1
|
Hamed Dessoki H, Mostafa Mohammed Z, Ismael MS, Osama H, Salah H. Impulsivity and self-harm behavior in patients with synthetic cannabinoids dependence. J Addict Dis 2024:1-9. [PMID: 39086240 DOI: 10.1080/10550887.2024.2375462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) dependence is increasingly prevalent among young individuals globally, with limited understanding of their potential detrimental effects. Therefore, we conducted this comparative study to assess impulsivity and non-suicidal self-harm behavior in patients with SCs dependence. SUBJECTS AND METHOD We conducted this comparative, case-control study in the outpatient clinics of (Beni-suef University Hospital). We recruited 30 patients with SCs dependence and the 30 healthy subjects as a control group. Psychometric scales, including Addiction Severity Index (ASI), Barratt Impulsivity Scale-11 (BIS-11), Deliberate Self-harm Inventory-Short Version (DSHI), SCID I, SCID II, and drug urine screen, were applied to compare the two study arms. RESULTS DSHI-s scores were significantly higher between the two study arms (3.23 ± 4.97 vs. 0.0 ± 0.0, p < 0.001, for cases and controls, respectively). Similarly, the mean ± SD score of the BIS scale was significantly higher in cases 68.13 ± 9.75 compared to the control group (45.67 ± 5.12) with a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001). Using the regression analysis, we observed a significant positive linkage between age, duration of substance use, DSHI-s, and the Barratt scale. CONCLUSION Patients with synthetic cannabis addiction exhibited more impulsivity and self-harm behaviors compared to healthy controls. The adverse effects of substance use disorder escalated, notably in individuals classified as having severe addiction based on the Addiction Severity Index. Age and length of substance use were found to be potential factors influencing the level of impulsivity and self-harm actions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hani Hamed Dessoki
- Psychiatry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | | | - Marwa S Ismael
- Psychiatry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Hasnaa Osama
- Clinical Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Hisham Salah
- Psychiatry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Timmerman A, Balcaen M, Coopman V, Degreef M, Pottie E, Stove CP. Activity-based detection of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in plant materials. Harm Reduct J 2024; 21:127. [PMID: 38951904 PMCID: PMC11218095 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-024-01044-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since late 2019, fortification of 'regular' cannabis plant material with synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) has become a notable phenomenon on the drug market. As many SCRAs pose a higher health risk than genuine cannabis, recognizing SCRA-adulterated cannabis is important from a harm reduction perspective. However, this is not always an easy task as adulterated cannabis may only be distinguished from genuine cannabis by dedicated, often expensive and time-consuming analytical techniques. In addition, the dynamic nature of the SCRA market renders identification of fortified samples a challenging task. Therefore, we established and applied an in vitro cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) activity-based procedure to screen plant material for the presence of SCRAs. METHODS The assay principle relies on the functional complementation of a split-nanoluciferase following recruitment of β-arrestin 2 to activated CB1. A straightforward sample preparation, encompassing methanolic extraction and dilution, was optimized for plant matrices, including cannabis, spiked with 5 µg/mg of the SCRA CP55,940. RESULTS The bioassay successfully detected all samples of a set (n = 24) of analytically confirmed authentic Spice products, additionally providing relevant information on the 'strength' of a preparation and whether different samples may have originated from separate batches or possibly the same production batch. Finally, the methodology was applied to assess the occurrence of SCRA adulteration in a large set (n = 252) of herbal materials collected at an international dance festival. This did not reveal any positives, i.e. there were no samples that yielded a relevant CB1 activation. CONCLUSION In summary, we established SCRA screening of herbal materials as a new application for the activity-based CB1 bioassay. The simplicity of the sample preparation, the rapid results and the universal character of the bioassay render it an effective and future-proof tool for evaluating herbal materials for the presence of SCRAs, which is relevant in the context of harm reduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Axelle Timmerman
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Margot Balcaen
- Belgian Early Warning System on Drugs, Unit Illicit drugs, Health information, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Maarten Degreef
- Belgian Early Warning System on Drugs, Unit Illicit drugs, Health information, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Eline Pottie
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Chen YC, Hsu JY, Chang CW, Chen PY, Lin YC, Hsu IL, Chu CJ, Lin YP, Liao PC. Investigation of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), Other Illicit Drugs, and Drug-Related Compounds in a Taiwanese Wastewater Sample Using High-Resolution Mass-Spectrometry-Based Targeted and Suspect Screening. Molecules 2023; 28:5040. [PMID: 37446702 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28135040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) in recent years has posed a significant challenge to public health. Traditional monitoring methods have proven insufficient in tracking these constantly evolving substances, leading to the development of alternative approaches such as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). The present study aims to utilize high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)-based targeted and suspect screening to profile NPS, other illicit drugs, and drug-related compounds in a Taiwanese wastewater sample. For the targeted analysis, 8 out 18 standards of illicit drugs have been identified. The suspect screening approach based on approximately 3600 substances in the SWGDRUG library can further identify 92 compounds, including opiate analgesics, synthetic cathinones, phenylalkylamines derivatives, phenethylamine derivatives, tryptamine derivatives, steroids, and ephedrine-related compounds. Additionally, the presence of 5-methoxy-2-aminoindane (MEAI) in the wastewater indicates that drug dealers have recently sold this potential NPS to evade drug regulations. This study firstly reports the HRMS-based comprehensive profile of NPS, other illicit drugs, and drug-related compounds in Taiwan, which could be applied as biomarkers for estimating the consumption of drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Chih Chen
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Yi Hsu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Wei Chang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Pin-Yu Chen
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chieh Lin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - I-Lin Hsu
- Public Health Bureau, Tainan City Government, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Chiau-Jun Chu
- Public Health Bureau, Tainan City Government, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Ping Lin
- Public Health Bureau, Tainan City Government, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| | - Pao-Chi Liao
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan
- Department of Food Safety/Hygiene and Risk Management, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 704, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
de Oliveira MC, Vides MC, Lassi DLS, Torales J, Ventriglio A, Bombana HS, Leyton V, Périco CDAM, Negrão AB, Malbergier A, Castaldelli-Maia JM. Toxicity of Synthetic Cannabinoids in K2/Spice: A Systematic Review. Brain Sci 2023; 13:990. [PMID: 37508922 PMCID: PMC10377539 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13070990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are emerging drugs of abuse sold as 'K2', 'K9' or 'Spice'. Evidence shows that using SCs products leads to greater health risks than cannabis. They have been associated with greater toxicity and higher addiction potential unrelated to the primary psychoactive component of marijuana, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC). Moreover, early cases of intoxication and death related to SCs highlight the inherent danger that may accompany the use of these substances. However, there is limited knowledge of the toxicology of Spice ingredients. This systematic review intends to analyze the toxicity of SCs compounds in Spice/K2 drugs. (2) Methods: Studies analyzing synthetic cannabinoid toxicity and dependence were included in the present review. We searched the PubMed database of the US National Library of Medicine, Google Scholar, CompTox Chemicals, and Web of Science up to May 2022. (3) Results: Sixty-four articles reporting the effects of synthetic cannabinoids in humans were included in our review. Ten original papers and fifty-four case studies were also included. Fourteen studies reported death associated with synthetic cannabinoid use, with AB-CHMINACA and MDMB-CHMICA being the main reported SCs. Tachycardia and seizures were the most common toxicity symptoms. The prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms was higher in third-generation SCs. (4) Conclusion: SCs may exhibit higher toxicity than THC and longer-lasting effects. Their use may be harmful, especially in people with epilepsy and schizophrenia, because of the increased risk of the precipitation of psychiatric and neurologic disorders. Compared to other drugs, SCs have a higher potential to trigger a convulsive crisis, a decline in consciousness, and hemodynamic changes. Therefore, it is crucial to clarify their potential harms and increase the availability of toxicology data in both clinical and research settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Campello de Oliveira
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Institute Perdizes, Department of Psychiatry Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Mariana Capelo Vides
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Institute Perdizes, Department of Psychiatry Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Dângela Layne Silva Lassi
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Institute Perdizes, Department of Psychiatry Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-903, SP, Brazil
| | - Julio Torales
- Department of Psychological Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, National University of Asuncion, San Lorenzo 111421, Paraguay
| | - Antonio Ventriglio
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Medical School, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Henrique Silva Bombana
- Department of Legal Medicine, Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05508-090, SP, Brazil
| | - Vilma Leyton
- Department of Legal Medicine, Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05508-090, SP, Brazil
| | | | - André Brooking Negrão
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Institute Perdizes, Department of Psychiatry Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-903, SP, Brazil
| | - André Malbergier
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Institute Perdizes, Department of Psychiatry Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-903, SP, Brazil
| | - João Maurício Castaldelli-Maia
- Interdisciplinary Group of Alcohol and Drug Studies (GREA), Institute Perdizes, Department of Psychiatry Medical School, São Paulo University, São Paulo 05403-903, SP, Brazil
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical School, FMABC University Center, Santo André 09060-870, SP, Brazil
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang Z, Leow EYQ, Moy HY, Chan ECY. Advances in urinary biomarker research of synthetic cannabinoids. Adv Clin Chem 2023; 115:1-32. [PMID: 37673518 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acc.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
New psychoactive substances (NPS) are chemical compounds designed to mimic the action of existing illicit recreational drugs. Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a subclass of NPS which bind to the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, and mimic the action of cannabis. SCs have dominated recent NPS seizure reports worldwide. While urine is the most common matrix for drug-of-abuse testing, SCs undergo extensive Phase I and Phase II metabolism, resulting in almost undetectable parent compounds in urine samples. Therefore, the major urinary metabolites of SCs are usually investigated as surrogate biomarkers to identify their consumption. Since seized urine samples after consuming novel SCs may be unavailable in a timely manner, human hepatocytes, human liver microsomes and human transporter overexpressed cell lines are physiologically-relevant in vitro systems for performing metabolite identification, metabolic stability, reaction phenotyping and transporter experiments to establish the disposition of SC and its metabolites. Coupling these in vitro experiments with in vivo verification using limited authentic urine samples, such a two-pronged approach has proven to be effective in establishing urinary metabolites as biomarkers for rapidly emerging SCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ziteng Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Eric Yu Quan Leow
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hooi Yan Moy
- Analytical Toxicology Laboratory, Applied Sciences Group, Health Sciences Authority, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Eric Chun Yong Chan
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Monitoring Perfusion Index in Patients Presenting to the Emergency Department Due to Drug Use. J Pers Med 2023; 13:jpm13020372. [PMID: 36836606 PMCID: PMC9963239 DOI: 10.3390/jpm13020372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The perfusion index (PI) represents the ratio between pulsatile blood flow and non-pulsatile blood flow in the peripheral tissue. (2) We aimed to investigate the blood pressure perfusion of tissues and organs in ethnobotanical, synthetic cannabinoid and cannabis derivative consumers through the value of perfusion index. (3) Results: The patients enrolled were divided into two groups: group A, which included all patients who presented in the ED within the first three hours after consumption, and group B, which included those patients who presented more than three hours and up to 12 h after drug consumption. The average values of the PI in the case of group A/group B were 1.51 ± 1.07/4.55 ± 3.66. Statistically significant correlations in both groups were recorded between the drug intake ED admission, respiratory rate, peripheral blood oxygen saturation and tissue perfusion index (p < 0.001). The average value of the PI measured in group A was significantly lower compared to that measured in patients in group B. Therefore, we concluded that the perfusion of peripheral organs and tissues was lower in the first 3 h after drug administration. (4) Conclusions: PI plays an important role in the early detection of impaired organ perfusion and in monitoring tissue hypoxia. A decreased PI value may be an early indication of decreased perfusion organ damage.
Collapse
|
7
|
Graziano G, Delre P, Carofiglio F, Brea J, Ligresti A, Kostrzewa M, Riganti C, Gioè-Gallo C, Majellaro M, Nicolotti O, Colabufo NA, Abate C, Loza MI, Sotelo E, Mangiatordi GF, Contino M, Stefanachi A, Leonetti F. N-adamantyl-anthranil amide derivatives: New selective ligands for the cannabinoid receptor subtype 2 (CB2R). Eur J Med Chem 2023; 248:115109. [PMID: 36657299 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that, together with Cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R), endogenous cannabinoids and enzymes responsible for their synthesis and degradation, forms the EndoCannabinoid System (ECS). In the last decade, several studies have shown that CB2R is overexpressed in activated central nervous system (CNS) microglia cells, in disorders based on an inflammatory state, such as neurodegenerative diseases, neuropathic pain, and cancer. For this reason, the anti-inflammatory and immune-modulatory potentials of CB2R ligands are emerging as a novel therapeutic approach. The design of selective ligands is however hampered by the high sequence homology of transmembrane domains of CB1R and CB2R. Based on a recent three-arm pharmacophore hypothesis and latest CB2R crystal structures, we designed, synthesized, and evaluated a series of new N-adamantyl-anthranil amide derivatives as CB2R selective ligands. Interestingly, this new class of compounds displayed a high affinity for human CB2R along with an excellent selectivity respect to CB1R. In this respect, compounds exhibiting the best pharmacodynamic profile in terms of CB2R affinity were also evaluated for the functional behavior and molecular docking simulations provided a sound rationale by highlighting the relevance of the arm 1 substitution to prompt CB2R action. Moreover, the modulation of the pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines production was also investigated to exert the ability of the best compounds to modulate the inflammatory cascade.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Graziano
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Pietro Delre
- CNR - Institute of Crystallography, Via Giovanni Amendola, 122/O, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Francesca Carofiglio
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Josè Brea
- Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CIMUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Av. Barcelona, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Alessia Ligresti
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research Council of Italy, Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078, Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
| | - Magdalena Kostrzewa
- Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research Council of Italy, Via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078, Pozzuoli, NA, Italy
| | - Chiara Riganti
- Department of Oncology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Claudia Gioè-Gallo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Spain
| | - Maria Majellaro
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Spain
| | - Orazio Nicolotti
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Nicola Antonio Colabufo
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Carmen Abate
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy; CNR - Institute of Crystallography, Via Giovanni Amendola, 122/O, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Isabel Loza
- Center for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases (CIMUS), University of Santiago de Compostela, Av. Barcelona, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, School of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Eddy Sotelo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e Materiais Moleculares (CiQUS), Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Spain
| | | | - Marialessandra Contino
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy.
| | - Angela Stefanachi
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy.
| | - Francesco Leonetti
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of the Studies of Bari "Aldo Moro", Via E.Orabona 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Malheiro RF, Carmo H, Carvalho F, Silva JP. Cannabinoid-mediated targeting of mitochondria on the modulation of mitochondrial function and dynamics. Pharmacol Res 2023; 187:106603. [PMID: 36516885 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria play a critical role in the regulation of several biological processes (e.g., programmed cell death, inflammation, neurotransmission, cell differentiation). In recent years, accumulating findings have evidenced that cannabinoids, a group of endogenous and exogenous (synthetic and plant-derived) psychoactive compounds that bind to cannabinoid receptors, may modulate mitochondrial function and dynamics. As such, mitochondria have gained increasing interest as central mediators in cannabinoids' pharmacological and toxicological signatures. Here, we review the mechanisms underlying the cannabinoids' modulation of mitochondrial activity and dynamics, as well as the potential implications of such mitochondrial processes' disruption on cell homeostasis and disease. Interestingly, cannabinoids may target different mitochondrial processes (e.g., regulation of intracellular calcium levels, bioenergetic metabolism, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dynamics, including mitochondrial fission and fusion, transport, mitophagy, and biogenesis), by modulating multiple and complex signaling pathways. Of note, the outcome may depend on the experimental models used, as well as the chemical structure, concentration, and exposure settings to the cannabinoid, originating equivocal data. Notably, this interaction seems to represent not only an important feature of cannabinoids' toxicological signatures, with potential implications for the onset of distinct pathological conditions (e.g., cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic syndromes), but also an opportunity to develop novel therapeutic strategies for such pathologies, which is also discussed in this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Filipe Malheiro
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; UCIBIO, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Helena Carmo
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; UCIBIO, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Félix Carvalho
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; UCIBIO, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - João Pedro Silva
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; UCIBIO, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Afshar S, Abbasinazari M, Amin G, Farrokhian A, Sistanizad M, Afshar F, Khalili S. Endocannabinoids and related compounds as modulators of angiogenesis: Concepts and clinical significance. Cell Biochem Funct 2022; 40:826-837. [PMID: 36317321 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Vasculogenesis (the process of differentiation of angioblasts toward endothelial cells and de novo formation of crude vascular networks) and angiogenesis (the process of harmonized sprouting and dispersal of new capillaries from previously existing ones) are two fundamentally complementary processes, obligatory for maintaining physiological functioning of vascular system. In clinical practice, however, the later one is of more importance as it guarantees correct embryonic nourishment, accelerates wound healing processes, prevents uncontrolled cell growth and tumorigenesis, contributes in supplying nutritional demand following occlusion of coronary vessels and is in direct relation with development of diabetic retinopathy. Hence, discovery of novel molecules capable of modulating angiogenic events are of great clinical importance. Recent studies have demonstrated multiple angio-regulatory activities for endocannabinoid system modulators and endocannabinoid-like molecules, as well as their metabolizing enzymes. Hence, in present article, we reviewed the regulatory roles of these molecules on angiogenesis and described molecular mechanisms underlying them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shima Afshar
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Abbasinazari
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Amin
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Farrokhian
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sistanizad
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fariba Afshar
- Department of internal medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Tehran Medical Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shayesteh Khalili
- Department of Internal Medicine, Imam Hossein Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Malaca S, Busardò FP, Nittari G, Sirignano A, Ricci G. Fourth Generation of Synthetic Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists: A Review on the Latest Insights. Curr Pharm Des 2022; 28:2603-2617. [PMID: 34781870 DOI: 10.2174/1381612827666211115170521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Over the past few years, an emerging number of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) entered the illicit market. NPSs are designed to resemble the effects of classical drugs of abuse, reinforcing their effects and duration. Among the most abused NPS, synthetic cannabinoids are cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) that mimic the effect of the main psychotropic phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). METHODS We herein reviewed the international literature to provide available information on the newest SCRAs generation. RESULTS Compared to the previous SCRAs generations, the structures of the last generation result in increased affinity for and efficacy at cannabinoid CB1 receptors, which are thought to be mainly responsible for the psychoactive effects of THC and its analogues. Accordingly, these more potent cannabimimetic effects may increase the number of adverse reactions such as neurological disorders (e.g., psychosis, agitation, irritability, paranoia, confusion, and anxiety), psychiatric episodes (e.g., hallucinations, delusions, self-harm), other physical conditions (e.g., tachycardia, hypertension, arrhythmia, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and fever) and deaths. In the last decade, more than a hundred SCRAs from different chemical classes emerged on the illicit web market. SCRAs have been thoroughly studied: they were physico-chemically characterized, and pharmaco-toxicological characteristics were investigated. The last SCRAs generations include increasingly potent and toxic compounds, posing a potential health threat to consumers. CONCLUSION From November 2017 to February 2021, at least 20 new "fourth-generation" SCRAs were formally reported to international drug agencies. Our understanding of the neurotoxicity of these compounds is still limited due to the lack of global data, but their potency and their toxicity are likely higher than those of the previous generations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Malaca
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Ancona, Italy
| | - Francesco P Busardò
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Ancona, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Michienzi AE, Borek HA. Emerging Agents of Substance Use/Misuse. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2022; 40:265-281. [DOI: 10.1016/j.emc.2022.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
12
|
Vikram ENT, Ilavarasan R, Kamaraj R. Anti-cancer activities of Schedule E1 drugs used in ayurvedic formulations. J Ayurveda Integr Med 2022; 13:100545. [PMID: 35661925 PMCID: PMC9163510 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaim.2022.100545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Schedule E1 is an important part of Drugs and Cosmetics Act (Government of India) that comprises the list of poisonous drugs from plant, animal and mineral origins to be consumed under medical supervision. Ayurveda, the world's oldest medicinal system has a list of drugs represented in schedule E1 that are used since thousands of years. This review reports the anti-cancer activities of fifteen toxic ayurvedic drugs from plant origin represented in Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940. The information was collected from the various authentic sources, compiled and summarised. The plant extracts, formulations, phytoconstituents and other preparations of these drugs have shown effective activities against mammary carcinoma, neuroblastoma, non-small cell lung carcinoma, lymphocytic leukaemia, colorectal adenocarcinoma, Ehrlich ascites carcinoma, prostate adenocarcinoma, glioblastoma asterocytoma and other malignancies. They have various mechanisms of action including Bax upregulation, Bcl2 downregulation, induction of cell cycle arrest at S phase, G2/M phase, inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factors, inhibition of Akt/mTOR signalling etc. Certain traditional ayurvedic preparations containing these plants are reported beneficial and the possibilities of these drugs as the alternative and adjuvant therapeutic agents in the current cancer care have been discussed. The studies suggest that these drugs could be utilised in future for the critical care of malignancies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E N T Vikram
- SRM College of Pharmacy, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Kancheepuram (Dt.), Tamilnadu 603203, India
| | - R Ilavarasan
- Captain Srinivasa Murthy Central Ayurveda Research Institute, Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences, Ministry of AYUSH, Arumbakkam, Chennai, Tamilnadu 600106, India
| | - R Kamaraj
- SRM College of Pharmacy, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Kancheepuram (Dt.), Tamilnadu 603203, India.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Musiał J, Czarny J, Gadzała-Kopciuch R. Overview of analytical methods for determining novel psychoactive substances, drugs and their metabolites in biological samples. Crit Rev Toxicol 2022; 52:239-258. [PMID: 36040410 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2022.2091424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a growing in interest in psychoactive substances, particularly those available in e-commerce. These have led to an increase in the number of drug-related poisonings, deaths, and road accidents. Illegal drugs are available on an unprecedented scale and cause previously unknown adverse effects, which creates a challenge for analysts to find rapid methods for identifying these substances and taking appropriate action in the shortest possible time. New psychoactive substances (NPSs) can be lethal at very low concentrations, which give particularly serious cause for concern. These drugs are easily accessible and often regarded (or claimed) to be safe, which encourages many people, in particular young people, to try them. The widespread use of these substances is compounded by the awareness that they are difficult to detect with the existing rapid screening tests. Simple, fast, sensitive, and specific methods for determining the largest possible number of black-market psychoactive substances and their metabolites are therefore essential. Such methods will facilitate treatment and increase the effectiveness of measures aiming to reduce drug addiction. The objective of this review article was to critically compare the most commonly used analytical methods for determining NPS and their metabolites in biological material, with special emphasis on the sample preparation process, and to highlight the possibilities offered by the existing analytical methods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jadwiga Musiał
- Institute of Forensic Genetics, Bydgoszcz, Poland.,Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Jakub Czarny
- Institute of Forensic Genetics, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Renata Gadzała-Kopciuch
- Department of Environmental Chemistry and Bioanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Malaca S, Tini A, Umani Ronchi F. Fourth generation of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists: a summary on the latest insights. ACTA BIO-MEDICA : ATENEI PARMENSIS 2022; 92:e2021546. [PMID: 35075053 PMCID: PMC8823589 DOI: 10.23750/abm.v92i6.12696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM From few years, an emerging number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) entered the illicit market. NPS are designed to be similar to the effects of classical drugs of abuse, with increased effects and duration. Synthetic cannabinoids are cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs), some of the most abused NPS. METHODS We have herein briefly highlighted current relevant available information on the newest SCRAs generation, with relevant structural remarks as to the distinctive traits of such substances. RESULTS Compared to the previous SCRAs generations, the structures of the last generation result in increased affinity for and efficacy at cannabinoid CB1 receptors, which are thought to be mainly responsible for the psychoactive effects of THC and its analogues. Accordingly, these more potent cannabimimetic effects may increase the number of adverse reactions such as neurological disorders, psychiatric episodes and deaths. In the last decade, more than a hundred SCRAs from different chemical classes emerged on the illicit web market. SCRAs have been thoroughly studied and the last generations include increasingly potent and toxic compounds, posing a potentially daunting health threat to consumers. CONCLUSIONS From November 2017 to February 2021, at least 20 new "fourth-generation" SCRAs were formally reported to international drug agencies. Our understanding about the neurotoxicity of these compounds is still limited, due to the lack of global data, but their potency and their toxicity are likely higher than those of the previous generations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Malaca
- Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health. University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Ancona, Italy.
| | - Anastasio Tini
- a:1:{s:5:"en_US";s:133:"Department of Excellence of Biomedical Sciences and Public Health. University "Politecnica delle Marche" of Ancona, Ancona, Italy";}.
| | - Federica Umani Ronchi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic, and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
OUP accepted manuscript. Clin Chem 2022; 68:848-855. [DOI: 10.1093/clinchem/hvac045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
16
|
The Interplay between the Immune and the Endocannabinoid Systems in Cancer. Cells 2021; 10:cells10061282. [PMID: 34064197 PMCID: PMC8224348 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The therapeutic potential of Cannabis sativa has been recognized since ancient times. Phytocannabinoids, endocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids activate two major G protein-coupled receptors, subtype 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2). Cannabinoids (CBs) modulate several aspects of cancer cells, such as apoptosis, autophagy, proliferation, migration, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and stemness. Moreover, agonists of CB1 and CB2 receptors inhibit angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Low-grade inflammation is a hallmark of cancer in the tumor microenvironment (TME), which contains a plethora of innate and adaptive immune cells. These cells play a central role in tumor initiation and growth and the formation of metastasis. CB2 and, to a lesser extent, CB1 receptors are expressed on a variety of immune cells present in TME (e.g., T cells, macrophages, mast cells, neutrophils, NK cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, eosinophils). The activation of CB receptors modulates a variety of biological effects on cells of the adaptive and innate immune system. The expression of CB2 and CB1 on different subsets of immune cells in TME and hence in tumor development is incompletely characterized. The recent characterization of the human cannabinoid receptor CB2-Gi signaling complex will likely aid to design potent and specific CB2/CB1 ligands with therapeutic potential in cancer.
Collapse
|
17
|
Wu N, Danoun S, Balayssac S, Malet-Martino M, Lamoureux C, Gilard V. Synthetic cannabinoids in e-liquids: A proton and fluorine NMR analysis from a conventional spectrometer to a compact one. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 324:110813. [PMID: 33993010 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The 1H NMR profiles of 13 samples of e-liquids supplied by French customs were obtained with high-field and low-field NMR. The high-field 1H NMR spectra allowed the detection of matrix signals, synthetic cannabinoids, and flavouring compounds. Quantitative results were obtained for the five synthetic cannabinoids detected: JWH-210, 5F-MDMB-PICA, 5F-ADB, 5F-AKB48, and ADB-FUBINACA. Conventional GC-MS analysis was used to confirm compound identification. Fluorine-19 NMR was proposed for the quantification of fluorinated synthetic cannabinoids and was successfully implemented on both 400 MHz and 60 MHz NMR spectrometers. This study based on few examples explored the potentiality of low-field NMR for quantitative and quantitative analysis of synthetic cannabinoids in e-liquids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nao Wu
- Groupe de RMN Biomédicale, Laboratoire SPCMIB (UMR CNRS 5068), Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse Cedex, 31062, France
| | - Saïda Danoun
- Groupe de RMN Biomédicale, Laboratoire SPCMIB (UMR CNRS 5068), Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse Cedex, 31062, France
| | - Stéphane Balayssac
- Groupe de RMN Biomédicale, Laboratoire SPCMIB (UMR CNRS 5068), Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse Cedex, 31062, France
| | - Myriam Malet-Martino
- Groupe de RMN Biomédicale, Laboratoire SPCMIB (UMR CNRS 5068), Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse Cedex, 31062, France
| | | | - Véronique Gilard
- Groupe de RMN Biomédicale, Laboratoire SPCMIB (UMR CNRS 5068), Université Paul Sabatier, Université de Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, Toulouse Cedex, 31062, France.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Oliveira da Cruz JF, Ioannidou C, Pagano Zottola AC, Muguruza C, Gomez‐Sotres P, Fernandez M, Callado LF, Marsicano G, Busquets‐Garcia A. Sex-dependent pharmacological profiles of the synthetic cannabinoid MMB-Fubinaca. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e12940. [PMID: 32744799 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids have emerged as novel psychoactive substances with damaging consequences for public health. They exhibit high affinity at the cannabinoid type-1 (CB1 ) receptor and produce similar and often more potent effects as other CB1 receptor agonists. However, we are still far from a complete pharmacological understanding of these compounds. In this study, by using behavioral, molecular, pharmacological, and electrophysiological approaches, we aimed at characterizing several in vitro and in vivo pharmacological effects of the synthetic cannabinoid MMB-Fubinaca (also known as AMB-Fubinaca or FUB-AMB), a particular synthetic cannabinoid. MMB-Fubinaca stimulates CB1 receptor-mediated functional coupling to G-proteins in mouse and human brain preparations in a similar manner as the CB1 receptor agonist WIN55,512-2 but with a much greater potency. Both drugs similarly activate the CB1 receptor-dependent extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway. Notably, in vivo administration of MMB-Fubinaca in mice induced greater behavioral and electrophysiological effects in male than in female mice in a CB1 receptor-dependent manner. Overall, these data provide a solid pharmacological profiling of the effects of MMB-Fubinaca and important information about the mechanisms of action underlying its harmful impact in humans. At the same time, they reinforce the significant sexual dimorphism of cannabinoid actions, which will have to be taken into account in future animal and clinical studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José F. Oliveira da Cruz
- INSERM, U1215 NeuroCentre Magendie Bordeaux France
- University of Bordeaux Bordeaux France
- Center for Neural Science New York University New York New York USA
| | - Christina Ioannidou
- INSERM, U1215 NeuroCentre Magendie Bordeaux France
- University of Bordeaux Bordeaux France
| | | | - Carolina Muguruza
- Department of Pharmacology University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU Leioa Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM Spain
| | - Paula Gomez‐Sotres
- INSERM, U1215 NeuroCentre Magendie Bordeaux France
- University of Bordeaux Bordeaux France
| | - Monica Fernandez
- INSERM, U1215 NeuroCentre Magendie Bordeaux France
- University of Bordeaux Bordeaux France
| | - Luis F. Callado
- Department of Pharmacology University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU Leioa Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM Spain
| | - Giovanni Marsicano
- INSERM, U1215 NeuroCentre Magendie Bordeaux France
- University of Bordeaux Bordeaux France
| | - Arnau Busquets‐Garcia
- INSERM, U1215 NeuroCentre Magendie Bordeaux France
- University of Bordeaux Bordeaux France
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute) Barcelona Spain
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Chas J, Bauer R, Larabi IA, Peytavin G, Roux P, Cua E, Cotte L, Pasquet A, Capitant C, Meyer L, Raffi F, Spire B, Pialoux G, Molina JM, Alvarez JC. Evaluation of Drug Abuse by Hair Analysis and Self-Reported Use Among MSM Under PrEP: Results From a French Substudy of the ANRS-IPERGAY Trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2021; 86:552-561. [PMID: 33394814 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000002610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We used the Agence nationale de Recherches sur le sida et les hépatites virales (ANRS)-IPERGAY trial to qualitatively and quantitatively measure drug use among men who have sex with men under preexposure prophylaxis using 2 different methods, to better understand and collectively respond to risky practices. METHOD We included 69 volunteers of the ANRS-IPERGAY trial. We measured drug use by 2 methods: (1) drug detection by hair analysis and (2) reported drug use by self-reported drug consumption. RESULTS New psychoactive substances (NPS) and conventional drugs were detected in 53 of the 69 (77%) volunteers by hair analysis and in 39 of the 69 (57%) volunteers by questionnaires. On the 219 hair segments analyzed, the most commonly used drugs were cocaine in 47 of the 69 (68%), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine/ecstasy in 31 of the 69 (45%), and NPS in 27 of the 69 (39%). On the 1061 collected questionnaires, the most commonly used drugs were cocaine in 31 of the 69 (45%), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine/ecstasy in 29 of the 69 (42%), and NPS in 16 of the 69 (23%). Hair analysis detects more conventional drugs and/or NPS use (P < 0.05). Drug use identified by hair was significantly associated with a higher number of sexual partners in the past 2 months (P ≤ 0.001), more often casual partners (P ≤ 0.001), condomless anal sex (P ≤ 0.005), hardcore sexual practices (P ≤ 0.001), a higher number of sexually transmitted infections, and chemsex (P ≤ 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Self-report drug use by questionnaires remains the reference tool for harm reduction at the individual level because of its feasibility and low cost. However, hair analysis is more sensitive, objectively assessing consumption, and interesting to understand uses and to be able to collectively respond to risky practices with adapted messages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Chas
- Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Hôpital Tenon, AP-HP, Paris, France
| | | | - Islam Amine Larabi
- Département de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, AP-HP, et MassSpecLab, Plateforme de Spectrométrie de Masse, Inserm U-1173, UFR des Sciences de la Santé Simone Veil, Université Paris-Saclay (Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines), Garches, France
| | - Gilles Peytavin
- Département de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, Hôpital Bichat Claude Bernard, AP-HP, et IAME, INSERM, UMRS1137, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Perrine Roux
- Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, IRD, SESSTIM, Sciences Economiques & Sociales de la Santé & Traitement de l'Information Médicale, Marseille, France
- ORS PACA, Observatoire régional de la santé Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Marseille, France
| | - Eric Cua
- Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Hôpital de l'Archet, Nice, France
| | - Laurent Cotte
- Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Hôpital de la Croix Rousse, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Armelle Pasquet
- Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Hôpital G Dron, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Tourcoing, Tourcoing, France
| | | | - Laurence Meyer
- INSERM SC10 US19, Villejuif, France
- Université Paris Sud, Paris, France
| | - Francois Raffi
- Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Hôtel-Dieu, Nantes, France
| | - Bruno Spire
- Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, IRD, SESSTIM, Sciences Economiques & Sociales de la Santé & Traitement de l'Information Médicale, Marseille, France
- ORS PACA, Observatoire régional de la santé Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Marseille, France
| | - Gilles Pialoux
- Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Hôpital Tenon, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Michel Molina
- Département de Maladies Infectieuses, Hôpital Lariboisière Saint-Louis, Paris, France
- Université de Paris, Paris, France; and
- INSERM U944, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Claude Alvarez
- Département de Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, Hôpital Raymond Poincaré, AP-HP, et MassSpecLab, Plateforme de Spectrométrie de Masse, Inserm U-1173, UFR des Sciences de la Santé Simone Veil, Université Paris-Saclay (Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines), Garches, France
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Shi Y, Zhou L, Li L, Liu M, Qiang H, Shen M, Shen B, Chen H, Drummer OH, Liu W, Wu H, Xiang P. Detection of a New Tert-Leucinate Synthetic Cannabinoid 5F-MDMB-PICA and Its Metabolites in Human Hair: Application to Authentic Cases. Front Chem 2020; 8:610312. [PMID: 33330406 PMCID: PMC7732586 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.610312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Methyl 2 -[ [ 1- (5- fluoropentyl) indole - 3- carbonyl] amino] -3, 3- dimethyl - butanoate (5F-MDMB-PICA) is a new synthetic cannabinoid characterized by valinate or tert-leucinate moieties. In recent years, 5F-MDMB-PICA has been abused in the form of “spice-like” herbal incenses or electronic cigarette oil. A UHPLC-MS/MS method was developed to detect 5F-MDMB-PICA and its metabolites in human hair. Approximately 20 mg of hair was weighed and pulverized with methanol below 4°C. After ultrasonication, centrifugation and filtration, 200 μL of supernatant was placed into an autosampler vial and analyzed on a Waters Acquity UPLC HSS T3 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm particle size) using an acetonitrile-20 mmol/L ammonium acetate (0.1% formic acid, 5% acetonitrile) gradient with a run time of 8 min. The limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 0.5 to 5 pg/mg, and the lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) ranged from 1 to 5 pg/mg. The method was shown to be linear over a concentration range of 1–200 pg/mg. The linear correlation (R2) of the calibration curves for all analytes was >0.999. The accuracy varied from 95.4 to 107.4%, while the intra- and inter-day precision RSD values were 0.7–10.6% and 1.7–12.2%, respectively. Recoveries were within the range of 61.1–93.3%, and matrix effects were in the range of 19.1–102.6%. The validated method was successfully applied to the identification and quantification of 5F-MDMB-PICA and its metabolites in hair from authentic forensic cases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Shi
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Liying Zhou
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China.,School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, China
| | - Le Li
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China.,School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, China
| | - Mengxi Liu
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Huosheng Qiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Baohua Shen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Hang Chen
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Olaf H Drummer
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Southbank, VIC, Australia
| | - Wanhui Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Yantai University, Yantai, China
| | - Hejian Wu
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai Forensic Science Platform, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Tomai P, Gentili A, Curini R, Gottardo R, Franco Tagliaro, Fanali S. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction, an effective tool for the determination of synthetic cannabinoids in oral fluid by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Pharm Anal 2020; 11:292-298. [PMID: 34277117 PMCID: PMC8264461 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2020.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present work, dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) was used to extract six synthetic cannabinoids (JWH-018, JWH-019, JWH-073, JWH-200, or WIN 55,225, JWH-250, and AM-694) from oral fluids. A rapid baseline separation of the analytes was achieved on a bidentate octadecyl silica hydride phase (Cogent Bidentate C18; 4.6 mm × 250 mm, 4 μm) maintained at 37 °C, by eluting in isocratic conditions (water:acetonitrile (25:75, V/V)). Detection was performed using positive electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. The parameters affecting DLLME (pH and ionic strength of the aqueous phase, type and volume of the extractant and dispersive solvent, vortex and centrifugation time) were optimized for maximizing yields. In particular, using 0.5 mL of oral fluid, acetonitrile (1 mL), was identified as the best option, both as a solvent to precipitate proteins and as a dispersing solvent in the DLLME procedure. To select an extraction solvent, a low transition temperature mixture (LTTM; composed of sesamol and chlorine chloride with a molar ratio of 1:3) and dichloromethane were compared; the latter (100 μL) was proved to be a better extractant, with recoveries ranging from 73% to 101 % by vortexing for 2 min. The method was validated according to the guidelines of Food and Drug Administration bioanalytical methods: intra-day and inter-day precisions ranged between 4 % and 18 % depending on the spike level and analyte; limits of detection spanned from 2 to 18 ng/mL; matrix-matched calibration curves were characterized by determination coefficients greater than 0.9914. Finally, the extraction procedure was compared with previous methods and with innovative techniques, presenting superior reliability, rapidity, simplicity, inexpensiveness, and efficiency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pierpaolo Tomai
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Gentili
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Curini
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University, P.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Rossella Gottardo
- Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy and Institute of Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Franco Tagliaro
- Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, Verona, Italy and Institute of Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Salvatore Fanali
- Teaching Committee of Ph.D. School in Natural Science and Engineering University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Synthetic cannabinoid CP-55,940 induces apoptosis in a human skeletal muscle model via regulation of CB 1 receptors and L-type Ca 2+ channels. Arch Toxicol 2020; 95:617-630. [PMID: 33174160 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02944-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Rhabdomyolysis has been reported in patients who abuse synthetic cannabinoids. However, no studies have yet assessed whether these cases reflect the direct cytotoxicity of synthetic cannabinoids on skeletal muscle, a possibility that the present study sought to address. Specifically, this study investigated the cytotoxicity of the synthetic cannabinoid CP-55,940, a compound that acts equally on both types of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2), in a human embryonic rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cell line. Exposure of these cells to CP-55,940 resulted in concentration-dependent decreases in cell viability. These effects were attenuated by pre-incubation with AM251 (30 µM), a selective CB1 receptor antagonist, but not by pre-incubation with AM630 (30 µM), a selective CB2 receptor antagonist. Following treatment with CP-55,940, RD cells exhibited apoptosis, as indicated by the accumulation of annexin-V, activation of caspase-3, and a loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential. Additionally, CP-55,940 treatment of RD cells led to increases in intracellular Ca2+ levels. CP-55,940-induced cell death was significantly attenuated in the absence of extracellular Ca2+, and was partially decreased by pre-incubation with verapamil (5 µM) or diltiazem (5 µM), compounds that block the L-type Ca2+ channel. Our results indicate that the cytotoxicity of CP-55,940 towards RD cells (skeletal muscle cells) is mediated by the CB1 receptor, but not by the CB2 receptor. Our results further suggest that calcium influx through the L-type channel may play an important role in the apoptosis induced by these compounds.
Collapse
|
23
|
Sezer Y, Jannuzzi AT, Huestis MA, Alpertunga B. In vitro assessment of the cytotoxic, genotoxic and oxidative stress effects of the synthetic cannabinoid JWH-018 in human SH-SY5Y neuronal cells. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2020; 9:734-740. [PMID: 33447358 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfaa078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND JWH-018 was the first synthetic cannabinoid introduced as a legal high and the first of the new generation of novel psychoactive substances that flooded worldwide drug markets. JWH-018 was marketed as "spice," "herbal incense," or "herbal blend," as a popular and legal (at the time) alternative to cannabis (marijuana). JWH-018 is a potent synthetic cannabinoid with considerable toxicity associated with its use. JWH-018 has qualitatively similar but quantitatively greater pharmacological effects than cannabis, leading to intoxications and even deaths. The mechanisms of action of the drug's toxicity require research, and thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the toxicological profile of JWH-018 in human SH-SY5Y neuronal cells. METHODS SH-SY5Y neuronal cells were exposed to increasing concentrations from 5 to 150 μM JWH-018 over 24 h. Cytotoxicity, DNA damage, the apoptotic/necrotic rate, and oxidative stress were assessed following SH-SY5Y exposure. RESULTS JWH-018 did not produce a significant decrease in SH-SY5Y cell viability, did not alter apoptotic/necrotic rate, and did not cause genotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells with 24-h exposure. Glutathione reductase and catalase activities were significantly reduced; however, there was no significant change in glutathione peroxidase activity. Also, JWH-018 treatment significantly decreased glutathione concentrations, significantly increased protein carbonylation, and significantly increased malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations. For significance, all P < 0.05. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION JWH-018 produced oxidative stress in SH-SY5Y cells that could be an underlying mechanism of JWH-018 neurotoxicity. Additional in vivo animal and human-based studies are needed to confirm our findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yigit Sezer
- Council of Forensic Medicine, Ministry of Justice, Istanbul 34197, Turkey
| | - Ayse Tarbin Jannuzzi
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Istanbul University, Istanbul 34126, Turkey
| | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Buket Alpertunga
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Istanbul University, Istanbul 34126, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Debruyne D, Monzon E, Perino J, Haramburu F, Daveluy A, Lazès-Charmetant A, Giraudon I. [Use of synthetic substances in France and in Europe]. Therapie 2020; 76:221-228. [PMID: 32859404 DOI: 10.1016/j.therap.2020.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This paper aims to present the main information presented at the 9th Meeting about addictovigilance in 2016 by four healthcare professionals and addiction experts on the issue of new psychoactive substance use. A new psychoactive substance (NPS) is defined as a narcotic or psychotropic drug, in pure form or in preparation, that is not controlled by the United Nations drug conventions, but which may pose a public health threat comparable to that posed by substances listed in these conventions. The emergence of NPS consumption is a worldwide concern. Although NPS are less consumed than established drugs, there has been a sharp increase in their use over the last few years, notably of synthetic cathinones, synthetic cannabinoids and, more recently, synthetic opioids. The latter in particular are involved in deaths in Europe. However, "established" drugs (MDMA [methylenedioxymethamphetamine], amphetamines, LSD, methamphetamine) are far from being dethroned by the more recent substances: they are considered "a safe bet" already "tried and tested" by many consumers over the years. MDMA, in particular, also known as ecstasy, which has been used as a recreational drug since the 1990s, saw its consumption decrease until 2010, and then increase again, especially in higher amounts; inexpensive and easily accessible, it is increasingly associated with emergency admissions or deaths in France. The perpetual appearance of new substances on the drug market is obligating to improve knowledge on these products, particularly by focusing on their analytical identification, and also by monitoring their use and harms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danièle Debruyne
- Centre d'addictovigilance, service de pharmacologie, CHU de Caen, 14033 Caen, France
| | - Emilie Monzon
- Pôle stupéfiants, psychotropes et médicaments des addictions aux stupéfiants, Agence Nationale de sécurité du médicament et des produits de santé, 93200 Saint-Denis, France
| | - Justine Perino
- Centre d'addictovigilance, service de pharmacologie médicale, CHU de Bordeaux, 33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Françoise Haramburu
- Centre d'addictovigilance, service de pharmacologie médicale, CHU de Bordeaux, 33000 Bordeaux, France; Université Bordeaux, INSERM, BPH, U1219, 33000 Bordeaux, France; ADERA, 33600 Pessac, France
| | - Amélie Daveluy
- Centre d'addictovigilance, service de pharmacologie médicale, CHU de Bordeaux, 33000 Bordeaux, France; Université Bordeaux, INSERM, BPH, U1219, 33000 Bordeaux, France; ADERA, 33600 Pessac, France.
| | | | - Isabelle Giraudon
- European Monitoring Centre for Drugs amd Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), 1750-147, Lisbonne, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Effects of the synthetic cannabinoid XLR-11 on the viability and migration rates of human brain microvascular endothelial cells in a clinically-relevant model. Pharmacol Rep 2020; 72:1717-1724. [PMID: 32632915 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-020-00123-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a group of newly-developed drugs that bind and activate endocannabinoid system receptors. Angiogenesis is a biological process in which new blood vessels are formed from preexistent blood vessels. It plays a vital role in tissue growth, wound healing, and embryogenesis. This study aims to investigate the effects of the synthetic cannabinoid XLR-11 on specific cellular functions such as viability and angiogenesis in vitro. METHODS Human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) were cultured in DMEM/F12 medium supplemented with an endothelial cell growth kit. The MTT assay was used to investigate the viability of endothelial cells. An endothelial cell migration assay was used to investigate migration ability, while a tube formation assay was used to investigate the angiogenic capacity of the endothelial cells. RESULTS XLR-11 was found to enhance the viability of HBMECs. Moreover, the migration rate and angiogenic capacity significantly increased in the presence of various concentrations of XLR-11 compared to the control. CONCLUSION The current study shows that XLR-11 increases the viability of human brain microvascular endothelial cells and enhances angiogenesis in the brain in vitro, suggesting that XLR-11 could potentially be used as a therapeutic angiogenic drug in human brain injury treatment.
Collapse
|
26
|
Alves VL, Gonçalves JL, Aguiar J, Teixeira HM, Câmara JS. The synthetic cannabinoids phenomenon: from structure to toxicological properties. A review. Crit Rev Toxicol 2020; 50:359-382. [PMID: 32530350 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2020.1762539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The word "cannabinoid" refers to every chemical substance, regardless of structure or origin, that joins the cannabinoid receptors of the body and brain and that have similar effects to those produced by the Cannabis plant and based on their source of production, cannabinoids can be classified into endocannabinoids, phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabinoids represent the largest class of drugs detected through the EU Early Warning System with a total of 190 substances notified from 2008 to 2018 and about 280 have been reported worldwide to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Sprayed on natural herb mixtures with the aim to mimic the euphoria effect of cannabis and sold as "herbal smoking blends" or "herbal incense" under brand names like "Spice" or "K2", synthetic cannabinoids are available from websites for the combination with herbal materials or more recently, for the use in e-cigarettes. Currently labeled as "not for human consumption" to circumvent legislation, their legal status varies by country with many government institutions currently pushing for their control. However, due to the emergence of new substances, it requires a constant update of the list of controlled drugs. Little is known about how these substances work and their toxic effects in humans and the same product could vary not only in the amount and in the type of substance added. In the last years, synthetic cannabinoids have been associated with deaths and acute intoxications in Europe and, despite a range of new measures introduced in this area, continue to represent a challenge to current drug policy models. These synthetic substances are much more potent than natural cannabis, as well as displayed greater efficacy, acting as full agonists at the cannabinoid receptors. It is possible that, along with being highly potent, some may also have long half-lives, potentially leading to a prolonged psychoactive effect. The present work provides a review on existing literature about the development of synthetic cannabinoids as substances of abuse, current patterns of abuse and their legal status, chemical classification, and some pharmacological and toxicological properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vera L Alves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - João L Gonçalves
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Joselin Aguiar
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| | - Helena M Teixeira
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra, Portugal.,Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - José S Câmara
- CQM - Centro de Química da Madeira, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal.,Faculdade de Ciências Exactas e da Engenharia, Universidade da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Cohen K, Rosenzweig S, Rosca P, Pinhasov A, Weizman A, Weinstein A. Personality Traits and Psychotic Proneness Among Chronic Synthetic Cannabinoid Users. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:355. [PMID: 32477173 PMCID: PMC7242629 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Chronic use of synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) has been associated with a wide range of negative consequences for health including psychotic and affective disturbances. Accumulating evidence indicates that cannabinoids use may be a risk factor for schizophrenia, and chronic natural cannabis users score higher than non-users on measures of schizotypal personality traits. However, little is known regarding the personality characteristics of SC users, especially in comparison with recreational cannabis users and healthy individuals. This study aimed to examine the differences in personality characteristics and schizotypy between SC users, regular cannabis users, and non-users and to compare these measures between groups. METHODS Forty-two chronic SC users, 39 natural cannabis users, and 47 non-using control participants, without history of mental disorder, or current substance use diagnosis (mean age 26± 4.47 years; 23 females, 105 males), completed the Big-Five Factor Inventory (BFI), the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire-Brief (SPQ-B), substance use history, rating scales of depression and anxiety, and a demographic questionnaire. RESULTS On the BFI, SC users scored higher than natural cannabis users and non-users on neuroticism, but lower on agreeableness and extraversion, and endorsed greater schizotypal symptoms on the SPQ-B. In addition, SC users had lower scores on conscientiousness than non-users, and natural cannabis users were more extroverted than non-users. Higher openness and lower conscientiousness predicted schizotypy for both SC and natural cannabis users. Finally, greater neuroticism predicted schizotypy for natural cannabis users, and introversion predicted schizotypy for non-users. CONCLUSIONS These results show that chronic SC users differ from natural cannabis users and non-users on dimensions of specific personality traits and schizotypy that may indicate psychotic proneness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Koby Cohen
- Department of Behavioral Science, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Shiri Rosenzweig
- Department of Behavioral Science, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | - Paola Rosca
- Ministry of Health (Israel), Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Albert Pinhasov
- Adelson School of Medicine, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
- Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| | | | - Aviv Weinstein
- Department of Behavioral Science, Ariel University, Ariel, Israel
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Presley BC, Logan BK, Jansen-Varnum SA. Phase I metabolism of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist PX-1 (5F-APP-PICA) via incubation with human liver microsomes and UHPLC-HRMS. Biomed Chromatogr 2020; 34:e4786. [PMID: 31863591 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.4786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Studies of the metabolic and pharmacological profiles of indole carboxamide synthetic cannabinoids (a prevalent class of new psychoactive substances) are critical in ensuring that their use can be detected through bioanalytical testing. We have determined the in vitro Phase I metabolism of one such compound, PX-1 (5F-APP-PICA), and appropriate markers to demonstrate human consumption. PX-1 was incubated with human liver microsomes, followed by analysis of the extracts via high-resolution mass spectrometry. A total of 10 metabolites were identified, with simultaneous defluorination and monohydroxylation of the pentyl side chain as the primary biotransformation product (M1). Additional metabolites formed were hydroxylation products of the indole and benzyl moieties, distal amide hydrolysis, N-desfluoropentyl, and carboxypentyl metabolites. Three monohydroxylated metabolites specific to PX-1 were identified and are reported for the first time in this study. The primary metabolite, M1, was further oxidized to M5, a carboxypentyl metabolite. M8 is PX-1 specific, possessing an intact fluoropentyl side chain. These three metabolites are the most suitable for implementation into bioanalytical assays for demonstrating PX-1 consumption. The findings of this study can be used by analytical scientists and medical professionals to determine PX-1 ingestion and predict the metabolites of synthetic cannabinoids sharing structural elements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Barry K Logan
- The Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Ong RS, Kappatos DC, Russell SG, Poulsen HA, Banister SD, Gerona RR, Glass M, Johnson CS, McCarthy M. Simultaneous analysis of 29 synthetic cannabinoids and metabolites, amphetamines, and cannabinoids in human whole blood by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry – A New Zealand perspective of use in 2018. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:195-214. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Shen Ong
- Forensic Toxicology LaboratoryInstitute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR) Porirua New Zealand
| | - Diana C. Kappatos
- Forensic Toxicology LaboratoryInstitute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR) Porirua New Zealand
| | - Sarah G.G. Russell
- Forensic Toxicology LaboratoryInstitute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR) Porirua New Zealand
| | - Helen A. Poulsen
- Forensic Toxicology LaboratoryInstitute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR) Porirua New Zealand
| | - Samuel D. Banister
- Faculty of Science and School of ChemistryThe University of Sydney NSW Australia
- The Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics, Brain and Mind CentreThe University of Sydney NSW Australia
| | - Roy R. Gerona
- Clinical Toxicology and Environmental Biomonitoring LaboratoryUniversity of California San Francisco CA USA
| | - Michelle Glass
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Cameron S. Johnson
- Drug Chemistry LaboratoryInstitute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR) Auckland New Zealand
| | - Mary‐Jane McCarthy
- Forensic Toxicology LaboratoryInstitute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR) Porirua New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Potts AJ, Cano C, Thomas SHL, Hill SL. Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists: classification and nomenclature. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2019; 58:82-98. [DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2019.1661425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A. J. Potts
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Chemical Threats and Hazards, Medical Toxicology Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - C. Cano
- School of Chemistry, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - S. H. L. Thomas
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Chemical Threats and Hazards, Medical Toxicology Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - S. L. Hill
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Chemical Threats and Hazards, Medical Toxicology Centre, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Dariš B, Tancer Verboten M, Knez Ž, Ferk P. Cannabinoids in cancer treatment: Therapeutic potential and legislation. Bosn J Basic Med Sci 2019; 19:14-23. [PMID: 30172249 DOI: 10.17305/bjbms.2018.3532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The plant Cannabis sativa L. has been used as an herbal remedy for centuries and is the most important source of phytocannabinoids. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) consists of receptors, endogenous ligands (endocannabinoids) and metabolizing enzymes, and plays an important role in different physiological and pathological processes. Phytocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids can interact with the components of ECS or other cellular pathways and thus affect the development/progression of diseases, including cancer. In cancer patients, cannabinoids have primarily been used as a part of palliative care to alleviate pain, relieve nausea and stimulate appetite. In addition, numerous cell culture and animal studies showed antitumor effects of cannabinoids in various cancer types. Here we reviewed the literature on anticancer effects of plant-derived and synthetic cannabinoids, to better understand their mechanisms of action and role in cancer treatment. We also reviewed the current legislative updates on the use of cannabinoids for medical and therapeutic purposes, primarily in the EU countries. In vitro and in vivo cancer models show that cannabinoids can effectively modulate tumor growth, however, the antitumor effects appear to be largely dependent on cancer type and drug dose/concentration. Understanding how cannabinoids are able to regulate essential cellular processes involved in tumorigenesis, such as progression through the cell cycle, cell proliferation and cell death, as well as the interactions between cannabinoids and the immune system, are crucial for improving existing and developing new therapeutic approaches for cancer patients. The national legislation of the EU Member States defines the legal boundaries of permissible use of cannabinoids for medical and therapeutic purposes, however, these legislative guidelines may not be aligned with the current scientific knowledge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Dariš
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Jury A, Lai J, Tuason C, Koning A, Smith M, Boyd L, Swanson C, Fergusson D, Gruar A. People who experience seclusion in adult mental health inpatient services: An examination of health of the nation outcome scales scores. Int J Ment Health Nurs 2019; 28:199-208. [PMID: 30010239 DOI: 10.1111/inm.12521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The Health of the Nation Outcomes Scales (HoNOS) provides an overview of a person's behaviour, impairment, clinical symptoms, and social functioning. This study investigated the profile of people who had been secluded in New Zealand's adult mental health inpatient services using 12 individual HoNOS ratings. Routinely collected clinical data were extracted from the Programme for the Integration of Mental Health Data (PRIMHD). This is the national data set for mental health and addiction services. A logistic regression model was fitted to the data which adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity, bed nights, compulsory treatment, and district health board. After adjustment, three HoNOS items significantly predicted the risk of seclusion: overactive, aggressive, disruptive, or agitated behaviour (adjusted OR = 4.82, 95% CI [3.88, 5.97], P < 0.001); problem drinking or drug-taking (adjusted OR = 1.51, 95% CI [1.25, 1.82], P < 0.001); and problems with hallucinations and delusions (adjusted OR = 1.33, 95% CI [1.09, 1.63], P = 0.006). In addition, two HoNOS items were protective for seclusion: nonaccidental self-injury (adjusted OR = 0.65, 95% CI [0.51, 0.83], P < 0.001) and depressed mood (adjusted OR = 0.58, 95% CI [0.47, 0.72], P < 0.001). Thus, responding effectively to agitation and/or aggression, substance use, and psychosis plays an important role in reducing the use of seclusion. Mental health nurses and other workers can reduce seclusion through early assessment, effective communication, de-escalation techniques, reduction tools, trauma-informed care, and consulting with consumers and whānau.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Angela Jury
- Te Pou o te Whakaaro Nui, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | | | | | - Mark Smith
- Te Pou o te Whakaaro Nui, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Lois Boyd
- Te Pou o te Whakaaro Nui, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - David Fergusson
- Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Firman JW, Belfield SJ, Chen G, Jackson M, Lam FH, Richmond C, Smith J, Steinmetz FP, Cronin MTD. Chemoinformatic Consideration of Novel Psychoactive Substances: Compilation and Preliminary Analysis of a Categorised Dataset. Mol Inform 2019; 38:e1800142. [DOI: 10.1002/minf.201800142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James W. Firman
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Samuel J. Belfield
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - George Chen
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Megan Jackson
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Fai Hou Lam
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - Callum Richmond
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | - James Smith
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| | | | - Mark T. D. Cronin
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular SciencesLiverpool John Moores University Byrom Street Liverpool L3 3AF UK
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Strickland EC, Cummings OT, Mellinger AL, McIntire GL. Development and Validation of a Novel All-Inclusive LC–MS-MS Designer Drug Method. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 43:161-169. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Allyson L Mellinger
- Ameritox, LLC, 486 Gallimore Dairy Road, Greensboro, NC, USA
- Chemistry Department, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Breitbarth AK, Morgan J, Jones AL. E-cigarettes-An unintended illicit drug delivery system. Drug Alcohol Depend 2018; 192:98-111. [PMID: 30245461 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Since the introduction of electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) in 2003, the technology has advanced allowing for greater user modifications, with users now able to control voltage, battery power, and constituents of the e-cigarette liquid. E-cigarettes have been the subject of a growing body of research with most research justifiably focused on the chemical makeup and risk analysis of chemicals, metals, and particulates found in e-cigarette liquids and vapor. Little research to date has focused on assessing the risks associated with the drug delivery unit itself and its potential for use as an illicit drug delivery system. In light of this, a range of illicit drugs was researched focusing on pharmacodynamics, usual method of administration, the dosage required for toxicity, toxic effects, and evidence of existing use in e-cigarettes in both literature and online illicit drug forums. A systematic literature search found evidence of current use of e-cigarettes to vape almost all illicit drug types analyzed. This presents both a potential population health risk and a management issue for clinicians. It also raises the issue of policing illicit drugs due to potential altered characteristic smells and storage within e-cigarette fluids. E-cigarettes are a viable illicit drug delivery system with evidence both inside and outside of the formal medical literature detailing their potential use for drug delivery of a wide range of illicit and legal drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jody Morgan
- Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia.
| | - Alison L Jones
- Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia; Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, 2522, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Cordeiro SK, Daro RC, Seung H, Klein-Schwartz W, Kim HK. Evolution of clinical characteristics and outcomes of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist exposure in the United States: analysis of National Poison Data System data from 2010 to 2015. Addiction 2018; 113:1850-1861. [PMID: 29806885 DOI: 10.1111/add.14281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Revised: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS New synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) are synthesized each year to evade US governmental regulation and sold for recreational use. Our aim was to estimate the changes in the clinical effects and patient disposition associated with SCRA exposure from 2010 to 2015. DESIGN A retrospective observational cohort study. SETTING National Poison Data System that collects data on reports of poisonings from US poison centers. PARTICIPANTS A total of 19 388 isolated SCRA cases between 1 January 2010 and 31 December 2015 were identified. The mean age was 24.6 years and 77.8% were male. MEASUREMENTS Primary outcome was the change in the trend of patient disposition, i.e. treated and released versus hospitalization (e.g. non-critical care, critical care unit or psychiatry) between 2010 and 2015. Secondary outcomes included the trends in the clinical effects and their duration, and therapeutic interventions nationally and regionally. FINDINGS Reports of SCRA exposure peaked in 2011 (n = 5305) and 2015 (n = 5475). The majority of patients required supportive care and were treated and released from an emergency department. Hospitalization increased by annual percentage change in the log odds (APCO) of 21.0% (P < 0.0001) during the 6 years, with significant increases in admissions to critical care units and non-critical care units. Overall, tachycardia (32.1%), agitation/irritation (25.6%) and drowsiness/lethargy (20.4%) were the most frequently reported clinical effects from SCRA exposure. Clinical effects resolved within 2-8 hours in 52.8% of cases, but their duration increased markedly by 2015. Regionally, the largest number of SCRA cases was reported in the South (n = 9374, 48.6%). SCRA cases in the Northeast were hospitalized more frequently (27.4%), with cases in the Midwest being admitted more frequently to critical care units (15.3%). However, there were no significant differences in clinical toxicity or disposition among the regions. CONCLUSION Hospitalization resulting from toxicity from synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists exposure in the United States increased significantly between 2010 and 2015.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel K Cordeiro
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ryan C Daro
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hyunuk Seung
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Wendy Klein-Schwartz
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Maryland Poison Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Hong K Kim
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Maryland Poison Center, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Heinbockel T, Csoka AB. Epigenetic Effects of Drugs of Abuse. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2018; 15:ijerph15102098. [PMID: 30257440 PMCID: PMC6210395 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15102098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Drug addiction affects a large extent of young people and disadvantaged populations. Drugs of abuse impede brain circuits or affect the functionality of brain circuits and interfere with bodily functions. Cannabinoids (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol) form key constituents of marijuana derived from the cannabis plant. Marijuana is a frequently used illegal drug in the USA. Here, we review the effects of cannabinoids at the epigenetic level and the potential role of these epigenetic effects in health and disease. Epigenetics is the study of alterations in gene expression that are transmitted across generations and take place without an alteration in DNA sequence, but are due to modulation of chromatin associated factors by environmental effects. Epigenetics is now known to offer an extra mechanism of control over transcription and how genes are expressed. Insights from research at the genetic and epigenetic level potentially provide venues that allow the translation of the biology of abused drugs to new means of how to treat marijuana substance use disorder or other addictions using pharmacotherapeutic tools.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Heinbockel
- Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC 20059, USA.
| | - Antonei B Csoka
- Department of Anatomy, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC 20059, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Synthetic cannabinoids in biological specimens: a review of current analytical methods and sample preparation techniques. Bioanalysis 2018; 10:1609-1623. [PMID: 30226077 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2018-0150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids are a new class of chemical drugs capable of modifying human behavior. These products do not contain cannabis, but produce similar effects after consumption. The fact that they are easily accessed, and are many times considered to be harmless, justifies their widespread use among young people. This fact, together with the difficulty in their detection by routine drug tests, makes it extremely important to develop new procedures able to detect and monitor their consumption. The aim of this work is to perform a critical review regarding the human biological samples that can be used for the determination of synthetic cannabinoids, paying special attention to analytical methods and sample preparation techniques. The reviewed articles deal with the determination of synthetic cannabinoids in the context of forensic and toxicological analysis.
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
Cannabis (also known as marijuana) is the most frequently used illicit psychoactive substance in the world. Though it was long considered to be a "soft" drug, studies have proven the harmful psychiatric and addictive effects associated with its use. A number of elements are responsible for the increased complications of cannabis use, including the increase in the potency of cannabis and an evolution in the ratio between the two primary components, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (toward a higher proportion of Δ9-THC), Synthetic cannabinoid (SC) use has rapidly progressed over the last few years, primarily among frequent cannabis users, because SCs provide similar psychoactive effects to cannabis. However, their composition and pharmacological properties make them dangerous substances. Cannabis does have therapeutic properties for certain indications. These therapeutic applications pertain only to certain cannabinoids and their synthetic derivatives. The objective of this article is to summarize current developments concerning cannabis and the spread of SCs. Future studies must further explore the benefit-risk profile of medical cannabis use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Genevieve Lafaye
- Author affiliations: AP-HP, GH Paris-Sud, Hopital Paul Brousse, Dpt Addictologie, F94800 Villejuif, France; INSERM U1178, F94800 Villejuif, France
| | - Laurent Karila
- Author affiliations: AP-HP, GH Paris-Sud, Hopital Paul Brousse, Dpt Addictologie, F94800 Villejuif, France; INSERM U1178, F94800 Villejuif, France
| | - Lisa Blecha
- Author affiliations: AP-HP, GH Paris-Sud, Hopital Paul Brousse, Dpt Addictologie, F94800 Villejuif, France; INSERM U1178, F94800 Villejuif, France
| | - Amine Benyamina
- Author affiliations: AP-HP, GH Paris-Sud, Hopital Paul Brousse, Dpt Addictologie, F94800 Villejuif, France; INSERM U1178, F94800 Villejuif, France
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
The ongoing challenge of novel psychoactive drugs of abuse. Part I. Synthetic cannabinoids (IUPAC Technical Report). PURE APPL CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1515/pac-2017-0605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In the past decade, the world has experienced a large increase in the number of novel compounds appearing on the illicit drug market for recreational purposes. Such substances are designed to circumvent governmental regulations; the illegal drug manufacturers take a known psychoactive compound reported in the scientific literature and slightly modify its chemical structure in order to produce analogues that will mimic the pharmacological activity of the original substance. Many of these novel substances are sold via the Internet. Among the various chemical classes, synthetic cannabinoid receptor modulators, commonly referred to as “synthetic cannabinoids” have been at the forefront, as demonstrated by the frequency of drug seizures, numerous severe toxic effects, and fatalities associated with some of these substances. This review presents the chemical structures of relevant synthetic cannabinoids and describes their mechanism of action, pharmacological features, metabolic pathways, and structure-activity relationships. It illustrates the approaches used in forensic testing, both for bulk analysis (drug seizures) and for analytical toxicology (biological matrices) and discusses aspects of regulation surrounding this drug class. This report is intended to provide pertinent information for the purposes of informing scientific, medical, social, and governmental bodies about this ever-evolving recreational drug class and the challenges it poses worldwide.
Collapse
|
41
|
Di Marzo V. New approaches and challenges to targeting the endocannabinoid system. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2018; 17:623-639. [DOI: 10.1038/nrd.2018.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
42
|
Domoto M, Sasase H, Wada S, Ito S, Deyama S, Hinoi E, Kaneko S, Kaneda K. The synthetic cannabinoid 5F-AMB changes the balance between excitation and inhibition of layer V pyramidal neurons in the mouse medial prefrontal cortex. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:2367-2376. [PMID: 29858613 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4933-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE 5F-AMB is one of the synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) designed to potentiate the ability to activate cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptors and is abused worldwide. Although inhalation of 5F-AMB elicits serious adverse effects including impaired memory and consciousness, it is not known whether and how 5F-AMB affects the activity of pyramidal neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), a brain region associated with higher functions such as memory and cognition. OBJECTIVES In the present study, we examined the effects of 5F-AMB on mPFC layer V (L5) pyramidal neurons using in vitro whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. RESULTS Bath application of 5F-AMB attenuated the frequency but not the amplitude of spontaneous excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs and sIPSCs). The attenuating effects of 5F-AMB were abolished by the CB1 receptor antagonist AM251. 5F-AMB also attenuated the frequency of miniature EPSCs and IPSCs recorded in the presence of tetrodotoxin. Moreover, the extent of attenuating effects of 5F-AMB on stimulus-evoked EPSCs was significantly larger than that on evoked IPSCs. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that 5F-AMB attenuates both excitatory and inhibitory transmission in mPFC L5 pyramidal neurons via the activation of CB1 receptors located in presynaptic terminals. Further, the net impact of 5F-AMB on L5 pyramidal neurons is inhibition due to the change in balance between excitation and inhibition. This inhibitory effect might at least partly contribute to the expression of the adverse effects induced by 5F-AMB inhalation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Domoto
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hitoki Sasase
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Shintaro Wada
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Shiho Ito
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Satoshi Deyama
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Eiichi Hinoi
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Shuji Kaneko
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Katsuyuki Kaneda
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kakuma-machi, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Cannaert A, Storme J, Hess C, Auwärter V, Wille SMR, Stove CP. Activity-Based Detection of Cannabinoids in Serum and Plasma Samples. Clin Chem 2018; 64:918-926. [DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2017.285361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Synthetic cannabinoids are the largest group of new psychoactive substances monitored by the European Monitoring Centre of Drugs and Drug Addiction. The rapid proliferation of novel analogs makes the detection of these new derivatives challenging and has initiated considerable interest in the development of so-called “untargeted” screening strategies to detect these compounds.
METHODS
We developed new, stable bioassays in which cannabinoid receptor activation by cannabinoids led to recruitment of truncated β-arrestin 2 (βarr2) to the cannabinoid receptors, resulting in functional complementation of a split luciferase, allowing readout via bioluminescence. Aliquots (500 μL) of authentic serum (n = 45) and plasma (n = 73) samples were used for simple liquid–liquid extraction with hexane:ethyl acetate (99:1 v/v). Following evaporation and reconstitution in 100 μL of Opti-MEM® I/methanol (50/50 v/v), 10 μL of these extracts was analyzed in the bioassays.
RESULTS
Truncation of βarr2 significantly (for both cannabinoid receptors; P = 0.0034 and 0.0427) improved the analytical sensitivity over the previously published bioassays applied on urine samples. The new bioassays detected cannabinoid receptor activation by authentic serum or plasma extracts, in which synthetic cannabinoids were present at low- or sub-nanogram per milliliter concentration or in which Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol was present at concentrations >12 ng/mL. For synthetic cannabinoid detection, analytical sensitivity was 82%, with an analytical specificity of 100%.
CONCLUSIONS
The bioassays have the potential to serve as a first-line screening tool for (synthetic) cannabinoid activity in serum or plasma and may complement conventional analytical assays and/or precede analytical (mass spectrometry based) confirmation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Laboratory of Toxicology, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jolien Storme
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Cornelius Hess
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University Bonn, Forensic Toxicology, Bonn, Germany
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Sarah M R Wille
- Laboratory of Toxicology, National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Efectos cardiovasculares debido al consumo de cannabinoides. REVISTA COLOMBIANA DE CARDIOLOGÍA 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rccar.2017.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
|
45
|
Sud P, Gordon M, Tortora L, Stripp M, Borg D, Berman A. Retrospective Chart Review of Synthetic Cannabinoid Intoxication with Toxicologic Analysis. West J Emerg Med 2018; 19:567-572. [PMID: 29760857 PMCID: PMC5942026 DOI: 10.5811/westjem.2017.12.36968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Use of synthetic cannabinoids (SC) has recently emerged as a new drug epidemic. Our emergency departments (EDs) received a surge of SC users presenting with lethargy and bradycardia, contrasting prior reports of SC-induced tachycardia and agitation. Our goal was to describe these novel presentations and characterize the compounds. Methods We present a case series of patients with SC intoxication who presented to our toxicology service covering two tertiary care EDs between 2/11/2015 and 6/23/2015. A retrospective chart review recorded initial vital signs, chief complaint and clinical course. Urine, blood and xenobiotic samples were analyzed using either liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry or gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. We compared resulting spectra against databases containing numerous SCs or metabolites and scored based on a reference comparison. Results Between 2/11/2015 and 6/23/2015, we identified 141 visits. Males comprised 139 visits (age range 21-68 years; median 35, interquartile range 20). Sixty-eight percent presented with lethargy or loss of consciousness. Hypotension (SBP <90 mmHg) and bradycardia (HR<60 bpm) were seen in 10% and 24% of visits, respectively. While most patients were discharged after observation, three were admitted to the intensive care unit and seven to telemetry. Admissions were for vital sign instability, bradycardia requiring pacing, prolonged sedation and respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation.Laboratory analysis revealed SC in the XLR-11 family in 18/36 drug, 9/12 blood, and 23/31 urine samples. Carboxamide indazole derivative (CID) family compounds were detected in 13/36 drug samples, 21/31 urine samples, but no blood samples; 11/31 drug samples contained both XLR-11 and CID. Other compounds detected included PB-22 and nicotine. No JWH compounds, opiates, imidazoline receptor agonists, benzodiazepines or other sedative-hypnotics were detected. Conclusion Unlike their predecessors, novel SC may be associated with significant central nervous system depression and bradycardia. While prior reports indicated that SC mostly contained JWH compounds, none were detected in these samples. The most commonly identified compounds in this series were CID and alkyl SC derivatives, such as INACA compounds and XLR-11. These tend to be full agonists at the cannabinoid receptor and are presumably more potent. The lack of other depressants suggests that the clinical findings are due to the combination of these compounds and not coingestants or adulterants. SC intoxication should be considered for patients with undifferentiated psychomotor depression and bradycardia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Payal Sud
- Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Toxicology, New Hyde Park, New York.,Glen Cove Hospital, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Glen Cove, New York
| | - Miles Gordon
- Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Toxicology, New Hyde Park, New York.,North Shore University Hospital Medical Center, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Toxicology, Manhasset, New York
| | - Laura Tortora
- Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Toxicology, New Hyde Park, New York.,Banner-University Medical Center, Department of Emergency Medicine, Department of Toxicology, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Matthew Stripp
- North Shore University Hospital Medical Center, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Toxicology, Manhasset, New York.,Carolinas Medical Center, Department of Emergency Medicine, Charlotte, North Carolina
| | - Damon Borg
- Cordant Health Solutions, Huntington, New York
| | - Adam Berman
- Long Island Jewish Medical Center, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Toxicology, New Hyde Park, New York.,North Shore University Hospital Medical Center, Northwell Health, Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Toxicology, Manhasset, New York
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
High Rates of Tramadol Use among Treatment-Seeking Adolescents in Malmö, Sweden: A Study of Hair Analysis of Nonmedical Prescription Opioid Use. JOURNAL OF ADDICTION 2017; 2017:6716929. [PMID: 29435382 PMCID: PMC5757138 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6716929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Nonmedical prescription opioid use (NMPOU) is a growing problem and tramadol has been suggested as an emerging problem in young treatment-seeking individuals. The aim of the present study was to investigate, through hair analysis, NMPOU in this group and, specifically, tramadol use. Methods In a study including 73 treatment-seeking adolescents and young adults at an outpatient facility for young substance users, hair specimens could be obtained from 59 subjects. Data were extracted on sociodemographic background variables and psychiatric diagnoses through MINI interviews. Results In hair analysis, tramadol was by far the most prevalent opioid detected. Thirty-two percent screened positive for opioids, and of those, all but one were positive for tramadol. Ninety-eight percent reported problematic cannabis use. Significantly more opioid-positive patients also screened positive for other (noncannabis) drugs, compared to nonopioid users. Sixty-four percent fulfilled criteria of DSM-IV psychiatric disorders, other than substance use disorders according to MINI. Fifty-three percent met the symptom criteria count of ADHD above cut-off level. Conclusion In the present setting, tramadol, along with high rates of cannabis use, may represent a novel pattern of substance use among young treatment-seeking subjects with problematic substance use and high rates of concurrent psychiatric problems.
Collapse
|
47
|
Fatal Mesenteric Ischemia Induced by Synthetic Cannabinoids: A Case Report and Literature Review. Case Rep Emerg Med 2017; 2017:6964078. [PMID: 29403666 PMCID: PMC5748310 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6964078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Worldwide use of synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) is rapidly increasing, in part due to the generation of numerous new compounds, sidestepping legal restrictions. Their detection using standard toxicology panels is difficult, due to their vast heterogeneity and lack of structural resemblance to cannabinoids. Sympathetic overactivity and arterial spasm play a role in some of the life-threatening reactions to SCs, such as coronary or cerebral vasoconstriction. Here we report a patient with repeated consumption of SCs that led to mesenteric ischemia and death. A 29-year-old man was frequently evaluated in the Emergency Medicine Department for recurrent transient crampy abdominal pain, associated with the use of the SCs colloquially known as “Mr. Nice Guy.” He was finally hospitalized with a protracted attack, associated with diarrhea and leukocytosis. Initial evaluation including computed tomography was unremarkable. Diarrhea and leukocytosis gradually resolved, but bouts of hypertension and abdominal pain occurred in association with repeated consumption of the SCs. On the fifth hospital day, the patient developed abrupt abdominal pain, associated with profound shock and signs of peritoneal irritation and succumbed within an hour. Postmortem CT scan was consistent with intestinal perforation most probably due to a nonobstructive mesenteric infarction. There was no evidence of a single vessel infarction.
Collapse
|
48
|
Paul ABM, Simms L, Amini S, Paul AE. Teens and Spice: A Review of Adolescent Fatalities Associated with Synthetic Cannabinoid Use. J Forensic Sci 2017; 63:1321-1324. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthea B. Mahesan Paul
- Office of the Medical Examiner; Clark County Coroner; 1704 Pinto Lane, Las Vegas NV 89106
- University of Oxford; Oxford OX3 9DU UK
- Department of Pathology; The Ottawa Hospital; University of Ottawa; Ottawa Ontario Canada
| | - Lary Simms
- Office of the Medical Examiner; Clark County Coroner; 1704 Pinto Lane, Las Vegas NV 89106
| | | | - Abraham Ebenezer Paul
- Office of the Medical Examiner; Clark County Coroner; 1704 Pinto Lane, Las Vegas NV 89106
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Armenian P, Darracq M, Gevorkyan J, Clark S, Kaye B, Brandehoff NP. Intoxication from the novel synthetic cannabinoids AB-PINACA and ADB-PINACA: A case series and review of the literature. Neuropharmacology 2017; 134:82-91. [PMID: 29037744 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoids (SC), are a novel class of designer drugs which emerged as a drug of abuse in the late 2000's. We report a case series of 6 patients who may have smoked a synthetic cannabinoid product in a remote wilderness setting. They presented with varying degrees of altered mental status, agitation, and seizures. Two were confirmed to have AB-PINACA, ADB-PINACA and their respective pentanoic acid metabolites in biological specimens via liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF/MS). Both compounds had DEA Schedule I classification at the time of case presentation, and 22 SCs are currently temporary or permanent DEA Schedule I. More than 150 SCs are known to date, and new compounds are appearing at a rapid rate on darknet and surface web e-commerce websites, marketed as "research chemicals" or "legal highs." The scale and rapidity of SC evolution make legal control and analytical detection difficult. Nontargeted testing with liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS), examining both parent compounds and metabolites, is the ideal method for novel SC identification and confirmation. Due to full agonism at the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, clinical effects are more severe than marijuana, which is a partial cannabinoid receptor agonist. They include agitated delirium, lethargy and coma, seizures, tachycardia, hypertension, and hallucinations, among other findings. Treatment is primarily symptomatic and aimed at airway protection and control of agitation and seizures. SCs do not appear to be abating anytime soon and require the cooperation of law enforcement, analytical scientists, and clinicians to adequately control. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Designer Drugs and Legal Highs.'
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patil Armenian
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, San Francisco-Fresno. 155 N Fresno St., Fresno, CA 93701, USA.
| | - Michael Darracq
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, San Francisco-Fresno. 155 N Fresno St., Fresno, CA 93701, USA.
| | - Jirair Gevorkyan
- Central Valley Toxicology, 1580 Tollhouse Rd, Clovis, CA 93611, USA.
| | - Shane Clark
- SkyLife Air Ambulance, 5526 E Aircorp Way, Fresno, CA 93727, USA.
| | - Bryan Kaye
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, San Francisco-Fresno. 155 N Fresno St., Fresno, CA 93701, USA.
| | - Nicklaus P Brandehoff
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, San Francisco-Fresno. 155 N Fresno St., Fresno, CA 93701, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Rowley E, Benson D, Tiffee A, Hockensmith A, Zeng H, Jones GN, Musso MW. Clinical and financial implications of emergency department visits for synthetic marijuana. Am J Emerg Med 2017; 35:1506-1509. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2017.04.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
|