Adolescents' beliefs about marijuana use: a comparison of regular users, past users and never/occasional users

Adolescents' Cannabis Knowledge and Risk Perception: A Systematic Review

To systematically review evidence evaluating cannabis-related knowledge and perception of risk in children and adolescents. We systematically searched Medline, PsycINFO, and EMBASE using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses methodology. 133 studies from around the world (including ages 10-18 yrs) met inclusion criteria, with 70% meeting grade 2C quality. Increased knowledge and perception of risk of cannabis frequently correlated with lower levels of current use and intent to use. Studies examining correlations over time generally demonstrated increased adolescent cannabis use and decreased perception of risk. Included prevention-based interventions often enhanced knowledge and/or perception of risk in adolescents exposed to the intervention. Studies exploring outcomes relating to legislative changes for recreational marijuana use demonstrated considerable heterogeneity regarding knowledge and perception of risk whereas studies that focused on medicinal marijuana legislative changes overwhelmingly demonstrated a decrease in perception of risk post legalization. Increased knowledge and perception of risk of cannabis in adolescents often correlate with lower levels of current use and intention to use in the future. Further study and implementation of public health and clinically-oriented strategies that seek to increase knowledge among youth about the potential health harms of cannabis use should continue and be prioritized.

License to look? The role of permissive beliefs, desire thinking, and self-control in predicting the use of social networking sites

Permissive beliefs are considered the most proximal predictor of actual behavior. Whereas they have frequently been researched in substance-use disorders, the field of social networking sites (SNS) use is missing the investigation as to how relevant permissive beliefs might be in this context, what might be causal precursors of permissive beliefs (i.e., desire thinking), and which processes might influence the effect that permissive beliefs have on actual behavior (i.e., self-control). To answer these questions, 116 people who use SNS participated in an online survey that contained an experimental manipulation of desire thinking and questionnaires measuring permissive beliefs, self-control, and severity of problematic SNS use. In a one-week follow-up, 85 participants reported their SNS usage times. Results showed that the association between permissive beliefs and tendencies to use SNS problematically was not significant. The experimental manipulation led to a decrease in permissive beliefs in the control condition, but did not increase permissive beliefs in the desire thinking condition. Permissive beliefs predicted SNS use in the follow-up assessment, which was not moderated by self-control. The results suggest that permissive beliefs seem to be unrelated to addictive tendencies of SNS use, but are nevertheless associated with daily use. Desire thinking does not appear to activate permissive beliefs in this study, possibly because the use of social networks is less often experienced as conflicting. Due to its ubiquitous availability, the use of social networks itself might quickly resolve the conflict between desires and possible regulatory attempts, making good reasons for use unnecessary.

Latent Classes of Perceived Addictiveness Predict Marijuana, Alcohol, and Tobacco Use in Youth and Young Adults

Background: Mass media substance use prevention efforts target addiction perceptions in young people. This study examined youth and young adults' (YAs) perceived addictiveness across several substances and the associations between addiction perceptions and substance use. Methods: Data were collected in 2019 in an online cohort study of Vermonters aged 12-25. Latent class analyses grouped participants by perceived addictiveness of nicotine, caffeine, alcohol, marijuana, cigarettes, electronic vapor products (EVPs), and opioids. Bivariate multinomial logistic and modified Poisson regression estimated associations between sociodemographics, substance use correlates, and subsequent use across latent classes. Results: Four latent classes captured addiction perceptions: high perceived addictiveness of EVPs, cigarettes, marijuana, and alcohol (Class 1: n = 317; 31.3%), low perceived addictiveness of marijuana, alcohol, and caffeine (Class 2: n = 151; 14.3%), low perceived addictiveness of marijuana (Class 3: n = 581; 46.5%), and low perceived addictiveness of nicotine, cigarettes, and EVPs (Class 4: n = 83; 7.9%). For each year increase in age, there was a 36% increased likelihood of being in Class 2 (vs. Class 1) and a 148% increased likelihood of belonging to Class 3 (vs. Class 1). Low perceived addictiveness classes were associated with ever and past 30-day marijuana and alcohol use and predicted past 30-day alcohol use at three-month follow-up. Membership in Classes 2 and 3 also predicted past 30-day marijuana use at Wave 3. Discussion: The strong association between age and latent classes defined by low perceived addictiveness suggests age group differences in addiction perceptions. Findings suggest that YAs may benefit from prevention messaging on addictiveness.

Sharing pro-marijuana messaging on social media: The moderating role of legislation

ObjectivesThis study investigates whether recreational marijuana legislation and perceived social norms (descriptive and injunctive) affect college students' propensity to share pro-marijuana messages. We examine which referent group (close friends, typical student, parents) most influence those norms. Participants: A sample of 343 college students participated in the study. Of these students, 214 were from Washington State, where recreational marijuana is legal, and 129 were from Wyoming, where recreational marijuana is illegal. Method: Data, from an online survey, were analyzed through PROCESS analyses. Results: College students in Washington State who believed a typical peer would want them to share pro-marijuana messaging were marginally more likely to share pro-marijuana messages than their counterparts in Wyoming. However, among students who thought a typical peer would not approve of them sharing pro-marijuana messaging, the opposite pattern emerged. Conclusion: Restrictive recreational marijuana legislation does not uniformly abate related message sharing on social media.

Authoritative Parenting Behaviors and Marijuana Use Based on Age Among a National Sample of Hispanic Adolescents

Although numerous prevention efforts have been implemented, marijuana remains the most commonly used illicit substance among Hispanic adolescents nationwide. We sought to determine the influence authoritative parenting behaviors have on lifetime, past year, and past month marijuana use among Hispanic adolescents overall, and then based on age (i.e., 12-13, 14-15, and 16-17 years). We conducted a secondary analysis of the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (N = 3457). We performed a series of logistic regression analyses. Nearly one-fifth (19.5%) of Hispanic participants reported lifetime marijuana use, 14.5% reported past year use, and 7.5% reported past month use. Results indicated that Hispanic adolescents who are at significantly increased risk for reporting lifetime, past year, and past month marijuana use, were those who reported that their parents seldom or never performed the following behaviors: (1) checked if their homework was done, (2) helped them with their homework, (3) limited the amount of TV they watched, (4) told them they did a good job, and (5) told them they were proud of them. There were no relationships between adolescents' lifetime, past year, or past month marijuana use and whether their parents made their youth do chores or limited their time out on a school night. Regarding age, while results indicated that most authoritative parenting behaviors have a significant effect against marijuana use, the protective effect diminished with age, with the exception of the relationship between adolescents' past month marijuana use and whether their parents checked to see if their homework was done. Substance use prevention programs for this population should start in early adolescence and involve and educate parents on adopting authoritative parenting behaviors.

Perceived harmfulness of various alcohol- and cannabis use modes: Secular trends, differences, and associations with actual substance use behaviors among Norwegian adolescents, 2007-2015

BACKGROUND

How youth perceive harmfulness of risk behaviors such as substance use relates to their engagement in those behaviors. Yet, little is known about how different substance use modes (i.e., variations in amounts and use frequencies) are perceived. We investigated how adolescent perceptions of harmfulness of various alcohol- and cannabis use modes changed over time, compared to one another, and related to actual substance use behaviors.

METHODS

We examined nationally-representative repeated cross-sectional samples of 16-year olds in Norway, assessed in 2007, 2011, and 2015 (N_Total = 9296) as part of the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD). Adolescents reported their: 1) lifetime alcohol- and cannabis use, and 2) perceived harmfulness of various alcohol- and cannabis use modes.

RESULTS

Prevalence estimates for perceived harmfulness: 1) remained high and stable, or increased for alcohol use modes, and 2) declined for all cannabis use modes (i.e., using 1-2 times, occasionally, and regularly) since 2007-cohort. High quantity daily drinking was more commonly perceived as harmful than minimal or occasional cannabis use. Even though culturally-relevant use modes (i.e., weekend heavy drinking and experimental cannabis use) were not most commonly endorsed as harmful, only perceptions of those use modes as harmful were inversely associated with actual substance use.

CONCLUSIONS

How adolescents from Norway perceived harmfulness of alcohol- and cannabis use depended on the specific substance, its use modes, and secular cohort. Perceived harmfulness was associated with measures of actual substance use predominantly along the culturally- and adolescent-relevant modes of use.

Pain Relief as a Motivation for Cannabis Use Among Young Adult Users With and Without Chronic Pain

This study aims to determine the rate of chronic pain in a community sample of young adult cannabis users, assess the extent to which pain relief is an important motivation for cannabis use, and explore differences in consumption patterns and problem behaviors between users with and without chronic pain. The study design was cross-sectional. Self-selected community-dwelling young adults (ages 18-29 years; n = 143) who regularly use cannabis completed an online survey. Results revealed that approximately 40% of the sample met the criteria for chronic pain, and pain relief was their primary motivation for use. There were no differences between groups with respect to frequency of use or estimated potency of their preferred strains; however, users with chronic pain reported using a wider variety of administration methods and a greater quantity of cannabis with each use. Users with chronic pain also reported more extensive histories of use, with younger age at initiation and longer duration of regular use. Despite riskier consumption patterns, there were no between-group differences in negative consequences owing to use after controlling for gender and educational status. On average, the total sample reported approximately 8 problems in the past 30 days owing to use. These findings suggest that chronic pain is commonly experienced among young adult cannabis users and pain relief is the primary motivation for users with pain. For some users, clinically significant chronic pain and pain-related interference persist despite heavy use. Cannabis users with and without chronic pain report experiencing several negative consequences owing to their use. PERSPECTIVE: This article compares motivations for cannabis use and describes differences in consumption patterns among a community sample of young adult users with and without chronic pain. This information may be useful for providers who assess and treat pain in young adults, particularly in settings that have legalized recreational use.

Past-month cannabis use among U.S. individuals from 2002-2015: An age-period-cohort analysis

BACKGROUND

Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug among U.S. adolescents and adults, but little is known about factors that drive trends in cannabis use prevalence. To better understand drivers of these trends, we aimed to estimate age, period, and cohort effects on past-month cannabis use among U.S. individuals age 12 and older from 2002 to 2015.

METHODS

We conducted an age-period-cohort analysis on past-month cannabis use among participants ages 12 and older using the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), an annual cross-sectional nationally-representative survey of drug use. Additionally, we examined how age, period, and cohort effects differed across gender. Participants (n = 779,799) self-reported cannabis patterns using a computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI).

RESULTS

Past-month cannabis use in this population increased from 6.0% in 2002 to 8.1% in 2015. Distinct age, period, and cohort effects were observed. Compared to participants ages 12-13, participants ages 18-21 (PR: 16.8, 95% CI: 15.6, 18.1) and 22-25 (PR: 13.2, 95% CI: 12.2, 14.4) had dramatically higher prevalence of past-month cannabis use. Compared to participants in 2002, participants in 2014 (PR: 1.2, 95% CI: 1.1, 1.4) and 2014 (PR: 1.2, 95% CI: 1.1, 1.4) had slightly higher prevalence of past-month cannabis use. Compared to the 1940s birth cohort, the 1950s birth cohort (PR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.5, 2.2) had a higher prevalence of past-month cannabis use.

CONCLUSIONS

Past-month cannabis use is prevalent and increasing among U.S. adults. Distinct age, period, and cohort effects are at play, though age effects are strongest.

Psychosocial Correlates of Marijuana Use among Pregnant and Nonpregnant Adolescent Girls

STUDY OBJECTIVE

Pregnant and nonpregnant populations in the United States report marijuana as the most commonly used illicit drug. Patterns of marijuana use and psychosocial correlates are unclear among non-treatment-seeking teenage girls. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, INTERVENTIONS, AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The objective of this study was to use cross-sectional data to examine the psychosocial correlates of recent marijuana use among a sample of 646 pregnant and nonpregnant adolescent girls presenting to urban primary care clinics (mean age = 15.6 years, SD = 1.9 years; 65% African American; 8.8% pregnant).

RESULTS

In Poisson regression analysis, frequency of marijuana use was significantly associated with greater likelihood of pregnancy (incident rate ratio [IRR], 1.30; 95% CI, 1.03-1.65), alcohol use (IRR, 1.11; 95% CI, 10.08-1.14), condomless sex (IRR, 1.95; 95% CI, 1.61-2.37), parents' drug use (IRR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02-1.05), and negative peer influences (IRR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.10-1.16).

CONCLUSION

Marijuana use among adolescent girls in this sample was associated with a number of risk behaviors as well as parental and peer influences. Culturally sensitive screening and intervention approaches for marijuana use among adolescent girls should address multiple individual, relationship, and community factors, to prevent unwanted pregnancy as well as to reduce marijuana use during this vulnerable time.

Psychosocial Influences of the Escalation of Deviance: The Case of Prescription Drug Sniffing

The escalation of deviant behavior remains a central issue for criminologists, although mechanisms of intensification remain understudied. Using a sample of prescription drug misusers recruited via time-space sampling, we test five theoretically informed hypotheses on social and psychological factors - sensation seeking; coping; stigma; peer drug associations; use for pleasant times with peers - that may impact the escalation of deviance via non-normative consumption. Social factors - peer drug associations and use for pleasant time with peers - as well as stigma were associated with escalation. Sensation seeking was mediated by social factors. Social contexts are crucial for the intensification of deviant behavior.

Who are the adolescents saying "No" to cannabis offers

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Adolescents who refuse direct cannabis offers and remain non-users represent a potentially very informative, yet surprisingly understudied group. We examined a range of risk and protective factors putatively associated with this poorly understood "cannabis-resilient" profile.

METHODS

Paper-and-pencil questionnaires assessing substance use, peer and family relations, and behavioral and personality characteristics were completed by 19,303 middle- and high-school students from 82 schools in Norway (response rate 84%)

RESULTS

The lifetime prevalence of cannabis use was 7.6%. Another 10.4% reported no use of the drug despite having received recent cannabis offers. Results from the multinomial logistic regression revealed a set of characteristics differentiating adolescents who resisted such offers from those who: (a) neither received the offers nor used, and, more importantly, (b) used the drug. Specifically, parent-child relationship quality, negative drug-related beliefs, absence of close relationships with cannabis-users, low delinquency, no regular tobacco use, and infrequent alcohol intoxication were all associated with increased odds of being in the cannabis-resilient vs. cannabis-user group. This pattern of results was comparable across middle- and high-school cohorts, but the parent-child relationship quality and delinquency were significantly associated with cannabis-resilient vs. cannabis-use outcome only among younger and older adolescents, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Among other low-risk characteristics, better relationships with parents and beliefs that drug use is problematic were associated with adolescents' refusals to accept cannabis offers. These results may have implications for novel preventive strategies targeting cannabis-exposed adolescents.

Gateway to curiosity: Medical marijuana ads and intention and use during middle school

Over the past several years, medical marijuana has received increased attention in the media, and marijuana use has increased across the United States. Studies suggest that as marijuana has become more accessible and adults have become more tolerant regarding marijuana use, adolescents perceive marijuana as more beneficial and are more likely to use if they are living in an environment that is more tolerant of marijuana use. One factor that may influence adolescents' perceptions about marijuana and marijuana use is their exposure to advertising of this product. We surveyed sixth- to eighth-grade youth in 2010 and 2011 in 16 middle schools in Southern California (n = 8,214; 50% male; 52% Hispanic; mean age = 13 years) and assessed exposure to advertising for medical marijuana, marijuana intentions, and marijuana use. Cross-lagged regressions showed a reciprocal association of advertising exposure with marijuana use and intentions during middle school. Greater initial medical marijuana advertising exposure was significantly associated with a higher probability of marijuana use and stronger intentions to use 1 year later, and initial marijuana use and stronger intentions to use were associated with greater medical marijuana advertising exposure 1 year later. Prevention programs need to better explain medical marijuana to youth, providing information on the context for proper medical use of this drug and the potential harms from use during this developmental period. Furthermore, as this is a new frontier, it is important to consider regulating medical marijuana advertisements, as is currently done for alcohol and tobacco products.

Predictors of Recent Marijuana Use and Past Year Marijuana Use Among a National Sample of Hispanic Youth

BACKGROUND

Marijuana use rates remain higher among Hispanic youth compared to youth from other ethnic groups.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the study was to examine if sex, age, authoritarian parenting, perceived school experiences, lifetime depression, legal involvement, and perceived social norms of marijuana use predicted recent marijuana use and past year marijuana use among Hispanic youth.

METHODS

The participants of this study were a nationwide sample of Hispanic youth (n = 3,457) in the United States. A secondary data analysis of the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health was performed. Unadjusted odds ratios were computed via univariate logistic regression analyses and all statistically significant variables were retained and included in the final multiple logistic regression analyses. Recent marijuana use was operationally defined as use within the past 30 days, and marijuana use in the past year was defined as use within the past year.

RESULTS

Results indicated that 7.5% of Hispanic youth used within the past month and 14.5% of Hispanic youth used within the past year. Results revealed that significant predictors for recent use were age, authoritarian parenting, perceived school experiences, legal involvement, and perceived social norms of youth marijuana use. Predictors for past year were age, perceived school experiences, legal involvement, and perceived social norms of youth marijuana use.

CONCLUSIONS/IMPORTANCE

Findings from this study can be used to address the public health problem of marijuana use among Hispanic youth that is ultimately contributing to health disparities among this ethnic group nationwide. Recommendations for future studies are included.

The effects of mental health symptoms and marijuana expectancies on marijuana use and consequences among at-risk adolescents

Based on expectancy theory, adolescents at risk for mental health symptoms, such as those involved in the juvenile court system, may use marijuana due to the belief that use will attenuate anxiety and depressive symptoms. In a diverse sample of youth involved in the Santa Barbara Teen Court system (N = 193), we examined the association between mental health symptoms and marijuana expectancies on marijuana use and consequences. In general, stronger positive expectancies and weaker negative expectancies were both associated with increased marijuana use. Youth that reported more symptoms of both anxiety and depression and stronger positive expectancies for marijuana also reported more consequences. We found that youth experiencing the greatest level of consequences from marijuana were those that reported more depressive symptoms and stronger positive expectancies for marijuana. Findings suggest that these symptoms, combined with strong positive expectancies about marijuana's effects, have implications for consequences among at-risk youth.

Cannabis use disorders are comparatively prevalent among nonwhite racial/ethnic groups and adolescents: a national study

The racial/ethnic composition of the US population is shifting, with the nonwhite population growing faster than whites. We examined cannabis use disorder (CUD) prevalences and correlates in seven racial/ethnic groups. We included cannabis use (CU) prevalence as a comparison. Data were from the 2005-2011 National Surveys on Drug Use and Health (N = 394,400). Substance use among respondents aged ≥12 years was assessed by computer-assisted, self-interviewing methods. The following were included as control variables: age, sex, family income, government assistance, county type, residential stability, major depressive episode history, arrest history, nicotine dependence, alcohol disorder, and survey year. Past-year CU prevalence increased significantly from 10.45% in 2005 to 11.41-11.54% during 2009-2011. Compared with whites, mixed-race individuals had higher odds of CU; Asian Americans and Hispanics had lower odds of CU. There were no significant yearly changes in CUD prevalence in the sample during 2005-2011 (1.58-1.73%). Compared with whites, individuals who were mixed-race, black, and Native American had higher odds of CUD; Asian Americans had lower odds. In aggregate, 15.35% of past-year cannabis users met criteria for a CUD in the 12-month period. Past-year cannabis users who were black, Native American, Hispanic, or Asian American had higher odds of CUD than white users. In each racial/ethnic group, adolescent cannabis users generally showed greater odds of CUD than adult users. Behavioral health indicators (major depressive episode, arrest history, nicotine dependence, alcohol disorder) were associated with CU and CUD. In conclusion, CUD disproportionally affects nonwhite groups and youth.

Negative attributions towards people with substance use disorders in South Africa: variation across substances and by gender

BACKGROUND

Little research has examined attitudes towards people who use substances in low and middle income countries (LMIC). Therefore, the present study examined the attributions made by the general South African population about people who use substances and whether these attributions differ by the type of substance being used, the gender of the person using the substance, or the characteristics of the person making the attribution.

METHOD

A convenience sample of 868 members of the general public was obtained through street-intercept methods. One of 8 vignettes portraying alcohol, cannabis, methamphetamine or heroin, with either a male or female as the protagonist was presented to each respondent. Respondents' attitudes towards the specific cases were investigated.

RESULTS

Respondents held equally negative views of the presented substances, with the exception of the cannabis vignette which was considered significantly less "dangerous" than the alcohol vignette. Respondents were more likely to offer "help" to women who use alcohol, but more likely to suggest "coercion into treatment" for men. Individuals who scored higher on the ASSIST were more likely to hold negative attitudes towards substance users and black African respondents were more likely to offer help to individuals who use substances.

CONCLUSION

The stigma associated with substance use in South Africa is high and not necessarily dependent on the drug of choice. However, a range of factors, including gender of the substance user, and ethnicity of the rater, may impact on stigma. Interventions designed to strengthen mental health literacy and gender-focused anti-stigma campaigns may have the potential to increase treatment seeking behaviour.

Young adults' perceptions of an adolescent's use of marijuana and alcohol

Adolescent substance use is a serious problem often invoking negative reactions. The current study extends the literature in this area. A total of 425 college students read one of five vignettes, each of which described an adolescent who used marijuana, hard liquor, or drank an occasional beer (control) and who had received or not received treatment. Participants responded to questions assessing acceptance, willingness to help, and beliefs about the adolescent's academic functioning. Students provided higher acceptance of the adolescent who drank an occasional beer compared to the one who had received treatment for alcohol use and the one who was using marijuana, but did not receive treatment. Results differed based on question type, suggesting that interpretation of stigma is complex and that context plays a role in understanding perceptions. Future research, focusing on reasons for differences in judgments across contexts, will provide new information.

ETHNIC IDENTITY AND SUBSTANCE USE AMONG AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN: THE MEDIATING INFLUENCE OF GENDER ROLES

Ethnic identity is protective against substance use and other problem behaviors; however, some studies have implicated ethnic identity as a contributor to substance use. We hypothesized that the relationship between ethnic identity and substance use would be fully mediated by gender role orientation. Participants included 562 African American women in the south-eastern region of the United States. Participants completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire and reported past 30-day drug use. We employed structural equation modeling. The composite model displayed acceptable global Rt. Ethnic Identity predicted African American females' identification with male gender roles. Identification with male gender roles was positively linked to perceptions of drug risk and past 30-day drug use. Perceptions of drug risk was negatively linked to past 30-day drug use. Identification with masculine gender roles as a significant drug risk factor suggests some implications for prevention programming.

Does marijuana use lead to aggression and violent behavior?

Marijuana use and violent behavior are causing widespread public concern. This article reviews theory and research on the relation between marijuana use and aggressive/violent behavior. It is evident from the inconsistent findings in the literature that the exact nature of the relation remains unclear. This article identifies several possible reasons for these contradictory findings and provides suggestions for future research. In particular, more research is needed on the different subtypes of aggressive behavior. Further research is also needed to elucidate the associations between gender, marijuana use, and violent behavior. Likewise, an important task for future research is to continue to tease apart the complex relations between gang involvement, marijuana use, and violent behavior. Longitudinal studies also warrant further investigation. Moreover, future research should control for several potentially confounding variables.

Relief-oriented use of marijuana by teens

BACKGROUND

There are indications that marijuana is increasingly used to alleviate symptoms and for the treatment of a variety of medical conditions both physical and psychological. The purpose of this study was to describe the health concerns and problems that prompt some adolescents to use marijuana for therapeutic reasons, and their beliefs about the risks and benefits of the therapeutic use of marijuana.

METHODS

As part of a larger ethnographic study of 63 adolescents who were regular marijuana users, we analyzed interviews conducted with 20 youth who self-identified as using marijuana to relieve or manage health problems.

RESULTS

Thematic analysis revealed that these teens differentiated themselves from recreational users and positioned their use of marijuana for relief by emphasizing their inability to find other ways to deal with their health problems, the sophisticated ways in which they titrated their intake, and the benefits that they experienced. These teens used marijuana to gain relief from difficult feelings (including depression, anxiety and stress), sleep difficulties, problems with concentration and physical pain. Most were not overly concerned about the risks associated with using marijuana, maintaining that their use of marijuana was not 'in excess' and that their use fit into the realm of 'normal.'

CONCLUSION

Marijuana is perceived by some teens to be the only available alternative for teens experiencing difficult health problems when medical treatments have failed or when they lack access to appropriate health care.

Adolescent stigma towards drug addiction: effects of age and drug use behaviour

The objective of this study was to examine adolescent age and experience with drug use on stigmatizing attitudes toward drug addiction. Data were derived from the 2005 cycle of the Ontario Student Drug Use Survey. In total, 4078, 7- to 12-graders completed self-administered questionnaires that included a measure of drug abuse stigma. Results indicated that stigma scores were higher among younger than older adolescents, and the decline across age was robust, occurring among both males and females and those from rural and non-rural areas. The decline, however, was stronger among non-drug users and among those who had no close friends that use drugs. Despite the age-related decline, the level of stigma in general suggested that drug abuse stigma may continue into adulthood. Findings highlight that individual attitudes toward drug use and drug abusers are salient factors for personal drug use. Given that stigma is a barrier to treatment, but reduced stigma may encourage greater adolescent use, this study highlights the need for more in-depth studies of drug stigma.

Adult attachment security and college student substance use

Previous research has demonstrated strong links between quality of adult attachment styles and various forms of psychological distress. A burgeoning literature further points to a relationship between insecure attachment and drug use, particularly alcohol consumption. In the present study, we expanded upon the existing literature by examining the relationship between adult attachment style and use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana in a sample of 212 college students. Moreover, based on our previous work [Hankin, B.L., Kassel, J.D., and Abela, J.R.Z. (2005). Adult attachment dimensions and specificity of emotional distress symptoms: prospective investigations of cognitive risk and interpersonal stress generation as mediating mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 136-151.], we proposed a conceptual model positing that adult attachment style influences both frequency of drug use and stress-motivated drug use through its impact on dysfunctional attitudes and self-esteem. Initial correlational analyses indicated significant (positive) associations between anxious attachment (tapping neediness and fear of abandonment) and both drug use frequency and stress-motivated drug use. Simultaneous regression analyses revealed that, for drug use frequency, the influence of anxious attachment operated primarily through its effect on dysfunctional attitudes and self-esteem. Regarding drug use attributable to negative affect reduction, anxious attachment demonstrated direct, independent effects on both cigarette smoking and alcohol use. These findings highlight the potential importance of adult attachment styles as a risk factor for drug use among college students.