Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: prevalence, diagnosis, and management

Pancreatic adverse events induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors: a real-world observational study

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-induced pancreatic adverse events (AEs) are rare occurrences that are poorly documented in the literature.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of patients who had ICI up to June 2023. Patient follow-up was extended until death or to May 2024. The primary outcome was the incidence of severe ICI-related pancreatic AEs. Logistic regression was used to investigate the associations between clinical characteristics and severe ICI-related pancreatic AEs.

RESULTS

The study included 7,840 participants who received ICI. The study population was predominantly male (74.50%), with a median age of 59.20 years [IQR 51.90-67.70 years]. Among them, 49 patients (0.63%) developed severe ICI-related pancreatic AEs. Logistic regression revealed that pancreatic cancer (OR 5.47; [95% CI, 1.12-26.82], p = 0.036), lung cancer (OR 2.62; [95% CI, 1.09-6.34], p = 0.032), younger patients (OR 0.97; [95% CI, 0.94-0.99], p = 0.015), and using PD-L1 inhibitor (OR 3.09, [95%CI 1.46 to 6.52], p = 0.003) were associated with a higher risk of severe ICI-related pancreatic AEs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that most ICI-related pancreatic AEs were asymptomatic. Primary tumor type, age, and ICI type may be predictive factors for severe ICI-related pancreatic AEs.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://www.chictr.org.cn identifier is ChiCTR2300075974.

Low plasma pancreatic lipase as a novel predictor of nutritional target achievement and response to nutritional interventions in malnourished inpatients: Secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Pancreatic lipase plays an essential role in digesting dietary fats in the intestine, facilitating nutrient absorption. Plasma lipase serves as a surrogate for pancreatic exocrine function, which decreases with age and potentially leads to inadequate nutrient digestion and gastrointestinal symptoms. We investigated clinical implications of plasma lipase among medical inpatients at nutritional risk.

METHODS

This secondary analysis investigated admission plasma lipase concentrations among patients at risk for malnutrition regarding clinical outcomes and treatment response in patients included in the Effect of Early Nutritional Support on Frailty Outcomes, and Recovery of Malnourished Medical Inpatients Trial (EFFORT), a randomized controlled trial comparing individualized nutritional support to usual care.

RESULTS

Of 810 patients with available admission plasma lipase concentrations, 158 (19.5 %) had concentrations below the reference range. Patients with low concentrations had a 1.6-fold higher risk of not reaching energy or protein targets during hospitalization (adjusted odds ratio 1.62 [95 % confidence interval 1.07 to 2.45], p = 0.022 and 1.61 [95 % confidence interval 1.07 to 2.44], p = 0.023, respectively). They also tended to have a more pronounced benefit from nutritional interventions in terms of reduced mortality (adjusted hazard ratio for patients with low lipase 0.48 [95 % confidence interval 0.18 to 1.26] compared to 0.99 [95 % confidence interval 0.60 to 1.63] in patients with normal lipase concentrations, p for interaction = 0.224).

CONCLUSION

Findings from this multicenter trial indicate that around 20 % of polymorbid older patients had plasma lipase concentrations below the reference range, suggesting exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, which placed them at a greater risk for failing to meet nutritional targets; however, they also demonstrated a pronounced improvement from nutritional support. Further studies should assess the impact of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy in this population.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02517476.

Etiologies of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a major cause of maldigestion and malnutrition, resulting from primary pancreatic diseases or other conditions. As the prevalence of EPI continues to rise, accurate identification of its etiology has become critical for the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic secretory insufficiency. EPI can result from both pancreatic and non-pancreatic disorders. Pancreatic disorders include acute and chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic tumors, cystic fibrosis, procedures that involve pancreatic resection, and other rare causes. Non-pancreatic disorders of EPI include diabetes mellitus, celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease, gastrointestinal and esophagectomy surgery, as well as advanced patient age. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the literature on EPI etiology, with a thorough overview to support its consideration as a potential diagnosis.

Safety and tolerability of Monoacylglycerol-rich oil as a novel predigested dietary fat source of an enteral formula in healthy adults and adolescents: Two single-arm, open-label studies

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Enteral formulas containing predigested lipids to support the needs of patients with fat maldigestion are currently unavailable. Monoacylglycerol (MAG)-rich oils offer potential benefits for fat absorption without prior digestion, but their safety and tolerability in enteral formulas need evaluation. We assessed the safety and tolerability of a new formula containing predigested lipids in the form of MAG-rich oil.

METHODS

Two cohorts of healthy volunteers, consisting of 12 adults (aged ≥18 years) followed by 12 adolescents (aged 12-17 years) were recruited. Participants consumed an oral nutritional supplement containing MAG-rich oil as the main lipid source (up to 37 g/day) three times daily for 13 days. Safety, tolerability, gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, anthropometric, and blood parameters were assessed.

RESULTS

All 24 participants completed the study without discontinuing the formula with good compliance. Median Visual Analog Scale scores for GI symptoms were low (on average 0.2 out of 10) in both groups, and the Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale scores remained mostly unchanged (1-2 out of 7), indicating no or minimal discomfort. Stool frequency and consistency remained within normal limits throughout the study. Serum triglyceride and cholesterol levels showed no clinically significant changes, and the fatty acid profile and fat-soluble vitamins showed a favorable trend at the end of the study. Adverse events (AEs) were minor, and none were serious.

CONCLUSIONS

The new formula containing MAG-rich oil was safe and well tolerated in healthy adults and adolescents. This formula could potentially address a gap in the nutritional management of patients with EPI and fat maldigestion. Further studies are required to assess the efficacy of this new formula in the target population.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://clinicaltrials.gov/: NCT05100901 and NCT05923593.

European guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency: UEG, EPC, EDS, ESPEN, ESPGHAN, ESDO, and ESPCG evidence-based recommendations

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) is defined as a reduction in pancreatic exocrine secretion below the level that allows the normal digestion of nutrients. Pancreatic disease and surgery are the main causes of PEI. However, other conditions and upper gastrointestinal surgery can also affect the digestive function of the pancreas. PEI can cause symptoms of nutritional malabsorption and deficiencies, which affect the quality of life and increase morbidity and mortality. These guidelines were developed following the United European Gastroenterology framework for the development of high-quality clinical guidelines. After a systematic literature review, the evidence was evaluated according to the Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation methodology, as appropriate. Statements and comments were developed by the working groups and voted on using the Delphi method. The diagnosis of PEI should be based on a global assessment of symptoms, nutritional status, and a pancreatic secretion test. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT), together with dietary advice and support, are the cornerstones of PEI therapy. PERT is indicated in patients with PEI that is secondary to pancreatic disease, pancreatic surgery, or other metabolic or gastroenterological conditions. Specific recommendations concerning the management of PEI under various clinical conditions are provided based on evidence and expert opinions. This evidence-based guideline summarizes the prevalence, clinical impact, and general diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for PEI, as well as the specifics of PEI in different clinical conditions. Finally, the unmet needs for future research are discussed.

Risk factors associated with pain and pain relief in patients with chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Abdominal pain is one of the most prominent symptoms in patients with chronic pancreatitis (CP) and can manifest intermittently or persistently. The mechanism of pain is not yet clear, and no effective treatment is currently available. This study aimed to explore the risk factors for pain in patients with CP, which may provide new insights for developing effective pain control modalities.

METHODS

This clinical study was based on a single-centre research database that included 570 patients with CP. We compared the differences in baseline data, clinical characteristics, and psychophysiology traits between patients with and without pain. Subsequently, patients will be followed up to assess changes in their risk factors and explore their relationship with pain.

RESULTS

In the final risk factor model, young age (P = .031; odds ratio [OR] = 0.986 [0.973, 0.999]), prolonged disease duration (P < .001; OR = 1.307 [1.127, 1.516]), heavy smoking (P = .014; OR = 1.331 [1.060, 1.617]), alcohol consumption (P = .003; OR = 1.419 [1.127, 1.788]), low body mass index (P < .001; OR = 0.786 [0.703, 0.879]), pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (P = .040; OR = 1.683 [1.024, 2.767]), acute pancreatitis attacks (P = .027; OR = 1.759 [1.067, 2.902]), anxiety, and depression (P = .016; OR = 1.047 [1.009, 1.088]; P = .014; OR = 1.068 [1.013, 1.126]) were associated with CP pain. Reducing tobacco and alcohol intake (P = .001; OR = 2.367 [1.525, 4.637]; P = .024; OR = 2.011 [1.085, 3.199]), increasing the body mass index (P = .005; OR = 1.968 [1.265, 3.805]), and improving anxiety (P = .001; OR = 1.164 [1.081, 1.340]) were identified to be beneficial for pain relief. Compared to the effects on persistent pain, pancreatic enzyme supplementation (P = .004; OR = 1.794 [1.186, 2.502]) had a clear effect on intermittent pain in patients with CP.

CONCLUSION

We identified a multifactorial model of pain risk factors for CP and confirmed that modifying these risk factors could influence patient pain symptoms.

Applicability of the Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency Test (PEI-TEST) in Pediatric Patients

In mild cases, it is difficult to diagnose pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI). There is no gold standard method for the diagnosis of PEI. A reliable method is needed for preliminary diagnosis of PEI. The PEI-TEST was applied to the patients with nonspecific gastrointestinal complaints. Serum amylase, lipase, serum trypsinogen, and fecal elastase 1 (FE-1) were analyzed from each patient. According to the PEI-TEST, PEI was present in 42 (47.7%) and PEI was not present in 46 (52.3%) patients. No significant difference was observed between the 2 groups with regard to age, gender and amylase, lipase, serum trypsinogen, and FE-1. When an FE-1 value of <200 µg/dL was considered as indicating PEI, the sensitivity and specificity of the test were found to be 47.4% and 52.2%, respectively. Although it is promising that PEI-TEST is a validated test in our country and suitable for our society, it is not suitable for pediatric patients.

A single-center prospective analysis of the impact of glucose metabolism on pancreatic fistula onset after pancreaticoduodenectomy for periampullary tumors

BACKGROUND

Glucose impairment notably affects the postoperative course of gastrointestinal surgeries. However, evidence on its impact on clinically relevant pancreatic fistulas(CR-POPFs) after pancreaticoduodenectomy(PD) is lacking. This study evaluates if and how preoperative glucose metabolism affects the development of CR-POPF after PD.

METHODS

One hundred and ten consecutive PDs were included. Patients underwent preoperative metabolic profiling using the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test(OGTT) and the hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp procedure. Accordingly, patients were categorized as normal glucose tolerant (NGT), impaired glucose tolerant (IGT), diabetic (DM), and longstanding-DM. Receiver operating characteristics(ROC) analyses were performed to determine the values of metabolic features in prediction of CR-POPF.

RESULTS

The CR-POPF rate was 36.3 ​%(40 patients). NGT patients had a higher CR-POPF rate (51.7 ​%) compared to IGT(45.2 ​%), DM (15.8 ​%), and longstanding-DM (25.8 ​%) (p ​= ​0.03). CR-POPF patients had lower median fasting glucose levels (p ​= ​0.01) and higher c-peptide values at all OGTT time points (p ​< ​0.05). Fasting glucose and c-peptide levels had high diagnostic accuracy for CR-POPF (AUC>0.8) and were independent risk factors for CR-POPF (OR: 24.7[95%CI: 3.7-165.3] for fasting glucose; OR: 19.9[95%CI: 3.2-125.3] for c-peptide).

CONCLUSION

Normoglycemia and normal beta cell function may be risk factors for CR-POPF after PD. Fasting glucose and c-peptide levels effectively predicted CR-POPF development following PD.

CLINICALTRIALS GOV IDENTIFIER

NCT02175459.

Role of enzyme replacement therapy for exocrine and nutritional insufficiency in patients with malignancies: A review

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a condition in which the amount of secreted pancreatic enzymes is insufficient to maintain normal digestion. EPI is a frequent complication of pancreatic or other malignancies. The presence of EPI in a cancer patient may be suggested by symptoms of maldigestion, malabsorption, and alteration of nutritional markers; however, it is important to note that the EPI symptoms may be subtle. In the early stages, EPI may be latent and manifested by malnutrition. However, even in the later stages, the symptoms of EPI may be similar to those of cancer or be masked by the condition after chemoradiation therapy. Antitumor therapy itself may also cause EPI. Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) is the standard of care for EPI, but it is rarely prescribed to cancer patients. However, supportive therapy plays an essential role in treating cancer patients because the quality of life and life expectancy of patients largely depend on the adequacy of the complex treatment. The review discusses the possible causes of EPI and its diagnosis and treatment in cancer patients. Special attention is paid to ERT regimens, including those for improving digestion and the drug's dosage form. It is shown that pancreatin in minimicrospheres is the drug of choice for ERT, since the minimum particle size facilitates the most physiological digestion process.

Predictive analysis of osteoarthritis and chronic pancreatitis comorbidity: complications and risk factors

Background

The comorbidity of chronic pancreatitis (CP) in patients with osteoarthritis (OA) is insufficiently studied, and the reciprocal impact of these conditions remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate potential predictors for the development of CP in OA patients, as well as associated complications.

Methods

A cohort of 181 patients was categorized into four groups: a control group (n=30), patients with OA (n=68), patients with CP (n=31), and patients with OA and comorbid CP (n=52). All four groups had no statistical differences in age and gender. The study utilized the WOMAC index, Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Lequesne index, biochemical assays, and advanced statistical methods to assess joint status in OA patients with comorbid CP. It explored potential predictors of comorbidity development and associated complications.

Results

The study revealed that concurrent CP in OA exacerbates progression and contributes to malnutrition. Body Mass Index (BMI) emerged as a potential predictor for CP comorbidity development in OA patients. Factors such as the WOMAC total score, fecal elastase-1, C-reactive protein (CRP), ferritin, retinol, tocopherol, 25-hydroxyvitamin D3, and BMI were found to influence the development of comorbidity of CP in OA. Additionally, Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale-Diarrhea Syndrome (GSRS-DS), Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale-Constipation Syndrome (GSRS-CS), Qualitative Assessment of the Symptoms and Impact of Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency Domain A (PEI-Q-A), retinol, tocopherol, and iron were identified as potential predictors comorbidity CP with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in OA patients.

Conclusion

The presence of CP in OA patients exacerbates disease progression and complications, necessitating further investigation.

The Future of Cystic Fibrosis Care: Exploring AI's Impact on Detection and Therapy

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Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a fatal hereditary condition marked by thicker mucus production, which can cause problems with the digestive and respiratory systems. The quality of life and survival rates of CF patients can be improved by early identification and individualized therapy measures. With an emphasis on its applications in diagnosis and therapy, this paper investigates how Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming the management of Cystic Fibrosis (CF). AI-powered algorithms are revolutionizing CF diagnosis by utilizing huge genetic, clinical, and imaging data databases. In order to identify CF mutations quickly and precisely, machine learning methods evaluate genomic profiles. Furthermore, AI-driven imaging analysis helps to identify lung and gastrointestinal issues linked to cystic fibrosis early and allows for prompt treatment. Additionally, AI aids in individualized CF therapy by anticipating how patients will react to already available medications and enabling customized treatment regimens. Drug repurposing algorithms find prospective candidates from already-approved drugs, advancing treatment choices. Additionally, AI supports the optimization of pharmacological combinations, enhancing therapeutic results while minimizing side effects. AI also helps with patient stratification by connecting people with CF mutations to therapies that are best for their genetic profiles. Improved treatment effectiveness is promised by this tailored strategy. The transformational potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of cystic fibrosis is highlighted in this review, from early identification to individualized medication, bringing hope for better patient outcomes, and eventually prolonging the lives of people with this difficult ailment.

Refractory hypothyroidism in children: an overview

Refractory hypothyroidism (RF) defined as raised serum levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) above upper limit of the reference range with or without the persistence of hypothyroid symptoms following a 6-week interval after the dosage was last increased to upper limits of dose per age. The most common cause of RH is inadequate compliance. In addition, diet, concomitant medication interactions, and gastrointestinal diseases can all result in l-thyroxine (LT4) malabsorption, which can cause RH. Moreover, weight gain, switching brands of LT4, poor storage of LT4, chronic liver disorders, cystic fibrosis, nephrotic syndrome, consumptive hypothyroidism, Addison's disease are significant contributors to RF in children. RH in children is frequently asymptomatic, when symptoms do occur, they are typically minor and resemble those of hypothyroidism. It is essential to identify RH early and treat its underlying cause in order to avoid overusing LT4, which can lead to cardiac and bone problems. Endocrinologists should handle children who they suspect of having RH methodically after making sure there is enough compliance. Searching for undiagnosed illnesses and/or other factors that can affect LT4 absorption could be part of this. We present this review after an extensive literature search and long-standing clinical experience. This review's objective is to shed light on the causes, clinical manifestations, investigations, and treatment of RH in children.

Surgical Palliation for Advanced Pancreas Cancer

To provide optimal care in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, involvement of palliative medicine and nutritional support is recommended. Advances in endoscopy have resulted in robust options for biliary and gastrointestinal stenting for relief of obstruction. Notwithstanding, surgical hepaticojejunostomy and gastrojejunostomy remain incontrovertible considerations for biliary obstruction and gastric outlet obstruction, respectively. For PDAC-associated pain, opioid therapy continues to be the mainstay. However, refractory pain may be treated with interventional procedures such as celiac or splanchnic nerve blocks or neurolysis. In patients with PDAC, enteral nutrition can be further complicated by exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, which should be treated with oral pancreatic enzyme supplementation.

The Population-Level Prevalence of Exocrine Pancreas Insufficiency and the Subsequent Risk of Pancreatic Cancer

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to study the prevalence of exocrine pancreas insufficiency (EPI) at a population level and the subsequent risk of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using TriNetX (a database of over 79 million US residents), we included patients ≥18 years with EPI (identified via ICD-10 codes) and continuous follow-up from 2016-2022. Patients with prior pancreas resection and PDAC before an EPI diagnosis were excluded. The primary outcome was EPI prevalence. Secondary outcomes included imaging utilization, PDAC risk, and pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) utilization. We performed 1:1 propensity score matching (PSM) of patients with EPI versus patients without an EPI diagnosis.

RESULTS

The population prevalence of EPI was 0.8% (n = 24,080) with a mean age of 55.6 years. After PSM, PDAC risk among patients with EPI was twice as high compared with patients without EPI (aHR, 1.97; 95% CI, 1.66-2.36). This risk persisted even after excluding patients with a history of acute or chronic pancreatitis (adjusted odds ratio, 4.25; 95% CI, 2.99-6.04). Only 58% (n = 13, 390) of patients with EPI received PERT. No difference was observed in PDAC risk between patients with EPI on PERT and those not on PERT (aHR, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.95-1.26; P = 0.17).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite a low prevalence, patients with EPI may have a higher risk of PDAC, and majority with EPI were not on PERT. PERT did not impact incident PDAC risk after an EPI diagnosis.

[Possibilities of post-processing of multislice computed tomography results in non-invasive diagnosis of pancreatic fibrosis]

AIM

To evaluate the possibilities of post-processing of multidetector computed tomography (CT) results in the non-invasive diagnosis of pancreatic fibrosis (PF).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study included 165 patients aged 57.91±13.5 years who underwent preoperative CT during surgical treatment for chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer from April 2022 to February 2024. The normalized contrast ratios of pancreatic tissue in the pancreatic (NCPP) and venous (NCVP) phases, as well as the contrast ratio (CR) were measured. Pathomorphological assessment of PF performed in tissues outside neoplasm or desmoplastic reaction by the Kloppel and Maillet scale.

RESULTS

The values of post-processing CT results were compared in groups with different degrees of PF. Mean CR values were significantly higher (p=0.001) in patients with severe PF (CR 1.16±0.65 HU) than in patients with mild PF (CR 0.78±0.31 HU). CR value significant increase (p=0.03) was found in patients with signs of inflammatory changes in the pancreas tissue (CR 1.14±0.6 HU) than in those without them (CR 0.81±0.3 HU). There were no significant differences between the values of NCPP and NCVP, and the degree of PF.

CONCLUSION

The CR value increased in patients with severe degree of PF. There was a relationship between CR value increase and the radiological density of pancreatic tissue in non-contrast phase and presence of early signs of pancreatic inflammatory changes. Thus, there was a relationship between CT postprocessing results and morphological signs of PF, which can be used for pancreatic fibrosis non-invasive diagnosis and identification of additional signs of early chronic pancreatitis.

Healthcare disparities in pancreatitis: knowledge gaps and next steps

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review examines current research on healthcare disparities in pancreatitis, identifies knowledge gaps, and proposes strategies to develop targeted multilevel interventions to address inequities in pancreatitis care.

RECENT FINDINGS

Current literature has identified patient, disease, and healthcare-level factors contributing to disparities in risk factors and health outcomes of pancreatitis. Moreover, social structures, economic systems, social vulnerability, and policy significantly influence the pancreatitis care continuum.

SUMMARY

Understanding the root causes of health inequities is critical to developing effective approaches for the prevention, early detection, and management of pancreatitis.

The clinical, economic, and humanistic burden of treatments for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and cost-effectiveness of treatments: A systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

To examine the burden of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), specifically the clinical impact of EPI on patients, their quality of life (QoL) and the cost-effectiveness of existing treatments.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was conducted using key search terms for the clinical, economic, and humanistic burden. Databases were searched from 2010 to 2022, with articles screened independently by 2 reviewers at abstract and full-text stage against pre-defined eligibility criteria.

RESULTS

Seventy-one publications were identified that reported relevant clinical, humanistic, and economic data. Prevalence and incidence of EPI varied across identified studies; EPI appears to be especially prevalent as a comorbid condition in patients with cystic fibrosis. EPI has a large impact on QoL, with lower QoL scores in patients with EPI compared with those without EPI. The instruments used to assess QoL, however, were inconsistent across studies. Where reported, economic burden studies highlighted that patients with EPI have higher healthcare resource utilization compared with those without, with costs increasing with disease severity.

CONCLUSION

This systematic literature review highlights that patients with EPI have higher treatment costs and lower QoL scores than patients without EPI. The prevalence of EPI as a comorbid condition is high, particularly in patients with cystic fibrosis.

Validity and Diagnostic Ability of Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency Questionnaire in Turkish Patients

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) is a prevalent disease that is often underdiagnosed and undertreated, leading to resulting in diminished health-related quality of life. The PEI questionnaire (PEI-Q), a patient-reported outcome questionnaire developed to diagnose and evaluate PEI, is available only in English. The study aimed to provide a Turkish translation of PEI-Q and validate its reliability and diagnostic performance in a Turkish-speaking population with PEI. This study included 161 participants: 98 patients with PEI and 63 healthy controls. Participants underwent the PEI-Q test, and the results were statistically analyzed for reliability and validity. The diagnostic value of PEI-Q was determined using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Cronbach's alpha was used to assess internal consistency, while exploratory factor analysis was performed to determine construct validity and reveal the factor structure. The mean age of participants was 45.0 years, and 60.2% were male. Participants with PEI were significantly older than those without. Scores for abdominal, bowel movement, and total symptoms were significantly higher in patients with PEI than in controls. ROC analysis revealed good diagnostic value for PEI-Q, with areas under the curve ranging from 0.798 to 0.851 for different symptom scores. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were above 0.70, indicating good internal consistency, and exploratory factor analysis supported a 4-factor structure, accounting for 68.9% of the total variance. The Turkish version of the PEI-Q is a reliable, easy-to-use, and valid screening tool for diagnosing PEI. It consistently assesses symptoms and quality of life in patients with PEI, helping to inform diagnosis and treatment.

Association of in-line digestive enzyme cartridge with enteral feeds on improvement in anthropometrics among pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Approximately 85% of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) have exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) with 10% requiring supplemental nighttime enteral tube feedings. Administration of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) with nighttime feedings is fraught with challenges. RELiZORB (Alcresta Therapeutics, Inc), an in-line lipase cartridge, delivers PERT continuously with enteral feedings. Outcomes related to the use of this in-line lipase cartridge are lesser known. This project evaluated anthropometrics related to in-line lipase cartridge use among pediatric patients with CF already receiving oral PERT therapy prior to nighttime enteral feedings.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review was performed on 29 patients with CF and EPI receiving supplemental tube feedings and utilizing in-line lipase cartridge for a continuous 12 month period between 2015 and 2019. Anthropometrics were evaluated 12 months before and after initiation of in-line lipase cartridge.

RESULTS

Compared with mean height z score at 6-months pre-in-line lipase cartridge, mean height z score at 6-months post-in-line-lipase cartridge (adjusted mean difference [AMD] = 0.2540; 95% CI = [0.0487, 0.4592]; P = 0.0153) and mean height z score at 12-months post-in-line lipase cartridge (AMD = 0.2684; 95% CI = [0.0203, 0.5166]; P = 0.0340) were significantly higher. Mean weight z score at 12-months post-in-line-lipase-cartridge neared statistical significance compared with 6-months pre-in-line lipase cartridge (AMD = 0.2816; 95% CI = [-0.0003, 0.5634]; P = 0.0502) when excluding seven patients with advanced lung disease (forced expiratory volume in the first second of expiration of 40%). Weight-for-length or body mass index did not significantly differ compared with pre-in-line lipase cartridge.

CONCLUSION

Use of in-line lipase cartridge with enteral feeds improved anthropometrics, especially height, in pediatric patients with CF.

Developing the EPI Symptom Questionnaire (EPI-SQ): a qualitative study to understand the symptom experience of patients with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI)

BACKGROUND

Symptom assessment is the key factor in determining disease status and optimal management of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). There is a need for a standardized patient-reported outcome (PRO) questionnaire to assess symptoms in patients diagnosed with EPI. The purpose of this qualitative study was to increase understanding of the EPI symptom experience from the patients' perspective, and to develop and evaluate the content validity of the EPI Symptom Questionnaire (EPI-SQ) in US patients with EPI.

METHODS

Concept elicitation interviews (Phase I) were conducted to understand the symptom experience in patients with a clinical diagnosis of EPI (i.e., fecal pancreatic elastase value of ≤ 200 mcg/g based on most recent value) due to chronic pancreatitis or pancreatectomy. The EPI-SQ was developed based on the data extracted from Phase I interviews and feedback from clinical experts. Next, separate cognitive interviews (Phase II) were conducted to evaluate participants' understanding of the instructions, items, response scales, and recall periods of the instrument.

RESULTS

During Phase I interviews (n = 21), 19 participants (90%) reported abdominal pain as the most frequent EPI symptom and lifestyle changes were the most frequently endorsed impacts (n = 18; 86%). Phase II results indicated that all participants (n = 7) felt the 12-item EPI-SQ was relevant to their symptom experience and that they understood the items, instructions, and response options as intended.

CONCLUSION

The qualitative data from this study support the content validity of the EPI-SQ in measuring EPI symptom severity in US patient populations diagnosed with EPI.

Development of clinical screening tool for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in patients with definite chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

No simple, accurate diagnostic tests exist for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), and EPI remains underdiagnosed in chronic pancreatitis (CP). We sought to develop a digital screening tool to assist clinicians to predict EPI in patients with definite CP.

METHODS

This was a retrospective case-control study of patients with definite CP with/without EPI. Overall, 49 candidate predictor variables were utilized to train a Classification and Regression Tree (CART) model to rank all predictors and select a parsimonious set of predictors for EPI status. Five-fold cross-validation was used to assess generalizability, and the full CART model was compared with 4 additional predictive models. EPI misclassification rate (mRate) served as primary endpoint metric.

RESULTS

274 patients with definite CP from 6 pancreatitis centers across the United States were included, of which 58 % had EPI based on predetermined criteria. The optimal CART decision tree included 10 variables. The mRate without/with 5-fold cross-validation of the CART was 0.153 (training error) and 0.314 (prediction error), and the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.889 and 0.682, respectively. Sensitivity and specificity without/with 5-fold cross-validation was 0.888/0.789 and 0.794/0.535, respectively. A trained second CART without pancreas imaging variables (n = 6), yielded 8 variables. Training error/prediction error was 0.190/0.351; sensitivity was 0.869/0.650, and specificity was 0.728/0.649, each without/with 5-fold cross-validation.

CONCLUSION

We developed two CART models that were integrated into one digital screening tool to assess for EPI in patients with definite CP and with two to six input variables needed for predicting EPI status.

Risk factors of developing nonalcoholic fatty liver disease after pancreatic resection: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) occurs in 10% to 40% of patients after pancreatic resection. Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) is thought to be closely associated with NAFLD; however, the mechanism of NAFLD is not clearly understood. We perform a systematic review and meta-analysis to better understand the risk factors of NAFLD.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was performed in the MEDLINE database. Studies focused on the risk factors associated with NAFLD in patients undergoing pancreatectomy. The odds ratios (ORs) denoting the association of risk factors with NAFLD after resection were curated.

RESULTS

Of 814 published articles, 26 studies met the inclusion criteria. Combined, these studies included clinical data on 4055 patients. The pooled incidence of NAFLD was 29% (23%-35%). Among the various risk factors analyzed, the following had a significant likelihood of NAFLD on forest plot analysis: female gender (OR, 2.44), pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (OR, 2.11), portal vein or superior mesenteric vein resection (OR, 1.99), dissection of nerve plexus around the superior mesenteric artery (OR, 1.93), and adjuvant chemotherapy (OR, 1.58). Only 2 studies investigated 2 different measurements of quantitative PEI, which could not be used for analysis. Owing to heterogeneity of studies, pancreatic remanent volume, which is considered a marker for PEI could not be evaluated. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) was not associated with NAFLD.

CONCLUSION

Numerous factors are associated with NAFLD after pancreatectomy. Previous research shows that PEI may be associated with NAFLD; however, this could not be compared in our meta-analysis. Further research is required to study the role of PERT in NAFLD.

Recommended Tool Compounds for Modifying the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator Channel Variants

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disorder arising from variations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene, leading to multiple organ system defects. CFTR tool compounds are molecules that can modify the activity of the CFTR channel. Especially, patients that are currently not able to benefit from approved CFTR modulators, such as patients with rare CFTR variants, benefit from further research in discovering novel tools to modulate CFTR. This Review explores the development and classification of CFTR tool compounds, including CFTR blockers (CFTRinh-172, GlyH-101), potentiators (VRT-532, Genistein), correctors (VRT-325, Corr-4a), and other approved and unapproved modulators, with detailed descriptions and discussions for each compound. The challenges and future directions in targeting rare variants and optimizing drug delivery, and the potential synergistic effects in combination therapies are outlined. CFTR modulation holds promise not only for CF treatment but also for generating CF models that contribute to CF research and potentially treating other diseases such as secretory diarrhea. Therefore, continued research on CFTR tool compounds is critical.

Nutrition therapy in critically ill patients with severe acute pancreatitis

A significant proportion of patients (10%-20%) with acute pancreatitis develop severe acute pancreatitis characterized by pancreatic necrosis, systemic inflammation, and organ failure, commonly requiring intensive care unit (ICU) admission. In this specific population, nutrition therapy is more challenging than that in the general ICU population, primarily because of inevitable gastrointestinal involvement by pancreatic inflammation. In this review, we discussed several key aspects of nutrition therapy in this population, including key pathophysiology that may impede nutrition therapy, the timing and implementation of enteral nutrition and parenteral nutrition, the importance of specific nutrient supplements, and the long-term outcomes that may be addressed by nutrition therapy.

Fat digestion and absorption: Normal physiology and pathophysiology of malabsorption, including diagnostic testing

Fat digestion and absorption play crucial roles in maintaining energy homeostasis and supporting essential physiological functions. The initial stage of fat digestion occurs in the stomach, where gastric lipase begins the hydrolysis of triglycerides. However, most fat digestion takes place in the small intestine via pancreatic enzymes and bile salts. Emulsification of fat by bile acids facilitates enzymatic action, breaking down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides, which are then able to be absorbed by enterocytes. Fat malabsorption can result from various underlying conditions, such as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, bile acid disorders, or intestinal diseases. The clinical manifestations of fat malabsorption include steatorrhea, malnutrition, and deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins. Diagnostic approaches involve assessing fecal fat levels, imaging studies, and various functional tests to identify the specific etiology. This review article will describe the normal physiologic process of fat digestion and absorption and discuss various pathophysiology that can lead to fat malabsorption within the gastrointestinal tract as well as their respective diagnostic testing modalities. Effective digestion of fat is essential for overall health, because it allows for absorption of many essential nutrients, plays an integral role in cellular and structural function, and supplies energy to the body. When this is dysfunctional, disorders of malabsorption can occur. This article will give a brief overview of the physiologic process of fat digestion and absorption in healthy individuals as well as review important pathophysiology that can lead to fat malabsorption within the gastrointestinal tract and current diagnostic testing modalities.

Diarrhea induced by insufficient fat absorption in weaned piglets: Causes and nutrition regulation

Fat is one of the three macronutrients and a significant energy source for piglets. It plays a positive role in maintaining intestinal health and improving production performance. During the weaning period, physiological, stress and diet-related factors influence the absorption of fat in piglets, leading to damage to the intestinal barrier, diarrhea and even death. Signaling pathways, such as fatty acid translocase (CD36), pregnane X receptor (PXR), and AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK), are responsible for regulating intestinal fat uptake and maintaining intestinal barrier function. Therefore, this review mainly elaborates on the reasons for diarrhea induced by insufficient fat absorption and related signaling pathways in weaned-piglets, with an emphasis on the intestinal fat absorption disorder. Moreover, we focus on introducing nutritional strategies that can promote intestinal fat absorption in piglets with insufficient fat absorption-related diarrhea, such as lipase, amino acids, and probiotics.

How a significant increase in survival in pancreatic cancer is achieved. The role of nutritional status and supportive care: A review

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is a serious public health problem. The mortality rate of patients with PC remains one of the highest among cancers. Early diagnosis of PC is challenging, so it is often diagnosed in the later stages. Current treatment approaches, including surgery, neoadjuvant and adjuvant chemotherapy, chemoradiotherapy, and supportive care, have demonstrated improved outcomes. A significant problem remains exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) in patients with PC, which requires enzyme replacement therapy. However, this is not given due attention in the Russian literature. This review addresses the survival trends of patients with PC, current therapies, and enzyme replacement therapy as an integral part of supportive care and improvement of nutritional status; also, the issues of routing patients with PC are addressed. It is emphasized that the diagnosis and treatment of EPI are mandatory to improve and maintain the nutritional status and quality of life; failure to treat EPI renders antitumor treatment ineffective.

Interactions between the Exocrine and the Endocrine Pancreas

The pancreas has two main functions: to produce and secrete digestive enzymes (exocrine function) and to produce hormones that regulate blood glucose and splanchnic secretion (endocrine function). The endocrine and exocrine portions of the pancreas are central regulators in digestion and metabolism, with continuous crosstalk between their deeply interconnected components, which plays a role in disease. Pancreatic neoplasms, inflammation, trauma, and surgery can lead to the development of type 3c diabetes when an insult simultaneously damages both acini and islets, leading to exocrine and endocrine dysfunction. In diabetes mellitus patients, pancreatic exocrine insufficiency is highly prevalent, yet little is known about the associations between diabetes mellitus and pancreatic exocrine function. This review aims to provide an overview of the physiology of the pancreas, summarize the pathophysiology and diagnostic work-up of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, and explore the relationships between exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and diabetes mellitus.

Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency among adults with chronic pancreatitis: Is routine monitoring necessary for all patients?

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is often associated with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), which may increase risk for fat-soluble vitamin depletion. Although vitamin D deficiency is widespread among the general population, vitamins A, E, and K deficiencies may more uniquely present in patients with CP. Yet, it is unclear whether fat-soluble vitamin status should be routinely monitored in all patients with CP or limited to those with EPI. The purpose of this review is to describe the laboratory status of vitamins A, E, and K in adult patients with CP and their association with exocrine pancreatic function. Five primary, observational studies met the inclusion criteria for qualitative synthesis. Biochemical deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins were observed across trials but results varied with respect to whether EPI increased risk. Challenges related to the diagnosis and treatment of EPI along with potential confounders may contribute to the heterogeneity among study results. Although more studies are needed to determine the influence of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy on fat-soluble vitamin status as well as effective vitamin repletion strategies, clinicians should consider periodically screening for deficiencies in all patients with CP regardless of EPI to avoid associated health effects of vitamin depletion.

Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency Dosing Guidelines for Pancreatic Enzyme Replacement Therapy Vary Widely Across Disease Types

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) is the standard treatment for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). However, many individuals are inadequately treated, with gaps in clinical dosing, guidelines, and tools to aid individual titration.

METHODS

A systematic review identified research and guidelines on PERT dosing recommendations across conditions, systematically reviewing and synthesizing total PERT intake, meal/snack guidelines, and changes over time to provide an up-to-date look at the most common doses used in studies and guidelines.

RESULTS

This review of 257 articles found wide variability in PERT dosing guidelines within and across conditions. Many patients with EPI are underdosed, with guidelines differing globally and by disease type, and clinician prescribing may also play a role. The most common dosing guidelines focus on starting doses at 40,000-50,000 units of lipase/meal with increases of up to two to three times this amount before pursuing additive therapies. Guidelines and studies typically focus only on fat digestion, and comparison by total daily dose shows underdosing is common. Most PERT studies are on safety and efficacy rather than optimal titration.

CONCLUSION

The current guidelines for PERT in EPI demonstrate substantial variability in dosing recommendations, both within and across disease types. This variation highlights the need for further research to optimize PERT dosing and improve patient outcomes. Healthcare providers should consider individualizing PERT dosing based on nutritional status and response to therapy, ensuring regular follow-up with patients for dose titrations with consideration that most guidelines are framed as initial doses rather than upper limits.

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency after non-pancreatic upper gastrointestinal surgery: meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Untreated pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) results in substantial patient harm. Upper gastrointestinal surgery (bariatric metabolic surgery and oesophagogastric resection) affects the delicate physiology of pancreatic exocrine function and may result in PEI. The aim of this study was to assimilate the literature on incidence, diagnosis, and management of PEI after bariatric metabolic surgery and oesophagogastric resection.

METHODS

A systematic review of PubMed, MEDLINE, and Embase databases identified studies investigating PEI after non-pancreatic upper gastrointestinal surgery. Meta-analyses were undertaken for incidence of PEI and benefit of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy.

RESULTS

Among 1620 patients from 24 studies included in quantitative synthesis, 36.0% developed PEI. The incidence of PEI was 23.0 and 50.4% after bariatric metabolic surgery and oesophagogastric resection respectively. Notably, the incidence of PEI was 44% after biliopancreatic diversion with duodenal switch and 66.2% after total gastrectomy. The most common diagnostic test used was faecal elastase 1 (15 of 31 studies), with less than 200 µg/g being diagnostic of PEI. A total of 11 studies considered the management of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, with 78.6% of patients responding positively to pancreatic enzyme replacement when it was prescribed.

CONCLUSION

PEI is common after non-pancreatic upper gastrointestinal surgery and patients may benefit from enzyme replacement therapy.

Current clinical and pathogenetic characteristics of patients with chronic pancreatitis depending on biological age and smoking

OBJECTIVE

Aim: To investigate the relationships between age, smoking status, inflammatory markers, and endotoxicosis in patients with chronic pancreatitis, focusing on C-reactive protein (CRP) and middle molecular peptides, specifically MMP254 and MMP280..

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and Methods: The study involved the examination of 108 patients diagnosed with chronic pancreatitis. These patients were categorized by age according to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Additionally, patients were stratified based on smoking status. Key biochemical markers were assessed, including fecal α-elastase, medium molecular weight peptides, and C-reactive protein levels. This approach allows for a comprehensive evaluation of how age and smoking may influence the course of chronic pancreatitis, while also considering the diagnostic value of these specific biomarkers in monitoring pancreatic function and inflammatory responses in these patients.

RESULTS

Results: A statistically significant impact of age on fecal α-elastase, C-reactive protein, and medium molecular peptides levels has been identified. Additionally, smoking has been shown to exacerbate pathological changes in these markers.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: these findings underscore the necessity for individualized treatment approaches that consider age and smoking history, particularly in older patients. Future research should further explore the underlying mechanisms linking these variables to chronic pancreatitis, with an emphasis on the long-term effects of smoking cessation and interventions targeting inflammatory markers and endotoxicosis. This understanding is crucial for enhancing management strategies and improving the quality of life for patients suffering from chronic pancreatitis.

Perioperative management of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency-evidence-based proposal for a paradigm shift in pancreatic surgery

BACKGROUND

Despite exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) being a significant consequence of pancreatic surgery, there is still no consensus on its perioperative management. This study aimed to evaluate unselective pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT).

METHODS

A prospective, observational study of patients undergoing partial pancreatectomy was conducted. EPI status was assessed pre- and postoperatively, based on three fecal-elastase measurements each. Characteristic symptoms were evaluated by questionnaire. In 85 post-surgical patients, the subjective burden of PERT was measured.

RESULTS

101 patients were followed prospectively. Preoperative EPI screening was available for 83 patients, of which 48% were diagnosed with preexisting EPI. Of those patients with regular exocrine function, 54% developed EPI de novo; this rate being higher following pancreatic head resections (72%) compared to left-sided pancreatectomies (LP) (20%) (p = 0.016). Overall postoperative EPI prevalence was significantly greater following pancreatic head resections (86%) than LP (33%) (p < 0.001). Only young and female patients described a significant burden related to PERT.

CONCLUSION

For all patients undergoing pancreatic head resection PERT should be considered beginning prior to surgery, due to the subgroup's high EPI rate and the comparatively low burden of PERT. Patients with LP are at lower risk and should be pre- and postoperatively screened and supplemented accordingly.

Utilising Pancreatic Exocrine Insufficiency in the Detection of Resectable Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is usually diagnosed late, leading to a high mortality rate. Early detection facilitates better treatment options. The aim of this UK-based case-control study was to determine whether two validated tests for pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI), namely, the 13C-mixed triglyceride breath test (13C-MTGBT) and a faecal elastase (FE-1) test, can discriminate between patients with resectable PDAC versus healthy volunteers (HVs) along with a comparison group with chronic pancreatitis (CP). Discrimination between disease states and HVs was tested with receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curves. In total, 59 participants (23 PDAC (16 men), 24 HVs (13 men) and 12 CP (10 men)) were recruited, with a similar age in each population, and a combined median (IQR) age of 66 (57-71). The areas under the ROC curve for discriminating between PDAC and HVs were 0.83 (95% CI: 0.70-0.96) for the 13C-MTGBT, and 0.85 (95% CI: 0.75-0.95) for the FE-1 test. These were similar to CP vs. HV. In conclusion, PEI occurs in resectable PDAC to a similar extent as in CP; further large-scale, prospective studies using these tests in the primary care setting on high-risk groups are warranted.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency following bariatric surgery: unveiling alternative aetiology-case report and short review

Bariatric surgery (BS) is currently the most effective treatment for severe obesity, requiring ongoing multidisciplinary follow-up to ensure proper progress and nutrition post-procedure. Despite its favourable safety profile, it is not exempt from complications, one of which being exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of EPI after BS are multifactorial, including poorly synchronized pancreatic enzyme secretion with the passage of nutrients (pancreaticocibal or postcibal asynchrony), insufficient pancreatic stimulation and bacterial overgrowth. We conducted a short literature review of the topic through a case of a patient who underwent BS in our centre and subsequently developed EPI and severe malnutrition. EPI initially was attributed to the surgery, but after a comprehensive evaluation, an unexpected cause was revealed.

Managing complications of chronic pancreatitis: a guide for the gastroenterologist

INTRODUCTION

Chronic pancreatitis is a heterogeneous and complex syndrome that, in most cases, causes pain as a cardinal symptom and affects both the morphology and function of the pancreas, leading to several serious complications.

AREAS COVERED

The present review, based on a non-systematic PubMed search updated to June 2023, aims to present the current available evidence on the role of gastroenterologists in the diagnosis and treatment of both local and systemic complications by either endoscopic or medical treatments.

EXPERT OPINION

At diagnosis and during chronic pancreatitis follow-up, particular care is needed to consider not only the clinically manifest signs and symptoms of the disease, such as pain, jaundice, gastrointestinal obstruction, and pseudocysts, which require multidisciplinary discussion to establish the best treatment option (endoscopic or surgical), but also less evident systemic complications. Pancreatic exocrine and endocrine insufficiency, together with chronic inflammation, addiction, and dysbiosis, contribute to malnutrition, sarcopenia, and osteopathy. These complications, in turn, increase the risk of infection, thromboembolic events, and death. Patients with chronic pancreatitis also have an increased risk of psychiatric disorders and pancreatic cancer onset. Overall, patients with chronic pancreatitis should receive a holistic evaluation, considering all these aspects, possibly through multidisciplinary care in dedicated expert centers.

Post-surgical exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

Being an underdiagnosed and under or insufficiently treated condition, surgical pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PSP) is the condition in which pancreatic enzymes are insufficient for digestion because of gastrointestinal (GI) surgery involving the upper GI tract, biliary ducts, or the pancreas, and and leading to potential malnutrition and deterioration in quality of life. Age, obesity, history of tobacco use, family history of diabetes, surgery due to a malignant tumor, presence of steatorrhea, jaundice, weight loss, and intraoperative findings of hard pancreatic texture have been associated with a higher risk of PSP. Pancreatoduodectomy (PD) has demonstrated an increased risk of developing PSP, with a prevalence between 19-100%. Distal pancreatectomy (DP) and central pancreatectomy (CenP) are associated with less risk of PSP, with a prevalence of 0-82% and 3.66-8.7%, respectively. In patients with chronic pancreatitis (CP), PSP was associated with 80% in Partington-Rochelle procedure, 86% in Frey procedure, 80% in duodenum preserving pancreatic head procedure, >60% in PD and 27.5-63% in DP. Fecal elastase-1 (FE-1) is a generally accepted tool for diagnosis. Treatment is recommended to start as soon as a diagnosis is achieved, or clinical suspicion is high. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy improves symptoms of malabsorption, facilitates weight gain, and ultimately improves patients' quality of life. Starting dosage is between 10,000-50,000 units in snacks and 50,000-75,000 units in main meals, administered throughout food intake, though further data specifically on PSP are needed. Follow-up in PSP is recommended on an on-demand basis, where malnutrition should be assessed.

Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Children - Challenges in Management

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the leading etiology for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) in children, followed by chronic pancreatitis, Shwachman-Diamond syndrome, and other genetic disorders. Management of EPI in children poses several unique challenges such as difficulties in early recognition, lack of widespread availability of diagnostic tests and limited number of pediatric-specific pancreatic centers. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy is the cornerstone of EPI management and in young children difficulties in administering pancreatic enzymes are frequently encountered. Patients with EPI also should be screened for fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies and receive appropriate supplementation. Among disorders with EPI in children, CF is the relatively well-studied condition, and most management recommendations for EPI in children come from expert consensus and conventional practice guidelines. The impact of EPI can be greater in children given their high metabolic demands and rapid growth. Early diagnosis and aggressive management of EPI prevent consequences of complications such as malnutrition, fat-soluble vitamin deficiencies, and poor bone health and improve outcomes. Management by multi-disciplinary team is the key to success.

A life-threatening presentation of postgastrectomy exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: A case report

Key Clinical Message

Physicians must be alert for the exocrine pancreatic insufficiency diagnosis through the follow-up of postgastrectomy patients, regardless the severity and lag time. Urgent albumin and pancreatic enzyme replacement should be considered when diagnosed.

Abstract

It is documented that exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) can develop after gastrectomy. Steatorrhea, malnutrition, and weight loss are common symptoms of the disease; however, it is usually mild to moderate postgastrectomy. This article reports a case of EPI manifested by hypoalbuminemia leading to dyspnea and anasarca, which are not typical symptoms of postgastrectomy EPI. A 61-year-old man with a history of gastric adenocarcinoma treated by total gastrectomy and chemoradiotherapy was admitted to the hospital with dyspnea and anasarca. Despite being diagnosed as a case of malignancy recurrence in another hospital, based on the symptoms described, no evidence of malignancy was found. His ascites and pleural effusion were determined to be caused by hypoalbuminemia. In addition, he claimed steatorrhea, and his stool elastase was lower than expected. EPI was diagnosed based on his medical history, paraclinical tests, and examinations. He remained asymptomatic for 1 year after being treated with albumin and pancreatic enzymes. Postgastrectomy EPI may be severe enough to cause steatorrhea or hypoalbuminemia. Hence, regardless of the severity of the presentation, physicians must be alert for this diagnosis throughout the follow-up of patients with a history of gastrectomy. Urgent albumin and pancreatic enzyme replacement should be considered when diagnosed.

A Systematic Review of Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency Prevalence and Treatment in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

Type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes have high rates of associated exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). This review evaluated the current evidence on prevalence and treatment of EPI in type 1 and type 2 diabetes and compared general population prevalence rates of EPI and prevalence of other common gastrointestinal conditions such as celiac disease and gastroparesis based on within-diabetes rates of common gastrointestinal (GI) conditions. Prevalence of EPI in type 1 diabetes ranges from 14% to 77.5% (median 33%), while EPI in type 2 diabetes ranges from 16.8% to 49.2% (median 29%), and where type of diabetes is not specified in studies, ranges from 5.4% to 77%. In studies with control groups of the general population, prevalence of EPI overall in those without diabetes ranged from 4.4% to 18%, median 13%, which is comparable with other estimated general population prevalence rates of EPI (10%-20%). Cumulatively, this suggests there may be significant numbers of people with diabetes with EPI who are undiagnosed. People with diabetes (both type 1 and type 2) who present with gastrointestinal symptoms, such as steatorrhea or changes in stool, bloating, and/or abdominal pain, should be screened for EPI. Both diabetes specialists and gastroenterologists and primary care providers should be aware of the high rates of prevalence of diabetes and EPI and recommend fecal elastase-1 screening for people with diabetes and GI symptoms.

Estimation of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in children with acute pancreatitis using the 13C mixed triglyceride breath test

BACKGROUND

/Objective: The extent of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) in the paediatric population with acute pancreatitis (AP) is unknown. The primary objective was to use a 6 h stable-isotope breath test to determine the prevalence of EPI in children with AP. The secondary objective was to determine the diagnostic ability of a 4 h abbreviated breath test in the detection of EPI.

METHODS

13C-mixed triglyceride (MTG) breath test was used to measure fat digestibility in 12 children with AP and 12 normal children. EPI was diagnosed based on a cumulative dose percentage recovery (cPDR) cut-off value < 26.8% present in literature. To reduce the test burden, the diagnostic accuracy of an abbreviated 4 h test was evaluated, using a cPDR cut-off that was the 2.5th percentile of its distribution in control children.

RESULTS

The cPDR of cases was significantly lower than that of controls (27.71 ± 7.88% vs 36.37 ± 4.70%, p = 0.005). The cPDR during acute illness was not significantly different to that at 1 month follow up (24.69 ± 6.83% vs 26.98 ± 11.10%, p = 0.52). The 4 h and 6 h breath test results correlated strongly (r = 0.93, p < 0.001) with each other. The new 4 h test had 87.5% sensitivity and 93.8% specificity for detecting EPI.

CONCLUSION

Two-thirds (66.7%) of this sample of children with AP had EPI during admission, which persisted at 1 month follow up. The 4 h abbreviated 13C-MTG breath test has good diagnostic ability to detect EPI in children and may improve its clinical utility in this age group.

Survey of Pancreatic Enzyme Replacement Therapy Dosing Experiences in Adults with Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency

OBJECTIVES

Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) is essential for treating exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), a condition where the pancreas does not produce adequate enzymes for digestion. This study delves into the real-world experiences of individuals with EPI regarding their PERT usage.

METHODS

A study was executed using a tailored survey targeting individuals with EPI. Quantitative data analysis assessed factors such as age, duration of EPI, elastase levels, choice of PERT, perceived effectiveness of titration, and the time taken for effective titration.

RESULTS

The study comprised 111 participants, predominantly female (93%) and hailing from North America (79%). Of these, 36.7% had been diagnosed with EPI for 3 or more years. A significant 72% felt they were not consistently consuming adequate enzymes, with only 22% believing their intake was sufficient. There were 44 participants (42%) still in the process of adjusting their enzyme doses. In contrast, 17 participants (16%) took a few weeks, 21 (20%) a few months, 11 (10%) over six months, 10 (9%) more than a year, and 3 (3%) several years for dose adjustment. Regarding enzyme titration advice, 30 participants (29%) received vague guidance, while 22 (21%) found the advice beneficial.

CONCLUSIONS

This study underscores the pressing need for enhanced PERT dosing guidance. The insights gleaned spotlight the prevalent undertreatment across the entire EPI demographic, including in those with lesser-studied co-conditions.

An orally administered enzyme therapeutic for homocystinuria that suppresses homocysteine by metabolizing methionine in the gastrointestinal tract

Classical homocystinuria (HCU) is a rare inborn error of amino acid metabolism characterized by accumulation of homocysteine, an intermediate product of methionine metabolism, leading to significant systemic toxicities, particularly within the vascular, skeletal, and ocular systems. Most patients require lifelong dietary therapy with severe restriction of natural protein to minimize methionine intake, and many patients still struggle to maintain healthy homocysteine levels. Since eliminating methionine from the diet reduces homocysteine levels, we hypothesized that an enzyme that can degrade methionine within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract could help HCU patients maintain healthy levels while easing natural protein restrictions. We describe the preclinical development of CDX-6512, a methionine gamma lyase (MGL) enzyme that was engineered for stability and activity within the GI tract for oral administration to locally degrade methionine. CDX-6512 is stable to low pH and intestinal proteases, enabling it to survive the harsh GI environment without enteric coating and to degrade methionine freed from dietary protein within the small intestine. Administering CDX-6512 to healthy non-human primates following a high protein meal led to a dose-dependent suppression of plasma methionine. In Tg-I278T Cbs-/- mice, an animal model that recapitulates aspects of HCU disease including highly elevated serum homocysteine levels, oral dosing of CDX-6512 after a high protein meal led to suppression in serum levels of both methionine and homocysteine. When animals received a daily dose of CDX-6512 with a high protein meal for two weeks, the Tg-I278T Cbs-/- mice maintained baseline homocysteine levels, whereas homocysteine levels in untreated animals increased by 39%. These preclinical data demonstrate the potential of CDX-6512 as an oral enzyme therapy for HCU.

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency in diabetes mellitus

Diabetes is disease of both the endo- and exocrine parts of the pancreas. Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) can occur in every 2–3 patients with diabetes and affect not only the quality, but also life expectancy. At the same time, the diagnosis and treatment of PEI is not getting enough attention. The endocrinologist, as the main specialist leading patients with diabetes, can diagnose and treat patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and diabetes using adequate doses of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT).

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency in diabetes mellitus

Diabetes is disease of both the endo- and exocrine parts of the pancreas. Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) can occur in every 2–3 patients with diabetes and affect not only the quality, but also life expectancy. At the same time, the diagnosis and treatment of PEI is not getting enough attention. The endocrinologist, as the main specialist leading patients with diabetes, can diagnose and treat patients with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and diabetes using adequate doses of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT).

Nutrition in children with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a condition defined as pancreatic loss of exocrine function, including decreased digestive enzymes and bicarbonate secretion, which leads to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients. It is a common complication in many pancreatic disorders. If left undiagnosed, EPI can cause poor digestion of food, chronic diarrhea, severe malnutrition and related complications. Nutritional status and fat-soluble vitamins should be carefully assessed and monitored in patients with EPI. Early diagnosis of EPI is clinically important for appropriate nutritional support and initiating pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) which could significantly improve patient outcomes. The evaluation of nutritional status and related unique management in children with EPI will be discussed in this review.

Differential Diagnosis of Chronic Diarrhea: An Algorithm to Distinguish Irritable Bowel Syndrome With Diarrhea From Other Organic Gastrointestinal Diseases, With Special Focus on Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency

Chronic diarrhea, defined as diarrhea persisting for more than 4 weeks, affects up to 5% of the population regardless of patient age, sex, race, or socioeconomic status. The impact on patient health and quality of life is substantial, and diagnosis and management of these patients have significant economic consequences for health care services. The differential diagnosis of chronic diarrhea is broad, with etiologies including infections, endocrinopathies, maldigestive/malabsorptive conditions, and disorders of gut-brain interaction. The considerable overlap of symptoms across this spectrum makes accurate diagnosis problematic and may lead to delays in diagnosis or misdiagnosis. In this narrative review, we consider the differential diagnosis of chronic diarrhea, focusing on irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, two conditions that may present similarly but have very different underlying causes and require significantly different management strategies. We outline a 4-step diagnostic strategy and propose a straightforward algorithm to assist in efficiently differentiating irritable bowel syndrome from exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and other causes of chronic diarrhea. We anticipate that these aids will improve diagnostic accuracy, which ultimately should lead to improvements in patients' health-related quality of life and reduce the societal burden on health care services.