites to target the elusive prostate cancer stem cell population.

ETS variant 5 promotes colorectal cancer angiogenesis by targeting platelet-derived growth factor BB

ETS transcription factors play important roles in tumor cell invasion, differentiation and angiogenesis. In this study, we initially demonstrated that ETS translocation variant 5 (ETV5) is abnormally upregulated in colorectal cancer (CRC), is positively correlated with CRC tumor size, lymphatic metastasis and tumor node metastasis (TNM) stage and indicates shorter survival and disease-free survival in CRC patients. In vitro and in vivo experiments revealed that the downregulation of ETV5 could significantly suppress CRC cell proliferation. Moreover, overexpression of ETV5 could stimulate CRC angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo, which is consistent with RNA-seq results. Then, we identified platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB) as a direct target of ETV5 that plays an important role in ETV5-mediated CRC angiogenesis through an angiogenesis antibody microarray. Additionally, PDGF-BB could activate VEGFA expression via the PDGFR-β/Src/STAT3 pathway in CRC cells and appeared to be positively correlated with ETV5 in CRC tissues. Finally, we revealed that ETV5 could bind directly to the promoter region of PDGF-BB and regulate its expression through ChIP and luciferase assays. Overall, our study suggested that the transcription factor ETV5 could stimulate CRC malignancy and promote CRC angiogenesis by directly targeting PDGF-BB. These findings suggest that EVT5 may be a potential new diagnostic and prognostic marker in CRC and that targeting ETV5 might be a potential therapeutic option for inhibiting CRC angiogenesis.

Oncogenic ETS Factors in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is unique among carcinomas in that a fusion gene created by a chromosomal rearrangement is a common driver of the disease. The TMPRSS2/ERG rearrangement drives aberrant expression of the ETS family transcription factor ERG in 50% of prostate tumors. Similar rearrangements promote aberrant expression of the ETS family transcription factors ETV1 and ETV4 in another 10% of cases. Together, these three ETS factors are thought to promote tumorigenesis in the majority of prostate cancers. A goal of precision medicine is to be able to apply targeted therapeutics that are specific to disease subtypes. ETS gene rearrangement positive tumors represent the largest molecular subtype of prostate cancer, but to date there is no treatment specific to this marker. In this chapter we will review the latest findings regarding the molecular mechanisms of ETS factor function in the prostate. These molecular details may provide a path towards new therapeutic targets for this subtype of prostate cancer. Further, we will describe efforts to target the oncogenic functions of ETS family transcription factors directly as well as indirectly.