Safety of Nanoparticles in Medicine

PExM: polyplex expansion microscopy for cell trafficking studies

Nanomedicine is a field at the intersection of nanotechnology and medicine, promising due to its potential to revolutionize healthcare. Despite its long trajectory, there is still a long road ahead for its full development, and smart design of nanomedicines is still a challenge. Among other problems, this is due to the scarcity of tools available for the precise visualization and comprehension of nano-bio interactions, impeding progress towards the clinical phase. One of the developed tools that stands out to be a strong nanoscopy technique for studying nano-delivery systems within cellular environments is expansion microscopy (ExM). This technique was used for tissue and cell expansion and most recently for lipid molecule expansion inside cells. Herein, we present for the first time polyplex expansion microscopy (PExM); a comprehensive examination of ExM as an already developed technique, but adapted for expanding polymer based nanocarriers, in particular polyplexes within cells, allowing the analysis of their trafficking. With our method set up, PExM will be extensively used for the study of polyplex nanoparticle cell trafficking, becoming a high-resolution technique which can also be applied to primary amine containing polymeric nanoparticles without requiring expensive super-resolution microscopes.

A plasma-3D print combined in vitro platform with implications for reliable materiobiological screening

Materiobiology is an emerging field focused on the physiochemical properties of biomaterials concerning biological outcomes which includes but is not limited to the biological responses and bioactivity of surface-modified biomaterials. Herein, we report a novel in vitro characterization platform for characterizing nanoparticle surface-modified 3D printed PLA scaffolds. We have introduced innovative design parameters that were practical for ubiquitous in vitro assays like those utilizing 96 and 24-well plates. Subsequently, gold and silica nanoparticles were deposited using two low-temperature plasma-assisted processes namely plasma electroless reduction (PER) and dusty plasma on 3D scaffolds. Materiobiological testing began with nanoparticle surface modification optimization on 96 well plate design 3D scaffolds. We have employed 3D laser confocal imaging and scanning electron microscopy to study the deposition of nanoparticles. It was found that the formation and distribution of the nanoparticles were time-dependent. In vitro assays were performed utilizing an osteosarcoma (MG-63) cell as a model. These cells were grown on both 96 and 24 well plate design 3D scaffolds. Subsequently, we performed different in vitro assays such as cell viability, and fluorescence staining of cytoskeletal actin and DNA incorporation. The actin cytoskeleton staining showed more homogeneity in the cell monolayer growing on the gold nanoparticle-modified 3D scaffolds than the control 3D PLA scaffold. Furthermore, the mineralization and protein adsorption experiments conducted on 96 well plate design scaffolds have shown enhanced mineralization and bovine serum albumin adsorption for the gold nanoparticle-modified scaffolds compared to the control scaffolds. Taken together, this study reports the efficacy of this new in vitro platform in conducting more reliable and efficient materiobiology studies. It is also worth mentioning that this platform has significant futuristic potential for developing as a high throughput screening platform. Such platforms could have a significant impact on the systematic study of biocompatibility and bioactive mechanisms of nanoparticle-modified 3D-printed scaffolds for tissue engineering. It would also provide unique ways to investigate mechanisms of biological responses and subsequent bioactive mechanisms for implantable biomaterials. Moreover, this platform can derive more consistent and reliable in vitro results which can improve the success rate of further in vivo experiments.

Research progress on nanotechnology of traditional Chinese medicine to enhance the therapeutic effect of osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent chronic condition that primarily impacts the articular cartilage and surrounding bone tissue, resulting in joint inflammation and structural deterioration. The etiology of OA is multifaceted and intricately linked to the oxidative stress response of joint tissue. Oxidative stress (OS) in OA leads to the creation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other oxidizing agents, resulting in detrimental effects on chondrocytes. This oxidative damage diminishes the flexibility and robustness of cartilage, thereby expediting the progression of joint deterioration. Therefore, the antioxidant effect is crucial in the treatment of OA. Currently, a considerable number of components found in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) have been scientifically demonstrated to exhibit remarkable antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Nevertheless, the utilization of this program is considerably constrained as a result of intrinsic deficiencies, notably stability concerns. The successful amalgamation of TCM components with nanotechnology has properly tackled these concerns and enhanced the efficacy of therapeutic results. The objective of this study is to delineate the antioxidant characteristics of nano-TCM and assess the current inventory of literature pertaining to the application of nano-TCM in the treatment of OA. In conclusion, this paper will now turn to the constraints and potential avenues for the advancement of nano-TCM within the realm of OA therapy.

Effectiveness of epigallocatechin gallate nanoparticles on the in-vivo treatment of Alzheimer's disease in a rat/mouse model: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurological disease that causes memory loss over time. Current therapies are limited and frequently inadequate. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antifibrosis, anti-remodeling and tissue-protective qualities that may be effective in treatment of different diseases, including AD. Because of nanoparticles' high surface area, they can enhance solubility, stability, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution, and diminish toxicities. Besides, lipid nanoparticles have a high binding affinity that can enhance the rate of drug transport across BBB. So, EGCG nanoparticles represent a promising treatment for AD.

OBJECTIVES

This systematic review sought to assess the efficacy of EGCG nanoparticles against AD in rat/mouse models.

METHODS

Study was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines, and the protocol was registered in PROSPERO. Electronic databases were searched to discover relevant studies published up to October 2022.

RESULTS

Two studies met the inclusion criteria out of 1338 and were included in this systematic review. Collectively, the results indicate that EGCG has a significant potential for reducing AD pathology and improving cognitive deficits in rat/mouse models. The formulated particles were in the nanometer range, as indicated by TEM, with good particle size control and stability. EGCG nanoparticles showed superior pharmacokinetic characteristics and improved blood-brain barrier permeability, and increased brain bioavailability compared to free EGCG. Additionally, nanoEGCG were more effective in modulating oxidative stress than free formulation and decreased AChE in the cortex and hippocampus of AlCl3-treated rats.

CONCLUSION

This systematic analysis of the two studies included showed that EGCG nanoparticles are efficacious as a potential therapeutic intervention for AD in rat/mouse models. However, limited number of studies found indicates insufficient data in this research point that requires further investigation by experimental studies.

Nanomedicine revolutionizes epilepsy treatment: overcoming therapeutic hurdles with nanoscale solutions

INTRODUCTION

Epilepsy, a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder, profoundly impacts the physical and mental well-being of millions globally. Historically, antiseizure drugs (ASDs) have been the primary treatment modality. However, despite the introduction of novel ASDs in recent decades, a significant proportion of patients still experiences uncontrolled seizures.

AREAS COVERED

The rapid advancement of nanomedicine in recent years has enabled precise targeting of the brain, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy for brain diseases, including epilepsy.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanomedicine holds immense promise in epilepsy treatment, including but not limited to enhancing drug solubility and stability, improving drug across blood-brain barrier, overcoming resistance, and reducing side effects, potentially revolutionizing clinical management. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of current epilepsy treatment modalities and highlights recent advancements in nanomedicine-based drug delivery systems for epilepsy control. We discuss the diverse strategies used in developing novel nanotherapies, their mechanisms of action, and the potential advantages they offer compared to traditional treatment methods.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles for microRNA delivery in cancer treatment

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are natural nanocarriers and effective delivery systems for plant microRNAs (miRNAs). These PELN-carrying plant miRNAs can regulate mammalian genes across species, thereby increasing the diversity of miRNAs in mammals and exerting multi-target effects that play a crucial role in diseases, particularly cancer. PELNs demonstrate exceptional stability, biocompatibility, and targeting capabilities that protect and facilitate the up-take and cross-kingdom communication of plant miRNAs in mammals. Primarily ingested and absorbed within the gastrointestinal tract of mammals, PELNs preferentially act on the intestine to regulate intestinal homeostasis through functional miRNA activity. The oncogenesis and progression of cancer are closely associated with disruptions in intestinal barriers, ecological imbalances, as well as secondary changes, such as abnormal inflammatory reactions caused by them. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate whether PELNs exert their anticancer effects by regulating mammalian intestinal homeostasis and inflammation. This review aims to elucidate the intrinsic crosstalk relationships and mechanisms of PELNs-mediated miRNAs in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, regulating inflammation and cancer treatment. Furthermore, serving as exceptional drug delivery systems for miRNAs molecules, PELNs offer broad prospects for future applications, including new drug research and development along with drug carrier selection within targeted drug delivery approaches for cancer therapy.

Apatinib and gamabufotalin co-loaded lipid/Prussian blue nanoparticles for synergistic therapy to gastric cancer with metastasis

Due to the non-targeted release and low solubility of anti-gastric cancer agent, apatinib (Apa), a first-line drug with long-term usage in a high dosage often induces multi-drug resistance and causes serious side effects. In order to avoid these drawbacks, lipid-film-coated Prussian blue nanoparticles (PB NPs) with hyaluronan (HA) modification was used for Apa loading to improve its solubility and targeting ability. Furthermore, anti-tumor compound of gamabufotalin (CS-6) was selected as a partner of Apa with reducing dosage for combinational gastric therapy. Thus, HA-Apa-Lip@PB-CS-6 NPs were constructed to synchronously transport the two drugs into tumor tissue. In vitro assay indicated that HA-Apa-Lip@PB-CS-6 NPs can synergistically inhibit proliferation and invasion/metastasis of BGC-823 cells via downregulating vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). In vivo assay demonstrated strongest anti-tumor growth and liver metastasis of HA-Apa-Lip@PB-CS-6 NPs administration in BGC-823 cells-bearing mice compared with other groups due to the excellent penetration in tumor tissues and outstanding synergistic effects. In summary, we have successfully developed a new nanocomplexes for synchronous Apa/CS-6 delivery and synergistic gastric cancer (GC) therapy.

The Role of Nanomedicine in Benign Gynecologic Disorders

Nanomedicine has revolutionized drug delivery in the last two decades. Nanoparticles appear to be a promising drug delivery platform in the treatment of various gynecological disorders including uterine leiomyoma, endometriosis, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), and menopause. Nanoparticles are tiny (mean size < 1000 nm), biodegradable, biocompatible, non-toxic, safe, and relatively inexpensive materials commonly used in imaging and the drug delivery of various therapeutics, such as chemotherapeutics, small molecule inhibitors, immune mediators, protein peptides and non-coding RNA. We performed a literature review of published studies to examine the role of nanoparticles in treating uterine leiomyoma, endometriosis, PCOS, and menopause. In uterine leiomyoma, nanoparticles containing 2-methoxyestradiole and simvastatin, promising uterine fibroid treatments, have been effective in significantly inhibiting tumor growth compared to controls in in vivo mouse models with patient-derived leiomyoma xenografts. Nanoparticles have also shown efficacy in delivering magnetic hyperthermia to ablate endometriotic tissue. Moreover, nanoparticles can be used to deliver hormones and have shown efficacy as a mechanism for transdermal hormone replacement therapy in individuals with menopause. In this review, we aim to summarize research findings and report the efficacy of nanoparticles and nanotherapeutics in the treatment of various benign gynecologic conditions.

Hollow Polyethyleneimine Nanoparticles with Drug Loaded DNA for Chemotherapeutic Applications

The next generation of anticancer agents are emerging from rationally designed nanostructured materials. This work involved the synthesis and characterization of novel hollow DNA-conjugated gold nanoparticles (DNA-AuNPs) for controlled drug delivery. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) was bound to AuNPs, forming polymer-shell nanoparticles. Dissolution of the gold core via iodine formed hollow core polymeric nanoparticles (HCPNPs) and a high density (85 molecules/particle) of DNA intercalated with daunorubicin was conjugated. Particles were spherical with an average diameter of 105.7±17.3 nm and zeta potential of 20.4±3.54 mV. We hypothesize the DNA backbone electrostatically condensed to the primary amines on the surface of the particle toroidally, weaving itself within the polymer shell. During the DNA intercalation process, increasing the ionic concentration and decreasing the amine/phosphate ratio 10-fold increased drug intercalation 64 % and 61 %, respectively, allowing us to determine the optimal method of particle synthesis. As intercalation sites increased with increasing DNA strand length, drug loading increased. An average of 874±40.1 daunorubicin molecules were loaded per HCPNP. HCPNPs with drug intercalated DNA have strong potential to be clinically efficacious drug delivery vehicles due to the versatility of DNA and high drug loading capacities.

Proof-of-concept for a novel nanotechnology-based treatment for urolithiasis

Proof-of-concept of photonic lithotripsy in an in vitro setting and its ability to fragment the most common stone types is demonstrated. Effectiveness of different classes of photonic nanoparticles in fragmenting human stones is assessed. De-identified human stones were collected after institutional approval. Stones of a size range between 2-4 mm were rehydrated in simulated urine for 24 h. Stones were then coated with a solution of nanoparticles prior to activation with either a 785 nm or 1320 nm near-infrared energy source. Photonic lithotripsy achieved greater than 70% success rate in fragmentating calcium oxalate monohydrate stones using carbon-based nanoparticles for both near-infrared wavelengths. For gold-based nanoparticles, there was a similar success rate with the 785 nm wavelength but a significant decrease when using the 1320 nm wavelength energy source. All stones fragmented with the energy source at a distance ≥ 20 mm from the stone's surface. Limitations include the use of mixed-composition stones, a lack of complete stone immersion in liquid during treatment, and smaller stone size. Different classes of nanoparticles when excited with a near-infrared energy source can fragment common stone types in vitro. This technology has the potential to change the way we approach and treat patients with urolithiasis in a clinical setting.

Nanoparticle-based optical interfaces for retinal neuromodulation: a review

Degeneration of photoreceptors in the retina is a leading cause of blindness, but commonly leaves the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and/or bipolar cells extant. Consequently, these cells are an attractive target for the invasive electrical implants colloquially known as "bionic eyes." However, after more than two decades of concerted effort, interfaces based on conventional electrical stimulation approaches have delivered limited efficacy, primarily due to the current spread in retinal tissue, which precludes high-acuity vision. The ideal prosthetic solution would be less invasive, provide single-cell resolution and an ability to differentiate between different cell types. Nanoparticle-mediated approaches can address some of these requirements, with particular attention being directed at light-sensitive nanoparticles that can be accessed via the intrinsic optics of the eye. Here we survey the available known nanoparticle-based optical transduction mechanisms that can be exploited for neuromodulation. We review the rapid progress in the field, together with outstanding challenges that must be addressed to translate these techniques to clinical practice. In particular, successful translation will likely require efficient delivery of nanoparticles to stable and precisely defined locations in the retinal tissues. Therefore, we also emphasize the current literature relating to the pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles in the eye. While considerable challenges remain to be overcome, progress to date shows great potential for nanoparticle-based interfaces to revolutionize the field of visual prostheses.

Nanomedicine as a multimodal therapeutic paradigm against cancer: on the way forward in advancing precision therapy

Recent years have witnessed dramatic improvements in nanotechnology-based cancer therapeutics, and it continues to evolve from the use of conventional therapies (chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy) to increasingly multi-complex approaches incorporating thermal energy-based tumor ablation (e.g. magnetic hyperthermia and photothermal therapy), dynamic therapy (e.g. photodynamic therapy), gene therapy, sonodynamic therapy (e.g. ultrasound), immunotherapy, and more recently real-time treatment efficacy monitoring (e.g. theranostic MRI-sensitive nanoparticles). Unlike monotherapy, these multimodal therapies (bimodal, i.e., a combination of two therapies, and trimodal, i.e., a combination of more than two therapies) incorporating nanoplatforms have tremendous potential to improve the tumor tissue penetration and retention of therapeutic agents through selective active/passive targeting effects. These combinatorial therapies can correspondingly alleviate drug response against hypoxic/acidic and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments and promote/induce tumor cell death through various multi-mechanisms such as apoptosis, autophagy, and reactive oxygen-based cytotoxicity, e.g., ferroptosis, etc. These multi-faced approaches such as targeting the tumor vasculature, neoangiogenic vessels, drug-resistant cancer stem cells (CSCs), preventing intra/extravasation to reduce metastatic growth, and modulation of antitumor immune responses work complementary to each other, enhancing treatment efficacy. In this review, we discuss recent advances in different nanotechnology-mediated synergistic/additive combination therapies, emphasizing their underlying mechanisms for improving cancer prognosis and survival outcomes. Additionally, significant challenges such as CSCs, hypoxia, immunosuppression, and distant/local metastasis associated with therapy resistance and tumor recurrences are reviewed. Furthermore, to improve the clinical precision of these multimodal nanoplatforms in cancer treatment, their successful bench-to-clinic translation with controlled and localized drug-release kinetics, maximizing the therapeutic window while addressing safety and regulatory concerns are discussed. As we advance further, exploiting these strategies in clinically more relevant models such as patient-derived xenografts and 3D organoids will pave the way for the application of precision therapy.

Overcoming colloidal nanoparticle aggregation in biological milieu for cancer therapeutic delivery: Perspectives of materials and particle design

Nanoparticles as cancer therapeutic carrier fail in clinical translation due to complex biological environments in vivo consisting of electrolytes and proteins which render nanoparticle aggregation and unable to reach action site. This review identifies the desirable characteristics of nanoparticles and their constituent materials that prevent aggregation from site of administration (oral, lung, injection) to target site. Oral nanoparticles should ideally be 75-100 nm whereas the size of pulmonary nanoparticles minimally affects their aggregation. Nanoparticles generally should carry excess negative surface charges particularly in fasting state and exert steric hindrance through surface decoration with citrate, anionic surfactants and large polymeric chains (polyethylene glycol and polyvinylpyrrolidone) to prevent aggregation. Anionic as well as cationic nanoparticles are both predisposed to protein corona formation as a function of biological protein isoelectric points. Their nanoparticulate surface composition as such should confer hydrophilicity or steric hindrance to evade protein corona formation or its formation should translate into steric hindrance or surface negative charges to prevent further aggregation. Unexpectedly, smaller and cationic nanoparticles are less prone to aggregation at cancer cell interface favoring endocytosis whereas aggregation is essential to enable nanoparticles retention and subsequent cancer cell uptake in tumor microenvironment. Present studies are largely conducted in vitro with simplified simulated biological media. Future aggregation assessment of nanoparticles in biological fluids that mimic that of patients is imperative to address conflicting materials and designs required as a function of body sites in order to realize the future clinical benefits.

Designing Gold Nanoparticles for Precise Glioma Treatment: Challenges and Alternatives

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a glioma and the most aggressive type of brain tumor with a dismal average survival time, despite the standard of care. One promising alternative therapy is boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT), which is a noninvasive therapy for treating locally invasive malignant tumors, such as glioma. BNCT involves boron-10 isotope capturing neutrons to form boron-11, which then releases radiation directly into tumor cells with minimal damage to healthy tissues. This therapy lacks clinically approved targeted blood-brain-barrier-permeating delivery vehicles for the central nervous system (CNS) entry of therapeutic boron-10. Gold nanoparticles (GNPs) are selective and effective drug-delivery vehicles because of their desirable properties, facile synthesis, and biocompatibility. This review discusses biomedical/therapeutic applications of GNPs as a drug delivery vehicle, with an emphasis on their potential for carrying therapeutic drugs, imaging agents, and GBM-targeting antibodies/peptides for treating glioma. The constraints of GNP therapeutic efficacy and biosafety are discussed.

A renal clearable fluorogenic probe for in vivo β-galactosidase activity detection during aging and senolysis

Accumulation of senescent cells with age leads to tissue dysfunction and related diseases. Their detection in vivo still constitutes a challenge in aging research. We describe the generation of a fluorogenic probe (sulfonic-Cy7Gal) based on a galactose derivative, to serve as substrate for β-galactosidase, conjugated to a Cy7 fluorophore modified with sulfonic groups to enhance its ability to diffuse. When administered to male or female mice, β-galactosidase cleaves the O-glycosidic bond, releasing the fluorophore that is ultimately excreted by the kidneys and can be measured in urine. The intensity of the recovered fluorophore reliably reflects an experimentally controlled load of cellular senescence and correlates with age-associated anxiety during aging and senolytic treatment. Interestingly, our findings with the probe indicate that the effects of senolysis are temporary if the treatment is discontinued. Our strategy may serve as a basis for developing fluorogenic platforms designed for easy longitudinal monitoring of enzymatic activities in biofluids.

The effect of the size of gold nanoparticle contrast agents on CT imaging of the gastrointestinal tract and inflammatory bowel disease

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). CT imaging with contrast agents is commonly used for visualizing the gastrointestinal (GI) tract in UC patients. CT is a common imaging modality for evaluating IBD, especially in patients with acute abdominal pain presenting to emergency departments. CT's major limitation lies in its lack of specificity for imaging UC, as the commonly used agents are not well-suited for inflamed areas. Recent studies gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in UC. Further systemic research is needed to explore novel contrast agents that can specifically image disease processes in this disease setting.

Nanotechnology Innovations in Pediatric Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine: A Comprehensive Review

(1) Background: Nanomedicine, incorporating various nanoparticles and nanomaterials, offers significant potential in medical practice. Its clinical adoption, however, faces challenges like safety concerns, regulatory hurdles, and biocompatibility issues. Despite these, recent advancements have led to the approval of many nanotechnology-based products, including those for pediatric use. (2) Methods: Our approach included reviewing clinical, preclinical, and animal studies, as well as literature reviews from the past two decades and ongoing trials. (3) Results: Nanotechnology has introduced innovative solutions in cardiovascular care, particularly in managing myocardial ischemia. Key developments include drug-eluting stents, nitric oxide-releasing coatings, and the use of magnetic nanoparticles in cardiomyocyte transplantation. These advancements are pivotal for early detection and treatment. In cardiovascular imaging, nanotechnology enables noninvasive assessments. In pediatric cardiology, it holds promise in assisting the development of biological conduits, synthetic valves, and bioartificial grafts for congenital heart defects, and offers new treatments for conditions like dilated cardiomyopathy and pulmonary hypertension. (4) Conclusions: Nanomedicine presents groundbreaking solutions for cardiovascular diseases in both adults and children. It has the potential to transform cardiac care, from enhancing myocardial ischemia treatment and imaging techniques to addressing congenital heart issues. Further research and guideline development are crucial for optimizing its clinical application and revolutionizing patient care.

Nanovaccines: An effective therapeutic approach for cancer therapy

Cancer vaccines hold considerable promise for the immunotherapy of solid tumors. Nanomedicine offers several strategies for enhancing vaccine effectiveness. In particular, molecular or (sub) cellular vaccines can be delivered to the target lymphoid tissues and cells by nanocarriers and nanoplatforms to increase the potency and durability of antitumor immunity and minimize negative side effects. Nanovaccines use nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers and/or adjuvants, offering the advantages of optimal nanoscale size, high stability, ample antigen loading, high immunogenicity, tunable antigen presentation, increased retention in lymph nodes, and immunity promotion. To induce antitumor immunity, cancer vaccines rely on tumor antigens, which are administered in the form of entire cells, peptides, nucleic acids, extracellular vesicles (EVs), or cell membrane-encapsulated NPs. Ideal cancer vaccines stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity while overcoming tumor-induced immune suppression. Herein, we review the key properties of nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy and highlight the recent advances in their development based on the structure and composition of various (including synthetic and semi (biogenic) nanocarriers. Moreover, we discuss tumor cell-derived vaccines (including those based on whole-tumor-cell components, EVs, cell membrane-encapsulated NPs, and hybrid membrane-coated NPs), nanovaccine action mechanisms, and the challenges of immunocancer therapy and their translation to clinical applications.

Chitosan nanoparticles-based in vivo delivery of miR-155 modulates the Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus-induced antiviral immune responses in zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) is one of the highly pathogenic virus, which causes viral haemorrhagic septicaemia disease in both marine and freshwater fish. Micro RNA-155 (miRNA-155) is a multifunctional small non-coding RNA and it involves regulation of immune responses during viral infection. In this study, dre-miR-155 mimics were encapsulated into chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs). Resulted encapsulated product (miR-155-CNPs) was investigated for its immunomodulation role in zebrafish during experimentally challenged VHSV infection. Successful encapsulation of dre-miR-155 mimics into CNPs was confirmed through average nanoparticle (NPs) size (341.45 ± 10.00 nm), increased encapsulation efficiency percentage (98.80%), bound dre-miR-155 with chitosan, sustained release in vitro (up to 40%), and the integrity of RNA. Overexpressed miR-155 was observed in gills, muscle, and kidney tissues (5.42, 19.62, and 140.72-folds, respectively) after intraperitoneal delivery of miR-155-CNPs into zebrafish upon VHSV infection (miR-155-CNPs + VHSV). The miR-155-CNPs + VHSV infected fish had the highest cumulative survival (85%), which was associated with low viral copy numbers. The miR-155-overexpressing fish showed significantly decreased expression of ifnγ, irf2bpl, irf9, socs1a, il10, and caspase3, compared to that of the miR-155 inhibitor + VHSV infected fish group. In contrast, il1β, tnfα, il6, cd8a, and p53 expressions were upregulated in miR-155-overexpressed zebrafish compared to that of the control. The overall findings indicate the successful delivery of dre-miR-155 through miR-155-CNPs that enabled restriction of VHSV infection in zebrafish presumably by modulating immune gene expression.

Promising applications of nanotechnology in inhibiting chemo-resistance in solid tumors by targeting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)

The resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapy, also known as chemo-resistance, poses a significant obstacle to cancer treatment and can ultimately result in patient mortality. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of the many factors and processes responsible for chemo-resistance. Studies have shown that targeting EMT can help overcome chemo-resistance, and nanotechnology and nanomedicine have emerged as promising approaches to achieve this goal. This article discusses the potential of nanotechnology in inhibiting EMT and proposes a viable strategy to combat chemo-resistance in various solid tumors, including breast cancer, lung cancer, pancreatic cancer, glioblastoma, ovarian cancer, gastric cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma. While nanotechnology has shown promising results in targeting EMT, further research is necessary to explore its full potential in overcoming chemo-resistance and discovering more effective methods in the future.

Nanotechnology-Based Approaches for Cosmeceutical and Skin Care: A Systematic Review

Cosmeceuticals have gained great importance and are among the top-selling products used for skin care. Because of changing lifestyles, climate, and increasing pollution, cosmeceuticals are utilized by every individual, thereby making cosmeceuticals a fruitful field for research and the economy. Cosmeceuticals provide incredibly pleasing aesthetic results by fusing the qualities of both cosmetics and medicinal substances. Cosmeceuticals are primarily utilized to improve the appearance of skin by making it smoother, moisturized, and wrinkle-free, in addition to treating dermatological conditions, including photoaging, burns, dandruff, acne, eczema, and erythema. Nanocosmeceuticals are cosmetic products that combine therapeutic effects utilizing nanotechnology, allowing for more precise and effective target-specific delivery of active ingredients, and improving bioavailability.

Nanoparticle Isolation from Biological Media for Protein Corona Analysis: The Impact of Incubation and Recovery Protocols on Nanoparticle Properties

Nanoparticles are increasingly implemented in biomedical applications, including the diagnosis and treatment of disease. When exposed to complex biological media, nanoparticles spontaneously interact with their surrounding environment, leading to the surface-adsorption of small and bio- macromolecules- termed the "corona". Corona composition is governed by nanoparticle properties and incubation parameters. While the focus of most studies is on the protein signature of the nanoparticle corona, the impact of experimental protocols on nanoparticle size in the presence of complex biological media, and the impact of nanoparticle recovery from biological media has not yet been reported. Here using a non-degradable robust model, we show how centrifugation-resuspension protocols used for the isolation of nanoparticles from incubation media, incubation duration and shear flow conditions alter nanoparticle parameters including particle size, zeta potential and total protein content. Our results show significant changes in nanoparticle size following exposure to media containing protein under different flow conditions, which also altered the composition of surface-adsorbed proteins profiled by SDS-PAGE. Our in situ analysis of nanoparticle size in media containing protein using particle tracking analysis highlights that centrifugation-resuspension is disruptive to agglomerates that are spontaneously formed in protein containing media, highlighting the need for in situ analytical methods that do not alter the intermediates formed following nanoparticle exposure to biological media. Nanomedicines are mostly intended for parenteral administration, and our findings show that parameters such as shear flow can significantly alter nanoparticle physicochemical parameters. Overall, we show that the centrifugation-resuspension isolation of nanoparticles from media significantly alters particle parameters in addition to the overall protein composition of surface-adsorbed proteins. We recommend that nanoparticle characterization pipelines studying bio-nano interactions during early nanomedicine development consider biologically-relevant shear flow conditions and media composition that can significantly alter particle physical parameters and subsequent conclusions from these studies.

A review of the current state in neointimal hyperplasia development following endovascular intervention and minor emphasis on new horizons in immunotherapy

Endovascular strategies play a vital role in the treatment of peripheral arterial disease (PAD). However, luminal loss or restenosis after endovascular intervention remains a significant challenge. The main underlying mechanisms are negative vascular remodeling and elastic recoil in balloon angioplasty. During stenting, the main reason for this complex is neointimal proliferation. Endothelial cell injury due to endovascular intervention initiates a series of molecular events, such as overexpression of growth factors, cytokine secretion, and adhesion molecules. These induce platelet activation and inflammatory processes, which trigger the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells into the intima, resulting in neointimal hyperplasia. During this process, PAD progression is mainly caused by chronic inflammation, in which macrophages play a central role. Of the current strategies, drug release interventions aim to suppress restenosis using antiproliferative drugs, such as sirolimus and paclitaxel, during drug release. These drugs inhibit vascular reendothelialization and reduce late in-stent restenosis. For this reason, immunotherapy can be considered an important alternative. Interventions that polarize macrophages to the M2 subtype are particularly important, as they shape the immune response in an anti-inflammatory direction and contribute to tissue repair. However, there are several challenges to overcome, such as localizing antiproliferative or polarizing agents only to areas of vascular injury. This review discusses, based on the early study observations, immunotherapeutic approaches to prevent restenosis after endovascular intervention for the treatment of PAD.

Advanced drug delivery and therapeutic strategies for tuberculosis treatment

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant global health challenge, necessitating innovative approaches for effective treatment. Conventional TB therapy encounters several limitations, including extended treatment duration, drug resistance, patient noncompliance, poor bioavailability, and suboptimal targeting. Advanced drug delivery strategies have emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges. They have the potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes and improve TB patient compliance by providing benefits such as multiple drug encapsulation, sustained release, targeted delivery, reduced dosing frequency, and minimal side effects. This review examines the current landscape of drug delivery strategies for effective TB management, specifically highlighting lipid nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, emulsion-based systems, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and hydrogels as promising approaches. Furthermore, emerging therapeutic strategies like targeted therapy, long-acting therapeutics, extrapulmonary therapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are emphasized. The review also discusses the future trajectory and challenges of developing drug delivery systems for TB. In conclusion, nanomedicine has made substantial progress in addressing the challenges posed by conventional TB drugs. Moreover, by harnessing the unique targeting abilities, extended duration of action, and specificity of advanced therapeutics, innovative solutions are offered that have the potential to revolutionize TB therapy, thereby enhancing treatment outcomes and patient compliance.

Nanomaterials as drug delivery agents for overcoming the blood-brain barrier: A comprehensive review

Background and Purpose

The blood-brain barrier (BBB), a critical interface of specialized endothelial cells, plays a pivotal role in regulating molecular and ion transport between the central nervous system (CNS) and systemic circulation.

Experimental Approach

This review aims to delve into the intricate architecture and functions of the BBB while addressing challenges associated with delivering therapeutics to the brain. Historical milestones and contemporary insights underscore the BBB's significance in protecting the CNS.

Key Results

Innovative approaches for enhanced drug transport include intranasal delivery exploiting olfactory and trigeminal pathways, as well as techniques like temporary BBB opening through chemicals, receptors, or focused ultrasound. These avenues hold the potential to reshape conventional drug delivery paradigms and address the limitations posed by the BBB's selectivity.

Conclusion

This review underscores the vital role of the BBB in maintaining CNS health and emphasizes the importance of effective drug delivery through this barrier. Nanoparticles emerge as promising candidates to overcome BBB limitations and potentially revolutionize the treatment of CNS disorders. As research progresses, the application of nanomaterials shows immense potential for advancing neurological therapeutics, albeit with careful consideration of safety aspects.

Biological analyses of the effects of TiO2 and PEG-b-PLA nanoparticles on three-dimensional spheroid-based tumor

The aim of our study was to monitor the antiproliferative/ cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of both, poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(lactic acid) (PEG-b-PLA) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles on the tumor (HT-29, MCF-7, U118MG) and healthy (HEK-293T) cell lines during 2D cultivation and during cultivation in the spheroid form (3D cultivation). Cells or spheroids were cultivated with nanoparticles (0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 50, and 100 ?g/ml) for 72 hours. The cytotoxic effect was determined by the MTT test and the genotoxic effect by the comet assay. We found that 2D cultivation of tumor cell lines with PEG-b-PLA and TiO2 nanoparticles had an anti-proliferative effect on human colon cancer cell line HT-29, human breast cancer cell line MCF-7, human glioma cell line U-118MG during 72h cultivation, but not on control/healthy HEK-293T cells. At the concentrations used, the tested nanoparticles caused no cytotoxic effect on tumor cell lines. Nanoparticles PEG-b-PLA induced significant damage to DNA in HT-29 and MCF-7 cells, while TiO2 nanoparticles in MCF-7 and U-118MG cells. Only PEG-b-PLA nanoparticles caused cytotoxic (IC50 = 7 mikrog/ml) and genotoxic effects on the healthy cell line HEK-293T after 72h cultivation. The cells which were cultivated in spheroid forms were more sensitive to both types of nanoparticles. After 72h cultivation, we observed the cytotoxic effect on both, the tumor and healthy cell lines.

Insights into enterovirus a-71 antiviral development: from natural sources to synthetic nanoparticles

Enteroviruses are pathogens responsible for several diseases, being enterovirus A71 (EVA71) the second leading cause of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), especially in Asia-Pacific countries. HFMD is mostly common in infants and children, with mild symptoms. However, the disease can result in severe nervous system disorders in children as well as in immunosuppressed adults. The virus is highly contagious, and its transmission occurs via fecal-oral, oropharyngeal secretions, and fomites. The EVA71 burdens the healthy systems and economies around the world, however, up to date, there is no antiviral approved to treat infected individuals and the existent vaccines are not available or approved to be used worldwide. In this context, an extensive literature research was conducted to describe and summarize the recent advances in natural and/or synthetic compounds with antiviral activity against EVA71. The summarized data presented here might simply encourage the future studies in EVA71 antiviral development, by encouraging further research encompassing these compounds or even the application of the techniques and technologies to improve or produce new antiviral molecules.

Synthesis of copaiba (Copaifera officinalis) oil nanoemulsion and the potential against Zika virus: An in vitro study

Zika virus (ZIKV) has spread all over the world since its major outbreak in 2015. This infection has been recognized as a major global health issue due to the neurological complications related to ZIKV infection, such as Guillain-Barré Syndrome and Zika virus Congenital Syndrome. Currently, there are no vaccines or specific treatments for ZIKV infection, which makes the development of specific therapies for its treatment very important. Several studies have been developed to analyze the potential of compounds against ZIKV, with the aim of finding new promising treatments. Herein, we evaluate the ability of a copaiba (Copaifera officinalis) oil nanoemulsion (CNE) to inhibit ZIKV. First, the highest non-cytotoxic concentration of 180 μg/mL was chosen since this concentration maintains 80% cell viability up to 96h after treatment with CNE in VERO cells resulted from MTT assay. The intracellular uptake assay was performed, and confirmed the internalization of the nanoemulsion in cells at all times analyzed. VERO cells were infected with ZIKV and simultaneously treated with CNE and the nanoformulation without oil (ENE) at the highest non-toxic concentration. The results evaluated by plaque assay revealed a viral inhibition of 80% for CNE and 70% for ENE. A dose-dependence assay revealed that the CNE treatment demonstrated a dose-dependent response in the viral RNA levels, whereas all ENE tested concentrations exhibited a similar degree of reduction. Taken together, our results suggest CNE as a promising nano-sized platform to be further studied for antiviral treatments.

The Commonly Used Stabilizers for Phytochemical-Based Nanoparticles: Stabilization Effects, Mechanisms, and Applications

Phytochemicals, such as resveratrol, curcumin, and quercetin, have many benefits for health, but most of them have a low bioavailability due to their poor water solubility and stability, quick metabolism, and clearance, which restricts the scope of their potential applications. To overcome these issues, different types of nanoparticles (NPs), especially biocompatible and biodegradable NPs, have been developed. NPs can carry phytochemicals and increase their solubility, stability, target specificity, and oral bioavailability. However, NPs are prone to irreversible aggregation, which leads to NP instability and loss of functions. To remedy this shortcoming, stabilizers like polymers and surfactants are incorporated on NPs. Stabilizers not only increase the stability of NPs, but also improve their characteristics. The current review focused on discussing the state of the art in research on synthesizing phytochemical-based NPs and their commonly employed stabilizers. Furthermore, stabilizers in these NPs were also discussed in terms of their applications, effects, and underlying mechanisms. This review aimed to provide more references for developing stabilizers and NPs for future research.

Imiquimod-Loaded Chitosan-Decorated Di-Block and Tri-Block Polymeric Nanoparticles Loaded In Situ Gel for the Management of Cervical Cancer

BACKGROUND

Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, the predisposing factor for cervical cancer (CC), is caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and can be treated with imiquimod (IMQ). However, poor water solubility and side effects such as local inflammation can render IMQ ineffective. The aim of this study is to design a prolonged release nano system in combination with mucoadhesive-thermosensitive properties for an effective vaginal drug delivery.

METHODS

Polylactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA), polycaprolactone (PCL), poly lactide-co-caprolactone (PLA-PCL), and poly L-lactide-co-caprolactone-co-glycolide (PLGA-PCL) were used to create IMQ nanoparticles. Chitosan (CS) was then added to the surfaces of the IMQ NPs for its mucoadhesive properties. The NPs were then incorporated into poloxamer hydrogels. The NPs' size and morphology, encapsulation efficiency (EE), in vitro drug release, gel characterization, ex vivo drug permeation, and in vitro safety and efficacy were characterized.

RESULTS

Two batches of NPs were prepared, IMQ NPs and CS-coated NPs (CS-IMQ NPs). In general, both types of NPs were uniformly spherical in shape with average particle sizes of 237.3 ± 4.7 and 278.2 ± 5.4 nm and EE% of 61.48 ± 5.19% and 37.73 ± 2.88 for IMQ NPs and CS-IMQ NPs, respectively. Both systems showed prolonged drug release of about 80 and 70% for IMQ NPs and CS-IMQ NPs, respectively, within 48 h. The gelation temperatures for the IMQ NPs and CS-IMQ NPs were 30 and 32 °C, respectively; thus, suitable for vaginal application. Although ex vivo permeability showed that CS-IMQ NPs showed superior penetration compared to IMQ NPs, both systems enhanced drug penetration (283 and 462 µg/cm2 for IMQ NPs and CS-IMQ NPs, respectively) relative to the control (60 µg/cm2). Both systems reduced the viability of cervical cancer cells, with a minimal effect of the normal vaginal epithelium. However, IMQ NPs exhibited a more pronounced cytotoxic effect. Both systems were able to reduce the production of inflammatory cytokines by at least 25% in comparison to free IMQ.

CONCLUSION

IMQ and CS-IMQ NP in situ gels enhanced stability and drug release, and improved IMQ penetration through the vaginal tissues. Additionally, the new systems were able to increase the cytotoxic effect of IMQ against CC cells with a reduction in inflammatory responses. Thus, we believe that these systems could be a good alternative to commercial IMQ systems for the management of CC.

Ameliorative effect of selenium nanoparticles on testicular toxicity induced by cisplatin in adult male rats

Cisplatin (Cis) is a treatment for testicular germ-cell tumors (TGCTs). Unfortunately, it causes testicular toxicity due to releasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing damage to testicular cells and chromosomes. The current study aimed to investigate the ameliorative effect of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) against cisplatin testicular toxicity in male rats by assessment of body weight, testis weight, oxidative stress markers in testis homogenates as (malondialdehyde (MDA), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Glutathione reduced (GSH), Glutathione peroxidase (GSH ∼ PX) and Catalase (CAT)), gene expression, testosterone concentration (T), sperm characteristics (count, motility and abnormality) and testicular histopathology. Methods: Thirty adult male rats divided equally into four groups; a single dose intraperitoneally injection of cisplatin (10 mg/kg) and selenium nanoparticles (2 mg/kg/day) were administrated alone or in combination. Cis group showed a decrease in body weight, testis weight, antioxidant activities (SOD, GSH, GSH ∼ PX and CAT), T concentration and steroidogenetic expression, the data recorded an increase in MDA levels and sperm abnormality, meanwhile histopathology of testis sections showed degenerative changes in the seminiferous tubules. The co-administration of selenium nanoparticles ameliorated the harmful effects of cisplatin. In conclusion; SeNPs through its antioxidant potential may be useful to prevent the testicular toxicity induced by cisplatin to the rat testis by reducing oxidative stress.

Increase in anionic Fe3O4 nanoparticle-induced membrane poration and vesicle deformation due to membrane potential - an experimental study

The membrane potential plays a significant role in various cellular processes while interacting with membrane active agents. So far, all the investigations of the interaction of nanoparticles (NPs) with lipid vesicles have been performed in the absence of membrane potential. In this study, the anionic magnetite NP-induced poration along with deformation of cell-mimetic giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) has been studied in the presence of various membrane potentials. Lipids 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DOPG), 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), and channel forming protein gramicidin A (GrA) are used to synthesize the DOPG/DOPC/GrA-GUVs. The static and dynamic nature of GUVs is investigated using phase contrast fluorescent microscopy. The presence of GrA in the membrane decreases the leakage constant of the encapsulating fluorescent probe (calcein) in the absence of membrane potential. With the increase of negative membrane potential, the leakage shifts from a single exponential to two exponential functions, obtaining two leakage constants. The leakage became faster at the initial stage, and at the final stage, it became slower with the increase in negative membrane potential. Both the fraction of poration and deformation increase with the increase of negative membrane potential. These results suggested that the membrane potential enhances the NP-induced poration along with the deformation of DOPG/DOPC/GrA-GUVs. The increase of the binding constant in the NPs with membrane potential is one of the important factors for increasing membrane permeation and vesicle deformation.

Polymyxin B stabilized DNA micelles for sustained antibacterial and antibiofilm activity against P. aeruginosa

Nucleic acid-based materials showcase an increasing potential for antimicrobial drug delivery. Although numerous reports on drug-loaded DNA nanoparticles outline their pivotal antibacterial activities, their potential as drug delivery systems against bacterial biofilms awaits further studies. Among different oligonucleotide structures, micellar nanocarriers derived from amphiphilic DNA strands are of particular interest due to their spontaneous self-assembly and high biocompatibility. However, their clinical use is hampered by structural instability upon cation depletion. In this work, we used a cationic amphiphilic antibiotic (polymyxin B) to stabilize DNA micelles destined to penetrate P. aeruginosa biofilms and exhibit antibacterial/antibiofilm properties. Our study highlights how the strong affinity of this antibiotic enhances the stability of the micelles and confirms that antibacterial activity of the novel micelles remains intact. Additionally, we show that PMB micelles can penetrate P. aeruginosa biofilms and impact their metabolic activity. Finally, PMB micelles were highly safe and biocompatible, highlighting their possible application against P. aeruginosa biofilm-colonized skin wounds.

Surface modification potentials of cell membrane-based materials for targeted therapies: a chemotherapy-focused review

Nanotechnology has significant potential for cancer management at all stages, including prevention, diagnosis and treatment. In therapeutic applications, nanoparticles (NPs) have biological stability, targeting and body-clearance issues. To overcome these difficulties, biomimetic or cell membrane-coating methods using immune cell membranes are advised. Macrophage or neutrophil cell membrane-coated NPs may impede cancer progression in malignant tissue. Immune cell surface proteins and their capacity to maintain activity after membrane extraction and NP coating determine NP functioning. Immune cell surface proteins may offer NPs higher cellular interactions, blood circulation, antigen recognition for targeting, progressive drug release and reduced in vivo toxicity. This article examines nano-based systems with immune cell membranes, their surface modification potential, and their application in cancer treatment.

Exposure to Cadmium Telluride Quantum Dots and Gene Expression Profile of Huh-7 Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line

Nanoparticles have shown promising potential for efficient drug delivery, circumventing biological interferences like immunological and renal clearance and mechanical and enzymatic destruction. However, a handful of research papers have questioned the biomedical use of metal-based nanoparticles like cadmium telluride quantum dots (CdTe-QDs) for their cytotoxic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic potential. Herein, we examined the effects of CdTe-QD NPs on gene expression profile of hepatocellular carcinoma (Huh-7) cell line. Huh-7 cells were treated with CdTe-QD NPs (10 μg/ml for 6, 12, and 24 hours, and 25 μg/ml for 6 and 12 hours), and transcriptomic analysis was performed using microarray to evaluate the global gene expression profile. Differential expressed genes (DEGs) were observed for both the doses (10 and 25 μg/ml) of CdTe-QD NPs at different time points. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that genes involved in molecular function of cell cycle, organizational injury and abnormalities, cell death and survival, gene expression, cancer, organismal survival, and cellular development were differentially expressed. Overall, we have demonstrated differential expression of several genes, involved in maintaining cell survival, metabolism, and genome integrity. These findings were confirmed by RT-qPCR study for some canonical pathway genes signifying possible implication in NP toxicity-mediated cell survival and inhibition of cell death.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Blunt Potassium-Bromate-Induced Renal Toxicity by Reinforcing the Redox System

Potassium bromate (PB) is a general food additive, a significant by-product during water disinfection, and a carcinogen (Class II B). The compound emits toxicity depending on the extent of its exposure and dose through consumable items. The current study targeted disclosing the ameliorative efficacy of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) prepared by green technology in PB-exposed Swiss albino rats. The rats were separated into six treatment groups: control without any treatment (Group I), PB alone (Group II), ZnO alone (Group III), ZnO NP alone (Group IV), PB + ZnO (Group V), and PB + ZnO NPs (Group VI). The blood and kidney samples were retrieved from the animals after following the treatment plan and kept at -20 °C until further analysis. Contrary to the control (Group I), PB-treated rats (Group II) exhibited a prominent trend in alteration in the established kidney function markers and disturbed redox status. Further, the analysis of the tissue and nuclear DNA also reinforced the biochemical results of the same treatment group. Hitherto, Groups III and IV also showed moderate toxic insults. However, Group VI showed a significant improvement from the PB-induced toxic insults compared to Group II. Hence, the present study revealed the significant therapeutic potential of the NPs against PB-induced nephrotoxicity in vivo, pleading for their usage in medicines having nephrotoxicity as a side effect or in enhancing the safety of the industrial use of PB.

The use of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles as a delivery system of CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutics for editing long non-coding RNAs in cancer colon cells

Colon cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer in the United States. Colon cancer develops from the many gene mutations found in the genomes of colon cancer cells. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) can cause the development and progression of many cancers, including colon cancer. LncRNAs have been and could be corrected through the gene-editing technology of the clustered repeats of the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated nuclease 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system to reduce the proliferation of cancer cells in the colon. However, many current delivery systems for transporting CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutics in vivo need more safety and efficiency. CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutics require a safe and effective delivery system to more directly and specifically target cancer cells present in the colon. This review will present pertinent evidence for the increased efficiency and safety of using plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles as nanocarriers for delivering CRISPR/Cas9-based therapeutics to target colon cancer cells directly.

Nanotechnology-Based Topical Delivery of Natural Products for the Management of Atopic Dermatitis

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic eczematous inflammatory disease that may arise from environmental, genetic, and immunological factors. Despite the efficacy of current treatment options such as corticosteroids, such approaches are mainly focused on symptom relief and may present certain undesirable side effects. In recent years, isolated natural compounds, oils, mixtures, and/or extracts have gained scientific attention because of their high efficiency and moderate to low toxicity. Despite their promising therapeutic effects, the applicability of such natural healthcare solutions is somewhat limited by their instability, poor solubility, and low bioavailability. Therefore, novel nanoformulation-based systems have been designed to overcome these limitations, thus enhancing the therapeutic potential, by promoting the capacity of these natural drugs to properly exert their action in AD-like skin lesions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first literature review that has focused on summarizing recent nanoformulation-based solutions loaded with natural ingredients, specifically for the management of AD. We suggest that future studies should focus on robust clinical trials that may confirm the safety and effectiveness of such natural-based nanosystems, thus paving the way for more reliable AD treatments.

The evolving regulatory landscape in regenerative medicine

Regenerative medicine as a field has emerged as a new component of modern medicine and medical research that encompasses a wide range of products including cellular and acellular therapies. As this new field emerged, regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rapidly adapted existing regulatory frameworks to address the transplantation, gene therapy, cell-based therapeutics, and acellular biologics that fall under the broader regenerative medicine umbrella. Where it has not been possible to modify existing regulation and processes, entirely new frameworks have been generated with the intention of providing flexible, forward-facing systems to regulate this rapidly growing field. This review discusses the current state of FDA regulatory affairs in the context of stem cells and extracellular vesicles by highlighting gaps in the current regulatory system and then discussing where regulatory science in regenerative medicine may be headed based on these gaps and the FDA's historical ability to deal with emerging fields. Lastly, we utilize case studies in stem cell and acellular based treatments to demonstrate how regulatory science has evolved in regenerative medicine and highlight the ongoing clinical efforts and challenges of these therapies.

Extracellular vesicles as personalized medicine

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released from all cells in the body, forming an important intercellular communication network that contributes to health and disease. The contents of EVs are cell source-specific, inducing distinct signaling responses in recipient cells. The specificity of EVs and their accumulation in fluid spaces that are accessible for liquid biopsies make them highly attractive as potential biomarkers and therapies for disease. The duality of EVs as favorable (therapeutic) or unfavorable (pathological) messengers is context dependent and remains to be fully determined in homeostasis and various disease states. This review describes the use of EVs as biomarkers, drug delivery vehicles, and regenerative therapeutics, highlighting examples involving viral infections, cancer, and neurological diseases. There is growing interest to provide personalized therapy based on individual patient and disease characteristics. Increasing evidence suggests that EV biomarkers and therapeutic approaches are ideal for personalized medicine due to the diversity and multifunctionality of EVs.

Nano Delivery of Chemotherapeutic ICD Inducers for Tumor Immunotherapy

Immunogenic cell death (ICD, also known as immunogenic apoptosis) of malignant cells is confirmed to activate the host immune system to prevent, control, and eliminate tumors. Recently, a range of chemotherapeutic drugs have been repurposed as ICD inducers and applied for tumor immunotherapy. However, several hurdles to the widespread application of chemotherapeutic ICD inducers remain, namely poor water solubility, short blood circulation, non-specific tissue distribution, and severe toxicity. Recent advances in nanotechnology and pharmaceutical formulation foster the development of nano drug delivery systems to tackle the aforementioned hurdles and expedite safe, effective, and specific delivery. This review will describe delivery barriers to chemical ICD inducers and highlight recent nanoformulations for these drugs in tumor immunotherapy.

The Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health

Background

Plastics have conveyed great benefits to humanity and made possible some of the most significant advances of modern civilization in fields as diverse as medicine, electronics, aerospace, construction, food packaging, and sports. It is now clear, however, that plastics are also responsible for significant harms to human health, the economy, and the earth's environment. These harms occur at every stage of the plastic life cycle, from extraction of the coal, oil, and gas that are its main feedstocks through to ultimate disposal into the environment. The extent of these harms not been systematically assessed, their magnitude not fully quantified, and their economic costs not comprehensively counted.

Goals

The goals of this Minderoo-Monaco Commission on Plastics and Human Health are to comprehensively examine plastics' impacts across their life cycle on: (1) human health and well-being; (2) the global environment, especially the ocean; (3) the economy; and (4) vulnerable populations-the poor, minorities, and the world's children. On the basis of this examination, the Commission offers science-based recommendations designed to support development of a Global Plastics Treaty, protect human health, and save lives.

Report Structure

This Commission report contains seven Sections. Following an Introduction, Section 2 presents a narrative review of the processes involved in plastic production, use, and disposal and notes the hazards to human health and the environment associated with each of these stages. Section 3 describes plastics' impacts on the ocean and notes the potential for plastic in the ocean to enter the marine food web and result in human exposure. Section 4 details plastics' impacts on human health. Section 5 presents a first-order estimate of plastics' health-related economic costs. Section 6 examines the intersection between plastic, social inequity, and environmental injustice. Section 7 presents the Commission's findings and recommendations.

Plastics

Plastics are complex, highly heterogeneous, synthetic chemical materials. Over 98% of plastics are produced from fossil carbon- coal, oil and gas. Plastics are comprised of a carbon-based polymer backbone and thousands of additional chemicals that are incorporated into polymers to convey specific properties such as color, flexibility, stability, water repellence, flame retardation, and ultraviolet resistance. Many of these added chemicals are highly toxic. They include carcinogens, neurotoxicants and endocrine disruptors such as phthalates, bisphenols, per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), brominated flame retardants, and organophosphate flame retardants. They are integral components of plastic and are responsible for many of plastics' harms to human health and the environment.Global plastic production has increased almost exponentially since World War II, and in this time more than 8,300 megatons (Mt) of plastic have been manufactured. Annual production volume has grown from under 2 Mt in 1950 to 460 Mt in 2019, a 230-fold increase, and is on track to triple by 2060. More than half of all plastic ever made has been produced since 2002. Single-use plastics account for 35-40% of current plastic production and represent the most rapidly growing segment of plastic manufacture.Explosive recent growth in plastics production reflects a deliberate pivot by the integrated multinational fossil-carbon corporations that produce coal, oil and gas and that also manufacture plastics. These corporations are reducing their production of fossil fuels and increasing plastics manufacture. The two principal factors responsible for this pivot are decreasing global demand for carbon-based fuels due to increases in 'green' energy, and massive expansion of oil and gas production due to fracking.Plastic manufacture is energy-intensive and contributes significantly to climate change. At present, plastic production is responsible for an estimated 3.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the contribution of Brazil. This fraction is projected to increase to 4.5% by 2060 if current trends continue unchecked.

Plastic Life Cycle

The plastic life cycle has three phases: production, use, and disposal. In production, carbon feedstocks-coal, gas, and oil-are transformed through energy-intensive, catalytic processes into a vast array of products. Plastic use occurs in every aspect of modern life and results in widespread human exposure to the chemicals contained in plastic. Single-use plastics constitute the largest portion of current use, followed by synthetic fibers and construction.Plastic disposal is highly inefficient, with recovery and recycling rates below 10% globally. The result is that an estimated 22 Mt of plastic waste enters the environment each year, much of it single-use plastic and are added to the more than 6 gigatons of plastic waste that have accumulated since 1950. Strategies for disposal of plastic waste include controlled and uncontrolled landfilling, open burning, thermal conversion, and export. Vast quantities of plastic waste are exported each year from high-income to low-income countries, where it accumulates in landfills, pollutes air and water, degrades vital ecosystems, befouls beaches and estuaries, and harms human health-environmental injustice on a global scale. Plastic-laden e-waste is particularly problematic.

Environmental Findings

Plastics and plastic-associated chemicals are responsible for widespread pollution. They contaminate aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, and atmospheric environments globally. The ocean is the ultimate destination for much plastic, and plastics are found throughout the ocean, including coastal regions, the sea surface, the deep sea, and polar sea ice. Many plastics appear to resist breakdown in the ocean and could persist in the global environment for decades. Macro- and micro-plastic particles have been identified in hundreds of marine species in all major taxa, including species consumed by humans. Trophic transfer of microplastic particles and the chemicals within them has been demonstrated. Although microplastic particles themselves (>10 µm) appear not to undergo biomagnification, hydrophobic plastic-associated chemicals bioaccumulate in marine animals and biomagnify in marine food webs. The amounts and fates of smaller microplastic and nanoplastic particles (MNPs <10 µm) in aquatic environments are poorly understood, but the potential for harm is worrying given their mobility in biological systems. Adverse environmental impacts of plastic pollution occur at multiple levels from molecular and biochemical to population and ecosystem. MNP contamination of seafood results in direct, though not well quantified, human exposure to plastics and plastic-associated chemicals. Marine plastic pollution endangers the ocean ecosystems upon which all humanity depends for food, oxygen, livelihood, and well-being.

Human Health Findings

Coal miners, oil workers and gas field workers who extract fossil carbon feedstocks for plastic production suffer increased mortality from traumatic injury, coal workers' pneumoconiosis, silicosis, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. Plastic production workers are at increased risk of leukemia, lymphoma, hepatic angiosarcoma, brain cancer, breast cancer, mesothelioma, neurotoxic injury, and decreased fertility. Workers producing plastic textiles die of bladder cancer, lung cancer, mesothelioma, and interstitial lung disease at increased rates. Plastic recycling workers have increased rates of cardiovascular disease, toxic metal poisoning, neuropathy, and lung cancer. Residents of "fenceline" communities adjacent to plastic production and waste disposal sites experience increased risks of premature birth, low birth weight, asthma, childhood leukemia, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.During use and also in disposal, plastics release toxic chemicals including additives and residual monomers into the environment and into people. National biomonitoring surveys in the USA document population-wide exposures to these chemicals. Plastic additives disrupt endocrine function and increase risk for premature births, neurodevelopmental disorders, male reproductive birth defects, infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, renal disease, and cancers. Chemical-laden MNPs formed through the environmental degradation of plastic waste can enter living organisms, including humans. Emerging, albeit still incomplete evidence indicates that MNPs may cause toxicity due to their physical and toxicological effects as well as by acting as vectors that transport toxic chemicals and bacterial pathogens into tissues and cells.Infants in the womb and young children are two populations at particularly high risk of plastic-related health effects. Because of the exquisite sensitivity of early development to hazardous chemicals and children's unique patterns of exposure, plastic-associated exposures are linked to increased risks of prematurity, stillbirth, low birth weight, birth defects of the reproductive organs, neurodevelopmental impairment, impaired lung growth, and childhood cancer. Early-life exposures to plastic-associated chemicals also increase the risk of multiple non-communicable diseases later in life.

Economic Findings

Plastic's harms to human health result in significant economic costs. We estimate that in 2015 the health-related costs of plastic production exceeded $250 billion (2015 Int$) globally, and that in the USA alone the health costs of disease and disability caused by the plastic-associated chemicals PBDE, BPA and DEHP exceeded $920 billion (2015 Int$). Plastic production results in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions equivalent to 1.96 gigatons of carbon dioxide (CO2e) annually. Using the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) social cost of carbon metric, we estimate the annual costs of these GHG emissions to be $341 billion (2015 Int$).These costs, large as they are, almost certainly underestimate the full economic losses resulting from plastics' negative impacts on human health and the global environment. All of plastics' economic costs-and also its social costs-are externalized by the petrochemical and plastic manufacturing industry and are borne by citizens, taxpayers, and governments in countries around the world without compensation.

Social Justice Findings

The adverse effects of plastics and plastic pollution on human health, the economy and the environment are not evenly distributed. They disproportionately affect poor, disempowered, and marginalized populations such as workers, racial and ethnic minorities, "fenceline" communities, Indigenous groups, women, and children, all of whom had little to do with creating the current plastics crisis and lack the political influence or the resources to address it. Plastics' harmful impacts across its life cycle are most keenly felt in the Global South, in small island states, and in disenfranchised areas in the Global North. Social and environmental justice (SEJ) principles require reversal of these inequitable burdens to ensure that no group bears a disproportionate share of plastics' negative impacts and that those who benefit economically from plastic bear their fair share of its currently externalized costs.

Conclusions

It is now clear that current patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal are not sustainable and are responsible for significant harms to human health, the environment, and the economy as well as for deep societal injustices.The main driver of these worsening harms is an almost exponential and still accelerating increase in global plastic production. Plastics' harms are further magnified by low rates of recovery and recycling and by the long persistence of plastic waste in the environment.The thousands of chemicals in plastics-monomers, additives, processing agents, and non-intentionally added substances-include amongst their number known human carcinogens, endocrine disruptors, neurotoxicants, and persistent organic pollutants. These chemicals are responsible for many of plastics' known harms to human and planetary health. The chemicals leach out of plastics, enter the environment, cause pollution, and result in human exposure and disease. All efforts to reduce plastics' hazards must address the hazards of plastic-associated chemicals.

Recommendations

To protect human and planetary health, especially the health of vulnerable and at-risk populations, and put the world on track to end plastic pollution by 2040, this Commission supports urgent adoption by the world's nations of a strong and comprehensive Global Plastics Treaty in accord with the mandate set forth in the March 2022 resolution of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA).International measures such as a Global Plastics Treaty are needed to curb plastic production and pollution, because the harms to human health and the environment caused by plastics, plastic-associated chemicals and plastic waste transcend national boundaries, are planetary in their scale, and have disproportionate impacts on the health and well-being of people in the world's poorest nations. Effective implementation of the Global Plastics Treaty will require that international action be coordinated and complemented by interventions at the national, regional, and local levels.This Commission urges that a cap on global plastic production with targets, timetables, and national contributions be a central provision of the Global Plastics Treaty. We recommend inclusion of the following additional provisions:The Treaty needs to extend beyond microplastics and marine litter to include all of the many thousands of chemicals incorporated into plastics.The Treaty needs to include a provision banning or severely restricting manufacture and use of unnecessary, avoidable, and problematic plastic items, especially single-use items such as manufactured plastic microbeads.The Treaty needs to include requirements on extended producer responsibility (EPR) that make fossil carbon producers, plastic producers, and the manufacturers of plastic products legally and financially responsible for the safety and end-of-life management of all the materials they produce and sell.The Treaty needs to mandate reductions in the chemical complexity of plastic products; health-protective standards for plastics and plastic additives; a requirement for use of sustainable non-toxic materials; full disclosure of all components; and traceability of components. International cooperation will be essential to implementing and enforcing these standards.The Treaty needs to include SEJ remedies at each stage of the plastic life cycle designed to fill gaps in community knowledge and advance both distributional and procedural equity.This Commission encourages inclusion in the Global Plastic Treaty of a provision calling for exploration of listing at least some plastic polymers as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention.This Commission encourages a strong interface between the Global Plastics Treaty and the Basel and London Conventions to enhance management of hazardous plastic waste and slow current massive exports of plastic waste into the world's least-developed countries.This Commission recommends the creation of a Permanent Science Policy Advisory Body to guide the Treaty's implementation. The main priorities of this Body would be to guide Member States and other stakeholders in evaluating which solutions are most effective in reducing plastic consumption, enhancing plastic waste recovery and recycling, and curbing the generation of plastic waste. This Body could also assess trade-offs among these solutions and evaluate safer alternatives to current plastics. It could monitor the transnational export of plastic waste. It could coordinate robust oceanic-, land-, and air-based MNP monitoring programs.This Commission recommends urgent investment by national governments in research into solutions to the global plastic crisis. This research will need to determine which solutions are most effective and cost-effective in the context of particular countries and assess the risks and benefits of proposed solutions. Oceanographic and environmental research is needed to better measure concentrations and impacts of plastics <10 µm and understand their distribution and fate in the global environment. Biomedical research is needed to elucidate the human health impacts of plastics, especially MNPs.

Summary

This Commission finds that plastics are both a boon to humanity and a stealth threat to human and planetary health. Plastics convey enormous benefits, but current linear patterns of plastic production, use, and disposal that pay little attention to sustainable design or safe materials and a near absence of recovery, reuse, and recycling are responsible for grave harms to health, widespread environmental damage, great economic costs, and deep societal injustices. These harms are rapidly worsening.While there remain gaps in knowledge about plastics' harms and uncertainties about their full magnitude, the evidence available today demonstrates unequivocally that these impacts are great and that they will increase in severity in the absence of urgent and effective intervention at global scale. Manufacture and use of essential plastics may continue. However, reckless increases in plastic production, and especially increases in the manufacture of an ever-increasing array of unnecessary single-use plastic products, need to be curbed.Global intervention against the plastic crisis is needed now because the costs of failure to act will be immense.

Exploring the Application of Micellar Drug Delivery Systems in Cancer Nanomedicine

Various formulations of polymeric micelles, tiny spherical structures made of polymeric materials, are currently being investigated in preclinical and clinical settings for their potential as nanomedicines. They target specific tissues and prolong circulation in the body, making them promising cancer treatment options. This review focuses on the different types of polymeric materials available to synthesize micelles, as well as the different ways that micelles can be tailored to be responsive to different stimuli. The selection of stimuli-sensitive polymers used in micelle preparation is based on the specific conditions found in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, clinical trends in using micelles to treat cancer are presented, including what happens to micelles after they are administered. Finally, various cancer drug delivery applications involving micelles are discussed along with their regulatory aspects and future outlooks. As part of this discussion, we will examine current research and development in this field. The challenges and barriers they may have to overcome before they can be widely adopted in clinics will also be discussed.

Methacrylate Cationic Nanoparticles Activity against Different Gram-Positive Bacteria

Nanotechnology is a developing field that has boomed in recent years due to the multiple qualities of nanoparticles (NPs), one of which is their antimicrobial capacity. We propose that NPs anchored with 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) have antibacterial properties and could constitute an alternative tool in this field. To this end, the antimicrobial effects of three quaternised NPs anchored with DMAEMA were studied. These NPs were later copolymerized using different methylmethacrylate (MMA) concentrations to evaluate their role in the antibacterial activity shown by NPs. Clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, S. lugdunensis and Enterococcus faecalis were used to assess antibacterial activity. The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined at the different concentrations of NPs to appraise antibacterial activity. The cytotoxic effects of the NPs anchored with DMAEMA were determined in NIH3T3 mouse fibroblast cultures by MTT assays. All the employed NPs were effective against the studied bacterial strains, although increasing concentrations of the MMA added during the synthesis process diminished these effects without altering toxicity in cell cultures. To conclude, more studies with other copolymers are necessary to improve the antibacterial effects of NPs anchored with DMAEMA.

In-vivo time course of organ uptake and blood-brain-barrier permeation of poly(L-lactide) and poly(perfluorodecyl acrylate) nanoparticles with different surface properties in unharmed and brain-traumatized rats

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) has a dramatic impact on mortality and quality of life and the development of effective treatment strategies is of great socio-economic relevance. A growing interest exists in using polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) for potentially effective drugs in TBI. However, the effect of NP material and type of surfactant on their distribution within organs, the amount of the administrated dose that reaches the brain parenchyma in areas with intact and opened BBB after trauma, and a possible elicited inflammatory response are still to be clarified.

Methods

The organ distribution, BBB permeation and eventual inflammatory activation of polysorbate-80 (Tw80) and sodiumdodecylsulfate (SDS) stabilized poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) and poly(perfluorodecyl acrylate) (PFDL) nanoparticles were evaluated in rats after intravenous administration. The NP uptake into the brain was assessed under intact conditions and after controlled cortical impact (CCI).

Results

A significantly higher NP uptake at 4 and 24 h after injection was observed in the liver and spleen, followed by the brain and kidney, with minimal concentrations in the lungs and heart for all NPs. A significant increase of NP uptake at 4 and 24 h after CCI was observed within the traumatized hemisphere, especially in the perilesional area, but NPs were still found in areas away from the injury site and the contralateral hemisphere. NPs were internalized in brain capillary endothelial cells, neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. Immunohistochemical staining against GFAP, Iba1, TNFα, and IL1β demonstrated no glial activation or neuroinflammatory changes.

Conclusions

Tw80 and SDS coated biodegradable PLLA and non-biodegradable PFDL NPs reach the brain parenchyma with and without compromised BBB by TBI, even though a high amount of NPs are retained in the liver and spleen. No inflammatory reaction is elicited by these NPs within 24 h after injection. Thus, these NPs could be considered as potentially effective carriers or markers of newly developed drugs with low or even no BBB permeation.

Liposomal celecoxib combined with dendritic cell therapy enhances antitumor efficacy in melanoma

Cancer vaccine efficacy is limited by the immunosuppressive nature of the tumor microenvironment created by inflammation, immune inhibitory factors, and regulatory T cells (Tregs). Inspired by the role of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in inflammation in the tumor site, we proposed that normalization of the tumor microenvironment by celecoxib as a COX-2 inhibitor might improve the efficacy of Dendritic Cell (DC) therapy in a melanoma model. In the present study, liposomal celecoxib (Lip-CLX) was combined with ex vivo generated DC vaccines pulsed with gp100 peptide (in liposomal and non-liposomal forms) for prophylactic and therapeutic evaluation in the B16F10 melanoma model. Tumor site analysis by flow cytometry demonstrated that intravenous administration of Lip-CLX at a dose of 1 mg/kg in four doses effectively normalized the tumor microenvironment by reducing Tregs and IL-10 production. Furthermore, in combination with DC vaccination (DC + Lip-peptide+Lip-CLX), it significantly increased tumor-infiltrating CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells and secretion of IFN-γ. This combinatorial strategy produced an effective prophylactic and therapeutic antitumor response, which reduced tumor growth and prolonged the overall survival. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the liposomal celecoxib targets the inhibitory mechanisms of the tumor microenvironment and broadens the impact of DC therapy to improve the outcome of immunotherapy in solid tumors.

Nano-Calcium Carbonate Affect the Respiratory and Function Through Inducing Oxidative Stress: A Cross-sectional Study Among Occupational Exposure of Workers and a Further Research for Underlying Mechanisms

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study is to investigate whether nano-calcium carbonate (nano-CaCO 3 ) occupational exposure could induce adverse health effects in workers.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in a nano-CaCO 3 manufacturing plant in China. Then, we have studied the dynamic distribution of nano-CaCO 3 in nude mice and examined the oxidative damage biomarkers of subchronic administrated nano-CaCO 3 on Sprague-Dawley rats.

RESULTS

The forced vital capacity (%) and the ratio of FEV1 to FVC is the rate of one second of workers were significantly decreased than unexposed individuals. Dynamic imaging in mice of fluorescence labeled nano-CaCO 3 showed relatively high uptake and slow washout in lung. Similar to population data, the decline in serum glutathione level and elevation in serum MDA were observed in nano-CaCO 3 -infected Sprague-Dawley rats.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that nano-CaCO 3 exposure may result in the poor pulmonary function in workers and lead to the changes of oxidative stress indexes.

Smart delivery systems for microbial biofilm therapy: Dissecting design, drug release and toxicological features

Bacterial biofilms are highly protected surface attached communities of bacteria that typically cause chronic infections. To address their recalcitrance to antibiotics and minimise side effects of current therapies, smart drug carriers are being explored as promising platforms for antimicrobials. Herein, we briefly summarize recent efforts and considerations that have been applied in the design of these smart carriers. We guide readers on a journey on how they can leverage the inherent biofilm microenvironment, external stimuli, or combine both types of stimuli in a predictable manner. The specific carrier features that are responsible for their 'on-demand' properties are detailed and their impact on antibiofilm property are further discussed. Moreover, an analysis on the impact of such features on drug release profiles is provided. Since nanotechnology represents a significant slice of the drug delivery pie, some insights on the potential toxicity are also depicted. We hope that this review inspires researchers to use their knowledge and creativity to design responsive systems that can eradicate biofilm infections.