Sirtuin 2 Inhibition Improves Cognitive Performance and Acts on Amyloid-β Protein Precursor Processing in Two Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Models

SIRT2 as a potential new therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia globally with an increasing incidence over the years, bringing a heavy burden to individuals and society due to the lack of an effective treatment. In this context, sirtuin 2, the sirtuin with the highest expression in the brain, has emerged as a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes and discusses the complex roles of sirtuin 2 in different molecular mechanisms involved in Alzheimer's disease such as amyloid and tau pathology, microtubule stability, neuroinflammation, myelin formation, autophagy, and oxidative stress. The role of sirtuin 2 in all these processes highlights its potential implication in the etiology and development of Alzheimer's disease. However, its presence in different cell types and its enormous variety of substrates leads to apparently contradictory conclusions when it comes to understanding its specific functions. Further studies in sirtuin 2 research with selective sirtuin 2 modulators targeting specific sirtuin 2 substrates are necessary to clarify its specific functions under different conditions and to validate it as a novel pharmacological target. This will contribute to the development of new treatment strategies, not only for Alzheimer's disease but also for other neurodegenerative diseases.

Epigenetics of Alzheimer’s Disease: Past, Present and Future

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) exemplifies a looming epidemic lacking effective treatment and manifests with the accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles, amyloid-β plaques, neuroinflammation, behavioral changes, and acute cognitive impairments. It is a complex, multifactorial disorder that arises from the intricate interaction between environment and genetic factors, restrained via epigenetic machinery. Though the research progress has improved the understanding of clinical manifestations and disease advancement, the causal mechanism of detrimental consequences remains undefined. Despite the substantial improvement in recent diagnostic modalities, it is challenging to distinguish AD from other forms of dementia. Accurate diagnosis is a major glitch in AD as it banks on the symptoms and clinical criteria. Several studies are underway in exploring novel and reliable biomarkers for AD. In this direction, epigenetic alterations have transpired as key modulators in AD pathogenesis with the impeding inferences for the management of this neurological disorder. The present chapter aims to discuss the significance of epigenetic modifications reported in the pathophysiology of AD such as DNA methylation, hydroxy-methylation, methylation of mtDNA, histone modifications, and noncoding RNAs. Additionally, the chapter also describes the possible therapeutic avenues that target epigenetic modifications in AD.

Sirtuins, a key regulator of ageing and age-related neurodegenerative diseases

Sirtuins are Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+) dependent class ІΙΙ histone deacetylases enzymes (HDACs) present from lower to higher organisms such as bacteria (Sulfolobus solfataricus L. major), yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), nematodes (Caenorhabditis elegans), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), humans (Homo sapiens sapiens), even in plants such as rice (Oryza sativa), thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana), vine (Vitis vinifera L.) tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Sirtuins play an important role in the regulation of various vital cellular functions during metabolism and ageing. It also plays a neuroprotective role by modulating several biological pathways such as apoptosis, DNA repair, protein aggregation, and inflammatory processes associated with ageing and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we have presented an updated Sirtuins and its role in ageing and age-related neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Further, this review also describes the therapeutic potential of Sirtuins and the use of Sirtuins inhibitor/activator for altering the NDDs disease pathology.

Age-Associated Changes of Sirtuin 2 Expression in CNS and the Periphery

Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2), one of the seven members of the sirtuin family, has emerged as a potential regulator of aging and age-related pathologies since several studies have demonstrated that it shows age-related changes in humans and different animal models. A detailed analysis of the relevant works published to date addressing this topic shows that the changes that occur in SIRT2 with aging seem to be opposite in the brain and in the periphery. On the one hand, aging induces an increase in SIRT2 levels in the brain, which supports the notion that its pharmacological inhibition is beneficial in different neurodegenerative diseases. However, on the other hand, in the periphery, SIRT2 levels are reduced with aging while keeping its expression is protective against age-related peripheral inflammation, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular diseases. Thus, systemic administration of any known modulator of this enzyme would have conflicting outcomes. This review summarizes the currently available information on changes in SIRT2 expression in aging and the underlying mechanisms affected, with the aim of providing evidence to determine whether its pharmacological modulation could be an effective and safe pharmacological strategy for the treatment of age-related diseases.

Role of SIRT1 in sepsis-induced encephalopathy: Molecular targets for future therapies

Sepsis induces neuroinflammation, BBB disruption, cerebral hypoxia, neuronal mitochondrial dysfunction, and cell death causing sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE). These pathological consequences lead to short- and long-term neurobehavioural deficits. Till now there is no specific treatment that directly improves SAE and its associated behavioural impairments. In this review, we discuss the underlying mechanisms of sepsis-induced brain injury with a focus on the latest progress regarding neuroprotective effects of SIRT1 (silent mating type information regulation-2 homologue-1). SIRT1 is an NAD+ -dependent class III protein deacetylase. It is able to modulate multiple downstream signals (including NF-κB, HMGB, AMPK, PGC1α and FoxO), which are involved in the development of SAE by its deacetylation activity. There are multiple recent studies showing the neuroprotective effects of SIRT1 in neuroinflammation related diseases. The proposed neuroprotective action of SIRT1 is meant to bring a promising therapeutic strategy for managing SAE and ameliorating its related behavioural deficits.

Inhibition of Sirt2 Decreases ApoE Secretion in Astrocytes and Microglial Cells

Amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation caused by an imbalance of the production and clearance of Aβ in the brain is associated with the development of Alzheimer's disease (ad). Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) (the strongest genetic risk factor) enhances Aβ clearance, preventing Aβ deposition. Sirtuin 2 (Sirt2) is an NAD+-dependent histone deacetylase and its inhibition has been reported to ameliorate memory impairment in ad-like model mice. However, the role of Sirt2 in ApoE secretion is unknown. Here, we found that inhibition of Sirt2 activity in primary cultured astrocytes and BV2 cells decreased ApoE secretion, resulting in the accumulation of intracellular ApoE and inhibiting extracellular Aβ degradation. However, the reduction of Sirt2 protein level by Sirt2 siRNA decreased ApoE protein level, which ultimately reduces ApoE secretion. In addition, the knockdown of Sirt2 in the HEK293-APP cells also decreased levels of intracellular ApoE leading to reduction of its secretion, which is accompanied by increased Aβ levels without altering APP and APP processing enzymes. Our findings provide a novel role of Sirt2 in ApoE secretion.

Amyloid-β: A potential mediator of aging-related vascular pathologies

Aging is one of the most promising risk factors for vascular diseases, however, the precise mechanisms mediating aging-related pathologies are not fully understood. Amyloid beta (Aβ), a peptide produced by the proteolytic processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP), is known as a key mediator of brain damage involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Recently, it was found that the accumulation of Aβ in the vascular wall is linked to a range of aging-related vascular pathologies, indicating a potential role of Aβ in the pathogenesis of aging-associated vascular diseases. In the present review, we have updated the molecular regulation of Aβ in vascular cells and tissues, summarized the relevance of the Aβ deposition with vascular aging and diseases, and the role of Aβ dysregulation in aging-associated vascular pathologies, including the impaired vascular response, endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and inflammation. This review will provide advanced information in understanding aging-related vascular pathologies and a new avenue to explore therapeutic targets.

Cooperative effects of SIRT1 and SIRT2 on APP acetylation

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition and neurofibrillary tangles. Although the NAD+ -dependent deacetylases SIRT1 and SIRT2 play pivotal roles in age-related diseases, their cooperative effects in AD have not yet been elucidated. Here, we report that the SIRT2:SIRT1 ratio is elevated in the brains of aging mice and in the AD mouse models. In HT22 mouse hippocampal neuronal cells, Aβ challenge correlates with decreased SIRT1 expression, while SIRT2 expression is increased. Overexpression of SIRT1 prevents Aβ-induced neurotoxicity. We find that SIRT1 impedes SIRT2-mediated APP deacetylation by inhibiting the binding of SIRT2 to APP. Deletion of SIRT1 reduces APP recycling back to the cell surface and promotes APP transiting toward the endosome, thus contributing to the amyloidogenic processing of APP. Our findings define a mechanism for neuroprotection by SIRT1 through suppression of SIRT2 deacetylation, and provide a promising avenue for therapeutic intervention of AD.

Label-free quantitative proteomic analyses of mouse astrocytes provides insight into the host response mechanism at different developmental stages of Toxoplasma gondii

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an opportunistic parasite that can infect the central nervous system (CNS), causing severe toxoplasmosis and behavioral cognitive impairment. Mortality is high in immunocompromised individuals with toxoplasmosis, most commonly due to reactivation of infection in the CNS. There are still no effective vaccines and drugs for the prevention and treatment of toxoplasmosis. There are five developmental stages for T. gondii to complete life cycle, of which the tachyzoite and bradyzoite stages are the key to the acute and chronic infection. In this study, to better understanding of how T. gondii interacts with the host CNS at different stages of infection, we constructed acute and chronic infection models of T. gondii in astrocytes, and used label-free proteomics to detect the proteome changes before and after infection, respectively. A total of 4676 proteins were identified, among which 163 differentially expressed proteins (fold change ≥ 1.5 or ≤ 0.67 and p-value ≤ 0.05) including 109 up-regulated proteins and 54 down-regulated proteins in C8-TA vs C8 group, and 719 differentially expressed proteins including 495 up-regulated proteins and 224 down-regulated proteins in C8-BR vs C8-TA group. After T. gondii tachyzoites infected astrocytes, differentially expressed proteins were enriched in immune-related biological processes to promote the formation of bradyzoites and maintain the balance of T. gondii, CNS and brain. After T. gondii bradyzoites infected astrocytes, the differentially expressed proteins up-regulated the host's glucose metabolism, and some up-regulated proteins were strongly associated with neurodegenerative diseases. These findings not only provide new insights into the psychiatric pathogenesis of T. gondii, but also provide potential targets for the treatment of acute and chronic Toxoplasmosis.

SIRT2 Inhibition Rescues Neurodegenerative Pathology but Increases Systemic Inflammation in a Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) has been proposed to have a central role on aging, inflammation, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases; however, its specific function remains controversial. Recent studies propose SIRT2 pharmacological inhibition as a therapeutic strategy for several neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Surprisingly, none of these published studies regarding the potential interest of SIRT2 inhibition has assessed the peripheral adverse side consequences of this treatment. In this study, we demonstrate that the specific SIRT2 inhibitor, the compound 33i, does not exhibit genotoxic or mutagenic properties. Moreover, pharmacological treatment with 33i, improved cognitive dysfunction and long-term potentiation, reducing amyloid pathology and neuroinflammation in the APP/PS1 AD mouse model. However, this treatment increased peripheral levels of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, TNF, IL-6 and MCP-1. Accordingly, peripheral SIRT2 inhibition with the blood brain barrier impermeable compound AGK-2, worsened the cognitive capacities and increased systemic inflammation. The analysis of human samples revealed that SIRT2 is increased in the brain but not in the serum of AD patients. These results suggest that, although SIRT2 pharmacological inhibition may have beneficial consequences in neurodegenerative diseases, its pharmacological inhibition at the periphery would not be recommended and the systemic adverse side effects should be considered. This information is essential to maximize the therapeutic potential of SIRT2 inhibition not only for AD but also for other neurodegenerative diseases.

SIRT2 plays complex roles in neuroinflammation neuroimmunology-associated disorders

Neuroinflammation and neuroimmunology-associated disorders, including ischemic stroke and neurodegenerative disease, commonly cause severe neurologic function deficits, including bradypragia, hemiplegia, aphasia, and cognitive impairment, and the pathological mechanism is not completely clear. SIRT2, an NAD⁺-dependent deacetylase predominantly localized in the cytoplasm, was proven to play an important and paradoxical role in regulating ischemic stroke and neurodegenerative disease. This review summarizes the comprehensive mechanism of the crucial pathological functions of SIRT2 in apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, neuroinflammation, and immune response. Elaborating on the mechanism by which SIRT2 participates in neuroinflammation and neuroimmunology-associated disorders is beneficial to discover novel effective drugs for diseases, varying from vascular disorders to neurodegenerative diseases.

Tubulin Post-Translational Modifications: The Elusive Roles of Acetylation

Microtubules (MTs), dynamic polymers of α/β-tubulin heterodimers found in all eukaryotes, are involved in cytoplasm spatial organization, intracellular transport, cell polarity, migration and division, and in cilia biology. MTs functional diversity depends on the differential expression of distinct tubulin isotypes and is amplified by a vast number of different post-translational modifications (PTMs). The addition/removal of PTMs to α- or β-tubulins is catalyzed by specific enzymes and allows combinatory patterns largely enriching the distinct biochemical and biophysical properties of MTs, creating a code read by distinct proteins, including microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), which allow cellular responses. This review is focused on tubulin-acetylation, whose cellular roles continue to generate debate. We travel through the experimental data pointing to α-tubulin Lys40 acetylation role as being a MT stabilizer and a typical PTM of long lived MTs, to the most recent data, suggesting that Lys40 acetylation enhances MT flexibility and alters the mechanical properties of MTs, preventing MTs from mechanical aging characterized by structural damage. Additionally, we discuss the regulation of tubulin acetyltransferases/desacetylases and their impacts on cell physiology. Finally, we analyze how changes in MT acetylation levels have been found to be a general response to stress and how they are associated with several human pathologies.

Sex-divergent effects on the NAD+-dependent deacetylase sirtuin signaling across the olfactory-entorhinal-amygdaloid axis in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases

BACKGROUND

Smell impairment is one of the earliest features in Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's diseases (PD). Due to sex differences exist in terms of smell and olfactory structures as well as in the prevalence and manifestation of both neurological syndromes, we have applied olfactory proteomics to favor the discovery of novel sex-biased physio-pathological mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets associated with olfactory dysfunction.

METHODS

SWATH-MS (sequential window acquisition of all theoretical fragment ion spectra mass spectrometry) and bioinformatic workflows were applied in 57 post-mortem olfactory tracts (OT) derived from controls with no known neurological history (n = 6F/11M), AD (n = 4F/13M) and PD (n = 7F/16M) subjects. Complementary molecular analyses by Western-blotting were performed in the olfactory bulb (OB), entorhinal cortex (EC) and amygdala areas.

RESULTS

327 and 151 OT differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were observed in AD women and AD men, respectively (35 DEPs in common). With respect to PD, 198 DEPs were identified in PD women, whereas 95 DEPs were detected in PD men (20 DEPs in common). This proteome dyshomeostasis induced a disruption in OT protein interaction networks and widespread sex-dependent pathway perturbations in a disease-specific manner, among them Sirtuin (SIRT) signaling. SIRT1, SIRT2, SIRT3 and SIRT5 protein levels unveiled a tangled expression profile across the olfactory-entorhinal-amygdaloid axis, evidencing disease-, sex- and brain structure-dependent changes in olfactory protein acetylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Alteration in the OT proteostasis was more severe in AD than in PD. Moreover, protein expression changes were more abundant in women than men independent of the neurological syndrome. Mechanistically, the tangled SIRT profile observed across the olfactory pathway-associated brain regions in AD and PD indicates differential NAD (+)-dependent deacetylase mechanisms between women and men. All these data shed new light on differential olfactory mechanisms across AD and PD, pointing out that the evaluation of the feasibility of emerging sirtuin-based therapies against neurodegenerative diseases should be considered with caution, including further sex dimension analyses in vivo and in clinical studies.

Sirtuins and redox signaling interplay in neurogenesis, neurodegenerative diseases, and neural cell reprogramming

Since the discovery of Neural Stem Cells (NSCs) there are still mechanism to be clarified, such as the role of mitochondrial metabolism in the regulation of endogenous adult neurogenesis and its implication in neurodegeneration. Although stem cells require glycolysis to maintain their stemness, they can perform oxidative phosphorylation and it is becoming more and more evident that mitochondria are central players, not only for ATP production but also for neuronal differentiation's steps regulation, through their ability to handle cellular redox state, intracellular signaling, epigenetic state of the cell, as well as the gut microbiota-brain axis, upon dietary influences. In this scenario, the 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase (OGG1) repair system would link mitochondrial DNA integrity to the modulation of neural differentiation. On the other side, there is an increasing interest in NSCs generation, from induced pluripotent stem cells, as a clinical model for neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), although this methodology still presents several drawbacks, mainly related to the reprogramming process. Indeed, high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), associated with telomere shortening, genomic instability, and defective mitochondrial dynamics, lead to pluripotency limitation and reprogramming efficiency's reduction. Moreover, while a physiological or moderate ROS increase serves as a signaling mechanism, to activate differentiation and suppress self-renewal, excessive oxidative stress is a common feature of NDs and aging. This ROS-dependent regulatory effect might be modulated by newly identified ROS suppressors, including the NAD⁺-dependent deacetylase enzymes family called Sirtuins (SIRTs). Recently, the importance of subcellular localization of NAD synthesis has been coupled to different roles for NAD in chromatin stability, DNA repair, circadian rhythms, and longevity. SIRTs have been described as involved in the control of both telomere's chromatin state and expression of nuclear gene involved in the regulation of mitochondrial gene expression, as well as in several NDs and aging. SIRTs are ubiquitously expressed in the mammalian brain, where they play important roles. In this review we summarize the current knowledge on how SIRTs-dependent modulation of mitochondrial metabolism could impact on neurogenesis and neurodegeneration, focusing mainly on ROS function and their role in SIRTs-mediated cell reprogramming and telomere protection.

The Sirtuin 2 Inhibitor AK-7 Leads to an Antidepressant-Like Effect in Mice via Upregulation of CREB1, BDNF, and NTRK2 Pathways

Depression is one of the most important and serious health problems in developing countries which affects millions of people. It is associated with the decrease of the quality of life as well as suicides and mortality. The disease may show recurrent episodes in some patients. Obviously, not all the patients with depression could be treated properly, because some individuals are drug-resistant and the options for the therapy are limited. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate new molecules and pathways that may have possible antidepressant activity. Sirtuin (SIRT), known as a class III histone deacetylase, which is regulated by nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD +), is one of these molecules. In the current study, we investigated the possible antidepressant-like effect of SIRT2 inhibitor AK-7. For this purpose, behavioral tests were performed in chronic AK-7-treated mice, and the expression levels of BDNF, NGF, NTF3, CREB, NTRK2, ERK1, ERK2, and GAP43 genes were evaluated by qRT-PCR analysis in brain tissues. Protein levels for BDNF, CREB1, and NTRK2 were determined by western blot. Our data showed that AK-7 significantly decreased immobility time and showed antidepressant-like effect. In addition, AK-7 treatment significantly increased mRNA levels of CREB and NTRK2 and protein levels of CREB1, BDNF, and NTRK2. Finally, our results suggest that SIRT2 and AK-7 may have a potential role in the cellular mechanisms of depression.

Insulin Deficiency Increases Sirt2 Level in Streptozotocin-Treated Alzheimer's Disease-Like Mouse Model: Increased Sirt2 Induces Tau Phosphorylation Through ERK Activation

Accumulating evidence suggests that insulin deficiency is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the underlying molecular mechanisms are not completely understood. Here, we investigated the effects of insulin deficiency on AD-like pathologies using an insulin-deficient amyloid-β (Aβ) precursor protein (APP) transgenic mouse model (Tg2576 mice). Female Tg2576 mice were injected intraperitoneally with streptozotocin (STZ) to induce insulin deficiency, and their body weights, serum glucose levels, and serum insulin levels were evaluated. STZ-treated mice showed exacerbated Aβ accumulation, tau hyperphosphorylation, glial activation, neuroinflammation, and increased Sirt2 protein levels in the brain, as determined by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and Western blotting. Furthermore, our in vitro experiments revealed that insulin depletion or interleukin-6 treatment increased Sirt2 protein levels in both Neuro2a and Neuro2a-P301L cells. The overexpression of Sirt2 in these cells induced tau hyperphosphorylation through extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. Conversely, Sirt2 knockdown reversed tau hyperphosphorylation in these cells. We showed for the first time that Sirt2 is upregulated in the brains of STZ-treated Tg2576 mice and is involved in tau phosphorylation through ERK activation. Our findings suggest that Sirt2 is a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of AD.

Virtual Screening in the Identification of Sirtuins’ Activity Modulators

Sirtuins are NAD⁺-dependent deac(et)ylases with different subcellular localization. The sirtuins’ family is composed of seven members, named SIRT-1 to SIRT-7. Their substrates include histones and also an increasing number of different proteins. Sirtuins regulate a wide range of different processes, ranging from transcription to metabolism to genome stability. Thus, their dysregulation has been related to the pathogenesis of different diseases. In this review, we discussed the pharmacological approaches based on sirtuins’ modulators (both inhibitors and activators) that have been attempted in in vitro and/or in in vivo experimental settings, to highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting one/more specific sirtuin isoform(s) in cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and type 2 diabetes. Extensive research has already been performed to identify SIRT-1 and -2 modulators, while compounds targeting the other sirtuins have been less studied so far. Beside sections dedicated to each sirtuin, in the present review we also included sections dedicated to pan-sirtuins’ and to parasitic sirtuins’ modulators. A special focus is dedicated to the sirtuins’ modulators identified by the use of virtual screening.

Sirtuins promote brain homeostasis, preventing Alzheimer’s disease through targeting neuroinflammation

Both basic pathomechanisms underlying Alzheimer’s disease and some premises for stipulating a possible preventive role of some sirtuins, especially SIRT1 and SIRT3, protective against Alzheimer’s disease-related pathology, are discussed in this article. Sirtuins can inhibit some processes that underlie Alzheimer’s disease-related molecular pathology (e.g., neuroinflammation, neuroinflammation-related oxidative stress, Aβ aggregate deposition, and neurofibrillary tangle formation), thus preventing many of those pathologic alterations at relatively early stages of their development. Subsequently, the authors discuss in details which mechanisms of sirtuin action may prevent the development of Alzheimer’s disease, thus promoting brain homeostasis in the course of aging. In addition, a rationale for boosting sirtuin activity, both with allosteric activators and with NAD+ precursors, has been presented.

Inhibition of SIRT2 promotes APP acetylation and ameliorates cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 transgenic mice

Aging is a primary risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). SIRT2, an NAD⁺(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)-dependent deacetylase, accumulates in the aging brain. Here, we report that, in the amyloid precursor protein (APP)/PS1 transgenic mouse model of AD, genetic deletion of SIRT2 or pharmacological inhibition of SIRT2 ameliorates cognitive impairment. We find that suppression of SIRT2 enhances acetylation of APP, which promotes non-amyloidogenic processing of APP at the cell surface, leading to increased soluble APP-α (sAPPα). We discover that lysines 132 and 134 of the major pathogenic protein β-amyloid (Aβ) precursor are acetylated and that these residues are deacetylated by SIRT2. Strikingly, exogenous expression of wild-type or an acetylation-mimic APP mutant protects cultured primary neurons from Aβ42 challenge. Our study identifies SIRT2-mediated deacetylation of APP on K132 and K134 as a regulated post-translational modification (PTM) and suggests inhibition of SIRT2 as a potential therapeutic strategy for AD.

Versatile role of sirtuins in metabolic disorders: From modulation of mitochondrial function to therapeutic interventions

Sirtuins (SIRT1-7) are distinct histone deacetylases (HDACs) whose activity is determined by cellular metabolic status andnicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺ ) levels. HDACs of class III are the members of the SIRT's protein family. SIRTs are the enzymes that modulate mitochondrial activity and energy metabolism. SIRTs have been linked to a number of clinical and physiological operations, such as energy responses to low-calorie availability, aging, stress resistance, inflammation, and apoptosis. Mammalian SIRT2 orthologs have been identified as SIRT1-7 that are found in several subcellular sections, including the cytoplasm (SIRT1, 2), mitochondrial matrix (SIRT3, 4, 5), and the core (SIRT1, 2, 6, 7). For their deacetylase or ADP-ribosyl transferase action, all SIRTs require NAD⁺ and are linked to cellular energy levels. Evolutionarily, SIRT1 is related to yeast's SIRT2 as well as received primary attention in the circulatory system. An endogenous protein, SIRT1 is involved in the development of heart failure and plays a key role in cell death and survival. SIRT2 downregulation protects against ischemic-reperfusion damage. Increase in human longevity is caused by an increase in SIRT3 expression. Cardiomyocytes are also protected by SIRT3 from oxidative damage and aging, as well as suppressing cardiac hypertrophy. SIRT4 and SIRT5 perform their roles in the heart. SIRT6 has also been linked to a reduction in heart hypertrophy. SIRT7 is known to be involved in the regulation of stress responses and apoptosis in the heart.

Sirtuins at the Crossroads between Mitochondrial Quality Control and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Structure, Regulation, Modifications, and Modulators

Sirtuins (SIRT1-SIRT7), a family of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺)-dependent enzymes, are key regulators of life span and metabolism. In addition to acting as deacetylates, some sirtuins have the properties of deacylase, decrotonylase, adenosine diphosphate (ADP)-ribosyltransferase, lipoamidase, desuccinylase, demalonylase, deglutarylase, and demyristolyase. Mitochondrial dysfunction occurs early on and acts causally in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD). Sirtuins are implicated in the regulation of mitochondrial quality control, which is highly associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. There is growing evidence indicating that sirtuins are promising and well-documented molecular targets for the treatment of mitochondrial dysfunction and neurodegenerative disorders by regulating mitochondrial quality control, including mitochondrial biogenesis, mitophagy, mitochondrial fission/fusion dynamics, and mitochondrial unfolded protein responses (mtUPR). Therefore, elucidation of the molecular etiology of sirtuin-mediated mitochondrial quality control points to new prospects for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the mechanisms underlying sirtuin-mediated mitochondrial quality control remain obscure. In this review, we update and summarize the current understanding of the structure, function, and regulation of sirtuins with an emphasis on the cumulative and putative effects of sirtuins on mitochondrial biology and neurodegenerative diseases, particularly their roles in mitochondrial quality control. In addition, we outline the potential therapeutic applications for neurodegenerative diseases of targeting sirtuin-mediated mitochondrial quality control through exercise training, calorie restriction, and sirtuin modulators in neurodegenerative diseases.

Epigenetic repression of Wnt receptors in AD: a role for Sirtuin2-induced H4K16ac deacetylation of Frizzled1 and Frizzled7 promoters

Growing evidence supports a role for deficient Wnt signalling in Alzheimer's disease (AD). First, the Wnt antagonist DKK1 is elevated in AD brains and is required for amyloid-β-induced synapse loss. Second, LRP6 Wnt co-receptor is required for synapse integrity and three variants of this receptor are linked to late-onset AD. However, the expression/role of other Wnt signalling components remain poorly explored in AD. Wnt receptors Frizzled1 (Fzd1), Fzd5, Fzd7 and Fzd9 are of interest due to their role in synapse formation/plasticity. Our analyses showed reduced FZD1 and FZD7 mRNA levels in the hippocampus of human early AD stages and in the hAPP^NLGF/NLGF mouse model. This transcriptional downregulation was accompanied by reduced levels of the pro-transcriptional histone mark H4K16ac and a concomitant increase of its deacetylase Sirt2 at Fzd1 and Fzd7 promoters in AD. In vitro and in vivo inhibition of Sirt2 rescued Fzd1 and Fzd7 mRNA expression and H4K16ac levels at their promoters. In addition, we showed that Sirt2 recruitment to Fzd1 and Fzd7 promoters is dependent on FoxO1 activity in AD, thus acting as a co-repressor. Finally, we found reduced levels of SIRT2 inhibitory phosphorylation in nuclear samples from human early AD stages with a concomitant increase in the SIRT2 phosphatase PP2C. This results in hyperactive nuclear Sirt2 and favours Fzd1 and Fzd7 repression in AD. Collectively, our findings define a novel role for nuclear hyperactivated SIRT2 in repressing Fzd1 and Fzd7 expression via H4K16ac deacetylation in AD. We propose SIRT2 as an attractive target to ameliorate AD pathology.

Multifaced role of protein deacetylase sirtuins in neurodegenerative disease

Sirtuins, a class III histone/protein deacetylase, is a central regulator of metabolic function and cellular stress response. This plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis and progression of diseases such as cancer, neurodegeneration, metabolic syndromes, and cardiovascular disease. Sirtuins regulate biological and cellular processes, for instance, mitochondrial biogenesis, lipid and fatty acid oxidation, oxidative stress, gene transcriptional activity, apoptosis, inflammatory response, DNA repair mechanism, and autophagic cell degradation, which are known components for the progression of the neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Emerging evidence suggests that sirtuins are the useful molecular targets against NDDs like, Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Parkinson's Disease (PD), Huntington's Disease (HD), and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). However, the exact mechanism of neuroprotection mediated through sirtuins remains unsettled. The manipulation of sirtuins activity with its modulators, calorie restriction (CR), and micro RNAs (miR) is a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of NDDs. Herein, we reviewed the current putative therapeutic role of sirtuins in regulating synaptic plasticity and cognitive functions, which are mediated through the different molecular phenomenon to prevent neurodegeneration. We also explained the implications of sirtuin modulators, and miR based therapies for the treatment of life-threatening NDDs.

SIRT2 and FOXO3a expressions in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of young and aged male rats: antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects of melatonin

Melatonin has antioxidant, anti-apoptotic and anti-aging effects in the brain. Sirtuin2 (SIRT2) accumulates in the central nervous system with aging, and its inhibition appears to be protective in aging and aging-related neurodegenerative diseases. Forkhead Box-class O3a (FOXO3a) transcription factor is one of the main targets of SIRT2, and SIRT2-mediated FOXO3a deacetylation is closely related to aging, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. This study aimed to investigate the effects of melatonin on SIRT2 and FOXO3a expressions in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of aged rats. Young (3 months, n = 18) and aged (22 months, n = 18) male Wistar rats were divided into control (4% DMSO-PBS, sc, for 21 days), melatonin (10 mg/kg, sc, for 21 days) and salermide (1 mM; 25 μl/100 g bw, ip, for 21 days) groups. SIRT2, FOXO3a, Bcl-2, Bax and Bim expressions in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus were demonstrated by Western blotting. SIRT2 and FOXO3a protein levels were also measured by a sandwich ELISA method. Oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated by measuring total oxidant status (TOS) and total antioxidant status (TAS). Aging increased SIRT2, FOXO3a, Bim (only in the cerebral cortex), Bax (only in the hippocampus), TOS, and OSI, while decreasing Bcl-2, Bcl-2/Bax and TAS in both brain regions. Melatonin decreased SIRT2, FOXO3a, oxidative stress parameters and pro-apoptotic proteins, while increasing TAS, Bcl-2 and Bcl-2/Bax, more specifically in the hippocampus of the aged brain. Our results indicate that inhibition of SIRT2 and FOXO3a expressions appears to be involved in the protective effects of melatonin in the hippocampus of aged rats.

Sirtuins as Potential Therapeutic Targets for Mitigating Neuroinflammation Associated With Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder, which is associated with memory deficit and global cognitive decline. Age is the greatest risk factor for AD and, in recent years, it is becoming increasingly appreciated that aging-related neuroinflammation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. The presence of β-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are the primary pathological hallmarks of AD; defects which can then activate a cascade of molecular inflammatory pathways in glial cells. Microglia, the resident macrophages in the central nervous system (CNS), are the major triggers of inflammation; a response which is typically intended to prevent further damage to the CNS. However, persistent microglial activation (i.e., neuroinflammation) is toxic to both neurons and glia, which then leads to neurodegeneration. Growing evidence supports a central role for sirtuins in the regulation of neuroinflammation. Sirtuins are NAD+-dependent protein deacetylases that modulate a number of cellular processes associated with inflammation. This review examines the latest findings regarding AD-associated neuroinflammation, mainly focusing on the connections among the microglial molecular pathways of inflammation. Furthermore, we highlight the biology of sirtuins, and their role in neuroinflammation. Suppression of microglial activity through modulation of the sirtuin activity has now become a key area of research, where progress in therapeutic interventions may slow the progression of Alzheimer's disease.

Neuroinflammation and Alzheimer's Disease: A Machine Learning Approach to CSF Proteomics

In Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the contribution of pathophysiological mechanisms other than amyloidosis and tauopathy is now widely recognized, although not clearly quantifiable by means of fluid biomarkers. We aimed to identify quantifiable protein biomarkers reflecting neuroinflammation in AD using multiplex proximity extension assay (PEA) testing. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from patients with mild cognitive impairment due to AD (AD-MCI) and from controls, i.e., patients with other neurological diseases (OND), were analyzed with the Olink Inflammation PEA biomarker panel. A machine-learning approach was then used to identify biomarkers discriminating AD-MCI (n: 34) from OND (n: 25). On univariate analysis, SIRT2, HGF, MMP-10, and CXCL5 showed high discriminatory performance (AUC 0.809, p = 5.2 × 10⁻⁴, AUC 0.802, p = 6.4 × 10⁻⁴, AUC 0.793, p = 3.2 × 10⁻³, AUC 0.761, p = 2.3 × 10⁻³, respectively), with higher CSF levels in AD-MCI patients as compared to controls. These same proteins were the best contributors to the penalized logistic regression model discriminating AD-MCI from controls (AUC of the model 0.906, p = 2.97 × 10⁻⁷). The biological processes regulated by these proteins include astrocyte and microglia activation, amyloid, and tau misfolding modulation, and blood-brain barrier dysfunction. Using a high-throughput multiplex CSF analysis coupled with a machine-learning statistical approach, we identified novel biomarkers reflecting neuroinflammation in AD. Studies confirming these results by means of different assays are needed to validate PEA as a multiplex technique for CSF analysis and biomarker discovery in the field of neurological diseases.

Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2): Confusing Roles in the Pathophysiology of Neurological Disorders

As a type of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺)-dependent deacetylases, sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) is predominantly found in the cytoplasm of cells in the central nervous system (CNS), suggesting its potential role in neurological disorders. Though SIRT2 is generally acknowledged to accelerate the development of neurological pathologies, it protects the brain from deterioration in certain circumstances. This review summarized the complex roles SIRT2 plays in the pathophysiology of diverse neurological disorders, compared and analyzed the discrete roles of SIRT2 in different conditions, and provided possible explanations for its paradoxical functions. In the future, the rapid growth in SIRT2 research may clarify its impacts on neurological disorders and develop therapeutic strategies targeting this protein.

Epigenetic regulation in Alzheimer's disease: is it a potential therapeutic target?

Introduction: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder and the primary form of dementia in the elderly. Changes in DNA methylation and post-translational modifications of histone tails are increasingly observed in AD tissues, and likely contribute to disease onset and progression. The reversibility of these epigenetic marks offers the potential for therapeutic interventions.Areas covered: After a concise and updated overview of DNA methylation and post-translational modifications of histone tails in AD tissues, this review provides an overview of the animal and cell culture studies investigating the potential of targeting these modifications to attenuate AD-like features. PubMed was searched for relevant literature between 2003 and 2021.Expert opinion: Methyl donor compounds and drugs acting on histone tail modifications attenuated the AD-like features and improved cognition in several transgenic AD mice; however, there are concerns about safety and tolerability for long-term treatment in humans. The challenges will be to take advantage of recent epigenome-wide investigations to identify the principal targets for future interventions, and to design novel, selective and safer agents. Natural compounds exerting epigenetic properties could represent a promising opportunity to delay disease onset in middle-aged individuals at increased AD risk.

Understanding the Function of Mammalian Sirtuins and Protein Lysine Acylation

Protein lysine acetylation is an important posttranslational modification that regulates numerous biological processes. Targeting lysine acetylation regulatory factors, such as acetyltransferases, deacetylases, and acetyl-lysine recognition domains, has been shown to have potential for treating human diseases, including cancer and neurological diseases. Over the past decade, many other acyl-lysine modifications, such as succinylation, crotonylation, and long-chain fatty acylation, have also been investigated and shown to have interesting biological functions. Here, we provide an overview of the functions of different acyl-lysine modifications in mammals. We focus on lysine acetylation as it is well characterized, and principles learned from acetylation are useful for understanding the functions of other lysine acylations. We pay special attention to the sirtuins, given that the study of sirtuins has provided a great deal of information about the functions of lysine acylation. We emphasize the regulation of sirtuins to illustrate that their regulation enables cells to respond to various signals and stresses.

Understanding the Potential Role of Sirtuin 2 on Aging: Consequences of SIRT2.3 Overexpression in Senescence

Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) has been associated to aging and age-related pathologies. Specifically, an age-dependent accumulation of isoform 3 of SIRT2 in the CNS has been demonstrated; however, no study has addressed the behavioral or molecular consequences that this could have on aging. In the present study, we have designed an adeno-associated virus vector (AAV-CAG-Sirt2.3-eGFP) for the overexpression of SIRT2.3 in the hippocampus of 2 month-old SAMR1 and SAMP8 mice. Our results show that the specific overexpression of this isoform does not induce significant behavioral or molecular effects at short or long term in the control strain. Only a tendency towards a worsening in the performance in acquisition phase of the Morris Water Maze was found in SAMP8 mice, together with a significant increase in the pro-inflammatory cytokine Il-1β. These results suggest that the age-related increase of SIRT2.3 found in the brain is not responsible for induction or prevention of senescence. Nevertheless, in combination with other risk factors, it could contribute to the progression of age-related processes. Understanding the specific role of SIRT2 on aging and the underlying molecular mechanisms is essential to design new and more successful therapies for the treatment of age-related diseases.

SIRT1 and SIRT2 Activity Control in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Sirtuins are NAD+ dependent histone deacetylases (HDAC) that play a pivotal role in neuroprotection and cellular senescence. SIRT1-7 are different homologs from sirtuins. They play a prominent role in many aspects of physiology and regulate crucial proteins. Modulation of sirtuins can thus be utilized as a therapeutic target for metabolic disorders. Neurological diseases have distinct clinical manifestations but are mainly age-associated and due to loss of protein homeostasis. Sirtuins mediate several life extension pathways and brain functions that may allow therapeutic intervention for age-related diseases. There is compelling evidence to support the fact that SIRT1 and SIRT2 are shuttled between the nucleus and cytoplasm and perform context-dependent functions in neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD). In this review, we highlight the regulation of SIRT1 and SIRT2 in various neurological diseases. This study explores the various modulators that regulate the activity of SIRT1 and SIRT2, which may further assist in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease. Moreover, we analyze the structure and function of various small molecules that have potential significance in modulating sirtuins, as well as the technologies that advance the targeted therapy of neurodegenerative disease.

Role of Sirtuins in Modulating Neurodegeneration of the Enteric Nervous System and Central Nervous System

Neurodegeneration of the central and enteric nervous systems is a common feature of aging and aging-related diseases, and is accelerated in individuals with metabolic dysfunction including obesity and diabetes. The molecular mechanisms of neurodegeneration in both the CNS and ENS are overlapping. Sirtuins are an important family of histone deacetylases that are important for genome stability, cellular response to stress, and nutrient and hormone sensing. They are activated by calorie restriction (CR) and by the coenzyme, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+). Sirtuins, specifically the nuclear SIRT1 and mitochondrial SIRT3, have been shown to have predominantly neuroprotective roles in the CNS while the cytoplasmic sirtuin, SIRT2 is largely associated with neurodegeneration. A systematic study of sirtuins in the ENS and their effect on enteric neuronal growth and survival has not been conducted. Recent studies, however, also link sirtuins with important hormones such as leptin, ghrelin, melatonin, and serotonin which influence many important processes including satiety, mood, circadian rhythm, and gut homeostasis. In this review, we address emerging roles of sirtuins in modulating the metabolic challenges from aging, obesity, and diabetes that lead to neurodegeneration in the ENS and CNS. We also highlight a novel role for sirtuins along the microbiota-gut-brain axis in modulating neurodegeneration.

Sirtuins and Their Implications in Neurodegenerative Diseases from a Drug Discovery Perspective

Sirtuins are class III histone deacetylase (HDAC) enzymes that target both histone and non-histone substrates. They are linked to different brain functions and the regulation of different isoforms of these enzymes is touted to be an emerging therapy for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), including Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The level of sirtuins affects brain health as many sirtuin-regulated pathways are responsible for the progression of NDs. Certain sirtuins are also implicated in aging, which is a risk factor for many NDs. In addition to SIRT1-3, it has been suggested that the less studied sirtuins (SIRT4-7) also play critical roles in brain health. This review delineates the role of each sirtuin isoform in NDs from a disease centric perspective and provides an up-to-date overview of sirtuin modulators and their potential use as therapeutics in these diseases. Furthermore, the future perspectives for sirtuin modulator development and their therapeutic application in neurodegeneration are outlined in detail, hence providing a research direction for future studies.

The Clinical Significance of SIRT2 in Malignancies: A Tumor Suppressor or an Oncogene?

Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) is a member of the sirtuin protein family. It is a Class III histone deacetylase (HDACs) and predominantly localized to the cytosol. SIRT2 deacetylates histones and a number of non-histone proteins and plays a pivotal role in various physiologic processes. Previously, SIRT2 has been considered indispensable during carcinogenesis; however, there is now a significant controversy regarding whether SIRT2 is an oncogene or a tumor suppressor. The purpose of this review is to summarize the physiological functions of SIRT2 and its mechanisms in cancer. We will focus on five malignancies (breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, colorectal cancer, and glioma) to describe the current status of SIRT2 research and discuss the clinical evaluation of SIRT2 expression and the use of SIRT2 inhibitors.

RTN4B-mediated suppression of Sirtuin 2 activity ameliorates β-amyloid pathology and cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease mouse model

Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) is an NAD+ dependent deacetylase that is the most abundant sirtuin protein in the brain. Accumulating evidence revealed the role of SIRT2 in a wide range of biological processes and age-related diseases. However, the pivotal mechanism of SIRT2 played in Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unknown. Here, we report that pharmacological inactivation of SIRT2 has a beneficial effect in AD. The deacetylase inhibitor of SIRT2 rescued the cognitive impairment in amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 transgenic mouse (APP/PS1 mouse), and the BACE1 cleavage was weakened to reduce the β-amyloid (Aβ) production in the hippocampus. Moreover, we firstly identified that Reticulon 4B (RTN4B) played a crucial role between SIRT2/BACE1 regulation in AD. RTN4B, as a deacetylation substrate for SIRT2, the deacetylation by SIRT2 drived the ubiquitination and degradation of RTN4B and then the disturbed RTN4B interacted with and influenced the expression of BACE1. When we overexpressed RTN4B in neurons of the hippocampus in the AD mouse model, the abnormal Aβ accumulation and cognitive impairment were ameliorated, consistent with the results of SIRT2 inhibition in vivo. Moreover, we showed that the regulatory effect of SIRT2 on BACE1 is dependent on RTN4B. When RTN4B was knocked down, the effects of SIRT2 inhibition on the BACE1 level, Aβ pathology, and AD-liked behaviors were also blocked. Collectively, we provide evidence that SIRT2 may be a potential target for AD; the new found SIRT2/RTN4B/BACE1 pathological pathway is one of the critical mechanisms for the improvement of SIRT2 on AD.

Sirtuin 2 Inhibition Attenuates Sevoflurane-Induced Learning and Memory Deficits in Developing Rats via Modulating Microglial Activation

Sevoflurane is a widely used inhalational anesthetic in pediatric medicine that has been reported to have deleterious effects on the developing brain. Strategies to mitigate these detrimental effects are lacking. Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) is a member of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent protein deacetylases involved in a wide range of pathophysiological processes. SIRT2 inhibition has emerged as a promising treatment for an array of neurological disorders. However, the direct effects of SIRT2 on anesthesia-induced damage to the immature brain are unclear. Neonatal rats were exposed to 3% sevoflurane or 30% oxygen for 2 h daily with or without SIRT2 inhibitor AK7 pretreatment from postnatal day 7 (P7) to P9. One cohort of rats were euthanized 6, 12, and/or 24 h after the last gas exposure, and brain tissues were harvested for biochemical analysis and/or immunohistochemical examination. Cognitive functions were evaluated using the open field and Morris water maze tests on P25 and P28-32, respectively. SIRT2 was significantly up-regulated in neonatal rat hippocampus at 6 and 12 h post-anesthesia. Pretreatment with SIRT2 inhibitor AK7 reversed sevoflurane-induced hippocampus-dependent cognitive impairments. Furthermore, AK7 administration mitigated sevoflurane-induced neuroinflammation and microglial activation. Concomitantly, AK7 inhibited pro-inflammatory/M1-related markers and increased anti-inflammatory/M2-related markers in microglia. AK7 might prevent sevoflurane-induced neuroinflammation by switching microglia from the M1 to M2 phenotype. Downregulation of SIRT2 may be a novel therapeutic target for alleviating anesthesia-induced developmental neurotoxicity.

Alterations in the Expression of Amyloid Precursor Protein Cleaving Enzymes mRNA in Alzheimer Peripheral Blood

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia in elderly populations. Changes in the expression of the Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP)-cleaving enzymes directly affect the formation of Amyloid Beta (Aβ) plaques, a neuropathological hallmark of AD.

OBJECTIVE

We used peripheral blood from AD patients to investigate the expression of genes related to APP-processing [(β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), presenilin1 (PSEN1), and a disintegrin and metalloproteinase family 10 (ADAM10) and 17 (ADAM17)] and the epigenetic genes sirtuin (SIRT)1-3, which regulate Aβ production.

METHOD

Real-time polymerase chain reactions were performed to determine the specific mRNA levels in plasma. The mRNA levels in AD patients were compared to those in healthy persons and assessed in relation to the subjects' cognitive performance.

RESULTS

BACE1 mRNA level in AD subjects was significantly higher than those of healthy controls, whereas ADAM10 level was significantly lower in the AD subjects. The SIRT1 level was significantly decreased, while that of SIRT2 was increased in AD subjects and elderly controls compared to levels in healthy young control. In addition, correlations were found between the expression levels of BACE1, ADAM10 and SIRT1 and cognitive performance scores. Total Aβ (Aβ40+Aβ42) levels and the Aβ40/Aβ42 ratio were significantly increased in the AD subjects, whereas decrease in plasma Aβ42 was found in AD subjects. There was a negative correlation between Aβ40 or total Aβ and Thai Mental State Examination (TMSE) while there was no correlation between Aβ40/Aβ42 ratio or Aβ42 and TMSE.

CONCLUSION

The present findings provide evidence and support for the potential roles of these enzymes that drive Aβ synthesis and for epigenetic regulation in AD progression and development, which can possibly be considered peripheral markers of AD.

Early sirtuin 2 inhibition prevents age-related cognitive decline in a senescence-accelerated mouse model

The senescence-accelerated mouse prone-8 (SAMP8) model has been considered as a good model for aged-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Since epigenetic alterations represent a crucial mechanism during aging, in the present study we tested whether the inhibition of the histone deacetylase sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) could ameliorate the age-dependent cognitive impairments and associated neuropathology shown by SAMP8 mice. To this end, the potent SIRT2-selective inhibitor, 33i (5 mg/kg i.p. 8 weeks) was administered to 5-month-old (early treatment) and 8-month-old (late treatment) SAMP8 and aged matched control, senescence-accelerated mouse resistant-1 (SAMR1) mice. 33i administration to 5-month-old SAMP8 mice improved spatial learning and memory impairments shown by this strain in the Morris water maze. SAMP8 showed hyperphosphorylation of tau protein and decrease levels of SIRT1 in the hippocampus, which were not altered by 33i treatment. However, this treatment upregulated the glutamate receptor subunits GluN2A, GluN2B, and GluA1 in both SAMR1 and SAMP8. Moreover, early SIRT2 inhibition prevented neuroinflammation evidenced by reduced levels of GFAP, IL-1β, Il-6, and Tnf-α, providing a plausible explanation for the improvement of cognitive deficits shown by 33i-treated SAMP8 mice. When 33i was administered to 8-month-old SAMP8 with a severe established pathology, increases in GluN2A, GluN2B, and GluA1 were observed; however, it was not able to reverse the cognitive decline or the neuroinflammation. These results suggest that early SIRT2 inhibition might be beneficial in preventing age-related cognitive deficits, neuroinflammation, and AD progression and could be an emerging candidate for the treatment of other diseases linked to dementia.

Dichotomous Sirtuins: Implications for Drug Discovery in Neurodegenerative and Cardiometabolic Diseases

Sirtuins (SIRT1-7), a class of NAD⁺-dependent deacylases, are central regulators of metabolic homeostasis and stress responses. While numerous salutary effects associated with sirtuin activation, especially SIRT1, are well documented, other reports show health benefits resulting from sirtuin inhibition. Furthermore, conflicting findings have been obtained regarding the pathophysiological role of specific sirtuin isoforms, suggesting that sirtuins act as 'double-edged swords'. Here, we provide an integrated overview of the different findings on the role of mammalian sirtuins in neurodegenerative and cardiometabolic disorders and attempt to dissect the reasons behind these different effects. Finally, we discuss how addressing these obstacles may provide a better understanding of the complex sirtuin biology and improve the likelihood of identifying effective and selective drug targets for a variety of human disorders.

Discovery of gamma-mangostin from Garcinia mangostana as a potent and selective natural SIRT2 inhibitor

Studies have suggested that sirtuin inhibition may have beneficial effects on several age-related diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders and cancer. Garcinia mangostana is a well-known tropical plant found mostly in South East Asia with several positive health effects. Some of its phytochemicals such as α-mangostin was found to be able to modulate sirtuin activity in mice and was implicated with inflammation, diabetes and obesity. However, comprehensive studies on sirtuin activity by the prenylated xanthones extracted from Garcinia mangostana have yet to be reported. The present study led to the discovery and identification of γ-mangostin as a potent and selective SIRT2 inhibitor. It was demonstrated that γ-mangostin was able to increase the α-tubulin acetylation in MDA-MD-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. It was also found to possess potent antiproliferative activity against both cell lines. In addition, it was able to induce neurite outgrowth in the N2a cells.

SIRT2: Controversy and multiple roles in disease and physiology

Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) is an NAD+-dependent deacetylase that was under studied compared to other sirtuin family members. SIRT2 is the only sirtuin protein which is predominantly found in the cytoplasm but is also found in the mitochondria and in the nucleus. Recently, accumulating evidence has uncovered a growing number of substrates and additional detailed functions of SIRT2 in a wide range of biological processes, marking its crucial role. Here, we give a comprehensive profile of the crucial physiological functions of SIRT2 and its role in neurological diseases, cancers, and other diseases. This review summarizes the functions of SIRT2 in the nervous system, mitosis regulation, genome integrity, cell differentiation, cell homeostasis, aging, infection, inflammation, oxidative stress, and autophagy. SIRT2 inhibition rescues neurodegenerative disease symptoms and hence SIRT2 is a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative disease. SIRT2 is undoubtedly dysfunctional in cancers and plays a dual-faced role in different types of cancers, and although its mechanism is unresolved, SIRT2 remains a promising therapeutic target for certain cancers. In future, the continued rapid growth in SIRT2 research will help clarify its role in human health and disease, and promote the progress of this target in clinical practice.

Sirtuins in Alzheimer's Disease: SIRT2-Related GenoPhenotypes and Implications for PharmacoEpiGenetics

Sirtuins (SIRT1-7) are NAD⁺-dependent protein deacetylases/ADP ribosyltransferases with important roles in chromatin silencing, cell cycle regulation, cellular differentiation, cellular stress response, metabolism and aging. Sirtuins are components of the epigenetic machinery, which is disturbed in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), contributing to AD pathogenesis. There is an association between the SIRT2-C/T genotype (rs10410544) (50.92%) and AD susceptibility in the APOEε4-negative population (SIRT2-C/C, 34.72%; SIRT2-T/T 14.36%). The integration of SIRT2 and APOE variants in bigenic clusters yields 18 haplotypes. The 5 most frequent bigenic genotypes in AD are 33CT (27.81%), 33CC (21.36%), 34CT (15.29%), 34CC (9.76%) and 33TT (7.18%). There is an accumulation of APOE-3/4 and APOE-4/4 carriers in SIRT2-T/T > SIRT2-C/T > SIRT2-C/C carriers, and also of SIRT2-T/T and SIRT2-C/T carriers in patients who harbor the APOE-4/4 genotype. SIRT2 variants influence biochemical, hematological, metabolic and cardiovascular phenotypes, and modestly affect the pharmacoepigenetic outcome in AD. SIRT2-C/T carriers are the best responders, SIRT2-T/T carriers show an intermediate pattern, and SIRT2-C/C carriers are the worst responders to a multifactorial treatment. In APOE-SIRT2 bigenic clusters, 33CC carriers respond better than 33TT and 34CT carriers, whereas 24CC and 44CC carriers behave as the worst responders. CYP2D6 extensive metabolizers (EM) are the best responders, poor metabolizers (PM) are the worst responders, and ultra-rapid metabolizers (UM) tend to be better responders that intermediate metabolizers (IM). In association with CYP2D6 genophenotypes, SIRT2-C/T-EMs are the best responders. Some Sirtuin modulators might be potential candidates for AD treatment.

An overview of Sirtuins as potential therapeutic target: Structure, function and modulators

Sirtuin (Yeast Silent Information RegulatorsⅡ, Sir2) was first discovered in the 1970s. Because of its function by removing acetylated groups from histones in the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺), waves of research have assessed the potential of Sirtuin as a therapeutic target. The Sirtuin family, which is widely distributed throughout the nature, has been divided into seven human isoforms (Sirt1-Sirt7). They are thought to be closely related to some aging diseases such as cardiovascular disorders, neurodegeneration, and tumors. Herein, we present a comprehensive review of the structure, function and modulators of Sirtuins, which is expected to be beneficial to relevant studies.

Neuroprotective Effect of Sirt2-specific Inhibitor AK-7 Against Acute Cerebral Ischemia is P38 Activation-dependent in Mice

Cerebral ischemia is the most common cause of stroke with high morbidity, disability and mortality. Sirtuin-2 (Sirt2), a vitally important NAD⁺-dependent deacetylase which has been widely researched in central nervous system diseases, has also been identified as a promising treatment target using its specific inhibitors such as AK-7. In this study, we found that P38 was specifically activated after focal cerebral ischemic injury, and it was also significantly activated after AK-7 administration in a concentration-dependent manner in vitro and in vivo. AK-7 decreased the infarction volume remarkably and promoted the recovery of neurological function efficiently in the mice evaluated by behavior tests. In contrast, pP38 inhibition increased the infarct volume and exacerbated the symptoms of paralysis. Herein, we suggest AK-7 improves the outcome of brain ischemia in dependence on the P38 activation in mice, which may serve as a strategy for the treatment of stroke.

Chemogenomic analysis reveals key role for lysine acetylation in regulating Arc stability

The role of Arc in synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation has been investigated for many years with recent evidence that defects in the expression or activity of this immediate-early gene may also contribute to the pathophysiology of brain disorders including schizophrenia and fragile X syndrome. These results bring forward the concept that reversing Arc abnormalities could provide an avenue to improve cognitive or neurological impairments in different disease contexts, but how to achieve this therapeutic objective has remained elusive. Here, we present results from a chemogenomic screen that probed a mechanistically diverse library of small molecules for modulators of BDNF-induced Arc expression in primary cortical neurons. This effort identified compounds with a range of influences on Arc, including promoting its acetylation-a previously uncharacterized post-translational modification of this protein. Together, our data provide insights into the control of Arc that could be targeted to harness neuroplasticity for clinical applications.

Sirtuins and Their Roles in Brain Aging and Neurodegenerative Disorders

Sirtuins (SIRT1-SIRT7) are unique histone deacetylases (HDACs) whose activity depends on NAD⁺ levels and thus on the cellular metabolic status. SIRTs regulate energy metabolism and mitochondrial function. They orchestrate the stress response and damage repair. Through these functions sirtuins modulate the course of aging and affect neurodegenerative diseases. SIRTSs interact with multiple signaling proteins, transcription factors (TFs) and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) another class of NAD⁺-dependent post-translational protein modifiers. The cross-talk between SIRTs TFs and PARPs is a highly promising research target in a number of brain pathologies. This review describes updated results on sirtuins in brain aging/neurodegeneration. It focuses on SIRT1 but also on the roles of mitochondrial SIRTs (SIRT3, 4, 5) and on SIRT6 and SIRT2 localized in the nucleus and in cytosol, respectively. The involvement of SIRTs in regulation of insulin-like growth factor signaling in the brain during aging and in Alzheimer's disease was also focused. Moreover, we analyze the mechanism(s) and potential significance of interactions between SIRTs and several TFs in the regulation of cell survival and death. A critical view is given on the application of SIRT activators/modulators in therapy of neurodegenerative diseases.