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Zhang Y, Shankar SN, Vass WB, Lednicky JA, Fan ZH, Agdas D, Makuch R, Wu CY. Air Change Rate and SARS-CoV-2 Exposure in Hospitals and Residences: A Meta-Analysis. AEROSOL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR AEROSOL RESEARCH 2024; 58:217-243. [PMID: 38764553 PMCID: PMC11101186 DOI: 10.1080/02786826.2024.2312178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
As SARS-CoV-2 swept across the globe, increased ventilation and implementation of air cleaning were emphasized by the US CDC and WHO as important strategies to reduce the risk of inhalation exposure to the virus. To assess whether higher ventilation and air cleaning rates lead to lower exposure risk to SARS-CoV-2, 1274 manuscripts published between April 2020 and September 2022 were screened using key words "airborne SARS-CoV-2 or "SARS-CoV-2 aerosol". Ninety-three studies involved air sampling at locations with known sources (hospitals and residences) were selected and associated data were compiled. Two metrics were used to assess exposure risk: SARS-CoV-2 concentration and SARS-CoV-2 detection rate in air samples. Locations were categorized by type (hospital or residence) and proximity to the sampling location housing the isolated/quarantined patient (primary or secondary). The results showed that hospital wards had lower airborne virus concentrations than residential isolation rooms. A negative correlation was found between airborne virus concentrations in primary-occupancy areas and air changes per hour (ACH). In hospital settings, sample positivity rates were significantly reduced in secondary-occupancy areas compared to primary-occupancy areas, but they were similar across sampling locations in residential settings. ACH and sample positivity rates were negatively correlated, though the effect was diminished when ACH values exceeded 8. While limitations associated with diverse sampling protocols exist, data considered by this meta-analysis support the notion that higher ACH may reduce exposure risks to the virus in ambient air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuetong Zhang
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columnia, Canada
| | - Sripriya Nannu Shankar
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Department of Environmental & Public Health Sciences, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - William B. Vass
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - John A. Lednicky
- Department of Environmental and Global Health, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Z. Hugh Fan
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Duzgun Agdas
- Engineering School of Sustainable Infrastructure & Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Robert Makuch
- Department of Biostatistics, Yale University School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Chang-Yu Wu
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Department of Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
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Madhusudanan A, Iddon C, Cevik M, Naismith JH, Fitzgerald S. Non-pharmaceutical interventions for COVID-19: a systematic review on environmental control measures. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2023; 381:20230130. [PMID: 37611631 PMCID: PMC10446906 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2023.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this review was to identify the effectiveness of environmental control (EC) non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) in reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through conducting a systematic review. EC NPIs considered in this review are room ventilation, air filtration/cleaning, room occupancy, surface disinfection, barrier devices, [Formula: see text] monitoring and one-way-systems. Systematic searches of databases from Web of Science, Medline, EMBASE, preprint servers MedRxiv and BioRxiv were conducted in order to identify studies reported between 1 January 2020 and 1 December 2022. All articles reporting on the effectiveness of ventilation, air filtration/cleaning, room occupancy, surface disinfection, barrier devices, [Formula: see text] monitoring and one-way systems in reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2 were retrieved and screened. In total, 13 971 articles were identified for screening. The initial title and abstract screening identified 1328 articles for full text review. Overall, 19 references provided evidence for the effectiveness of NPIs: 12 reported on ventilation, 4 on air cleaning devices, 5 on surface disinfection, 6 on room occupancy and 1 on screens/barriers. No studies were found that considered the effectiveness of [Formula: see text] monitoring or the implementation of one-way systems. Many of these studies were assessed to have critical risk of bias in at least one domain, largely due to confounding factors that could have affected the measured outcomes. As a result, there is low confidence in the findings. Evidence suggests that EC NPIs of ventilation, air cleaning devices and reduction in room-occupancy may have a role in reducing transmission in certain settings. However, the evidence was usually of low or very low quality and certainty, and hence the level of confidence ascribed to this conclusion is low. Based on the evidence found, it was not possible to draw any specific conclusions regarding the effectiveness of surface disinfection and the use of barrier devices. From these results, we further conclude that community agreed standards for well-designed epidemiological studies with low risk of bias are needed. Implementation of such standards would enable more confident assessment in the future of the effectiveness of EC NPIs in reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogens in real-world settings. This article is part of the theme issue 'The effectiveness of non-pharmaceutical interventions on the COVID-19 pandemic: the evidence'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher Iddon
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, University College London, WC1E 6BT, London, UK
| | - Muge Cevik
- Department of Infection and Global Health, School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, KY16 9TF, St Andrews, UK
| | | | - Shaun Fitzgerald
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, Cambridge, UK
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Zambrana W, Boehm AB. Occurrence of Human Viruses on Fomites in the Environment: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. ACS ENVIRONMENTAL AU 2023; 3:277-294. [PMID: 37743950 PMCID: PMC10515712 DOI: 10.1021/acsenvironau.3c00025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Documenting the occurrence of viruses on fomites is crucial in determining the significance of fomite-mediated transmission and the potential use of fomites for environmental disease surveillance. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to compile information on the occurrence of human viruses on fomites in the environment; we identified 134 peer-reviewed papers. We compiled sampling and measurement methods, results, quality control information, and whether virus data were compared with community health data from the papers. We conducted univariate and multivariate analyses to investigate if presence of virus on fomites was associated with virus type (enveloped, nonenveloped), sampling location (healthcare setting, nonhealthcare temporary setting, nonhealthcare nontemporary setting), and area of fomite swabbed (<50, 50-100, >100 cm2). Across 275 data sets from the 134 papers, there was the most data available for Coronaviridae and from fomites at hospitals. Positivity rates, defined as the percent positive fomite samples, were low (median = 6%). Data were available on viruses from 16 different viral families, but data on viruses from 9 families had few (n < 5) data sets. Many human virus families were not identified in this review (11 families). Less than 15% of the data sets reported virus concentrations in externally valid units (viruses per area of surface), and 16% provided a quantitative comparison between virus and health data. Virus type and area swabbed were significant predictors of virus presence on fomites, and the positivity rate of data sets collected from healthcare settings and nonhealthcare nontemporary settings (e.g., individual housing) were significantly higher than those collected in nonhealthcare temporary settings (e.g., restaurants). Data from this review indicates that viruses may be present on fomites, that fomite-mediated virus transmission may occur, and that fomites may provide information on circulation of infectious diseases in the community. However, more quantitative data on diverse viruses are needed, and method reporting needs significant improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Winnie Zambrana
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Alexandria B. Boehm
- Department
of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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Chen XE, Zhao C, Luo Y, Tang T, Chen W. Contamination of SARS-CoV-2 RNA on personal protective equipment and environmental surfaces in nonpatient entry area of a Fangcang shelter hospital. Am J Ind Med 2023; 66:805-812. [PMID: 37394558 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.23513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To determine the extent of contamination of personal protective equipment (PPE) and surfaces by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the nonpatient entry area of a Fangcang shelter hospital, the medical staff accommodation area, and the staff transport bus. METHODS We collected 816 samples from the nonpatient entry area and floors in a Fangcang shelter hospital, medical staff accommodation area, and scheduled bus, and the five major types of PPE used from April 13 to May 18, 2022. SARS-CoV-2 ribonucleic acid (RNA) was detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS Overall, 22.2% of PPE samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. Boot covers and gowns were the most contaminated types of PPE. The positive PPE contamination rate of staff collecting respiratory specimens was significantly higher than that of the general-treatment staff group (35.8% vs. 12.2%) and cleaner group (35.8% vs. 26.4%), p < 0.01. In total, 27 of 265 (10.2%) environmental surface samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. The contamination-positive rates were 26.8% (22/82), 5.4% (4/74), and 0.9% (1/109) for contaminated, potentially contaminated, and clean zones, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was frequently detected on objects such as mobile phones, tables, computer keyboards and mice, and door handles. CONCLUSIONS SARS-CoV-2 RNA was widely distributed on high-touch surfaces and on PPE in the contaminated zone of the Fangcang shelter hospital, implying a potentially high infection risk for healthcare workers. Our findings emphasize the need to ensure adequate environmental cleaning, improve hand hygiene, and reduce the risk of infection. Additionally, prevention of self-contamination during PPE donning and doffing is complex and needs more research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-E Chen
- Department of Nosocomial Infection Control, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - ChenHao Zhao
- Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - YeTao Luo
- Department of Nosocomial Infection Control, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tang Tang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Nosocomial Infection Control, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Noorimotlagh Z, Mirzaee SA, Seif F, Kalantar M, Roghani T, Mousavi SA, Honarmandpour A. Detection of different variants of SARS-CoV-2 RNA (genome) on inanimate surfaces in high-touch public environmental surfaces. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13058. [PMID: 37567996 PMCID: PMC10421847 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-40342-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) disease started in late 2019 and still continues as a global pandemic, spreading among people around the world. There is limited knowledge about the role of contaminated environmental surfaces, especially high-touch public surfaces, in the transmission of the disease. The objective of the present investigation was detection of different variants (Delta, UK, and Omicron) of SARS-CoV-2 RNA (genome) on inanimate surfaces in high-touch public environmental surfaces in different seasons. Automated teller machines of banks (ATM), point-of-sale (POS) machine, gas station pump nozzles, and escalator handrails of malls were selected as high-touch environmental surfaces in public places. Overall, 75 samples were collected from these places and examined for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA (genome), and 21 samples (28%) were positive. Although the role of fomite transmission of COVID-19 is understood, more studies should be conducted to determine the virus survival rate as well as the required efforts to prevent the spread of SARS-CoV-2 such as frequent cleaning and the use of efficient disinfectants on environmental surfaces, especially high-touch public places. In conclusion, the results address the importance of touching contaminated inanimate objects as well as transmission through environmental surfaces, and they could be used to establish an effective protocol to prevent indirect environmental transmission of SARS-CoV-2, slow down the spread of the virus, and reduce the risk of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Noorimotlagh
- Health and Environment Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
| | - Seyyed Abbas Mirzaee
- Health and Environment Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
| | - Faezeh Seif
- Department of Basic Sciences, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Sciences, Shoushtar, Iran.
| | - Mojtaba Kalantar
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Science, Shoushtar, Iran
| | - Tayebeh Roghani
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Science, Shoushtar, Iran
| | - Seyed Ali Mousavi
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Science, Shoushtar, Iran
| | - Azam Honarmandpour
- Department of Midwifery, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Sciences, Shoushtar, Iran
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Evolution and Control of COVID-19 Epidemic in Hong Kong. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112519. [PMID: 36423128 PMCID: PMC9698160 DOI: 10.3390/v14112519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Hong Kong SAR has adopted universal masking, social distancing, testing of all symptomatic and high-risk groups for isolation of confirmed cases in healthcare facilities, and quarantine of contacts as epidemiological control measures without city lockdown or border closure. These measures successfully suppressed the community transmission of pre-Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variants or lineages during the first to the fourth wave. No nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 infection was documented among healthcare workers in the first 300 days. The strategy of COVID-19 containment was adopted to provide additional time to achieve population immunity by vaccination. The near-zero COVID-19 situation for about 8 months in 2021 did not enable adequate immunization of the eligible population. A combination of factors was identified, especially population complacency associated with the low local COVID-19 activity, together with vaccine hesitancy. The importation of the highly transmissible Omicron variant kickstarted the fifth wave of COVID-19, which could no longer be controlled by our initial measures. The explosive fifth wave, which was partially contributed by vertical airborne transmission in high-rise residential buildings, resulted in over one million cases of infection. In this review, we summarize the epidemiology of COVID-19 and the infection control and public health measures against the importation and dissemination of SARS-CoV-2 until day 1000.
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Masud M, Islam MH, Kim BN. Understanding the Role of Environmental Transmission on COVID-19 Herd Immunity and Invasion Potential. Bull Math Biol 2022; 84:116. [PMID: 36088430 PMCID: PMC9464060 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-022-01070-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AbstractCOVID-19 is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which is mainly transmitted directly between humans. However, it is observed that this disease can also be transmitted through an indirect route via environmental fomites. The development of appropriate and effective vaccines has allowed us to target and anticipate herd immunity. Understanding of the transmission dynamics and the persistence of the virus on environmental fomites and their resistive role on indirect transmission of the virus is an important scientific and public health challenge because it is essential to consider all possible transmission routes and route specific transmission strength to accurately quantify the herd immunity threshold. In this paper, we present a mathematical model that considers both direct and indirect transmission modes. Our analysis focuses on establishing the disease invasion threshold, investigating its sensitivity to both transmission routes and isolate route-specific transmission rate. Using the tau-leap algorithm, we perform a stochastic model simulation to address the invasion potential of both transmission routes. Our analysis shows that direct transmission has a higher invasion potential than that of the indirect transmission. As a proof of this concept, we fitted our model with early epidemic data from several countries to uniquely estimate the reproduction numbers associated with direct and indirect transmission upon confirming the identifiability of the parameters. As the indirect transmission possess lower invasion potential than direct transmission, proper estimation and necessary steps toward mitigating it would help reduce vaccination requirement.
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Affiliation(s)
- M.A Masud
- Natural Product Informatics Research Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Gangneung, 25451 South Korea
| | - Md. Hamidul Islam
- Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, 6205 Bangladesh
| | - Byul Nim Kim
- Institute for Mathematical Convergence, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, 41566 South Korea
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Joan TV, Kristiyan SA, Ernest SL, Nuria TP, Herme GB, Josep MB. Efficiency and sensitivity optimization of a protocol to quantify indoor airborne SARS-CoV-2 levels. J Hosp Infect 2022; 130:44-51. [PMID: 36100140 PMCID: PMC9465472 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2022.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Background Development of methodologies to quantify airborne micro-organisms is needed for the prevention and control of infections. It is difficult to conclude which is the most efficient and sensitive strategy to assess airborne SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels due to the disparity of results reported in clinical settings. Aim To improve our previously reported protocol of measuring SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels, which was based on bioaerosol collection with a liquid impinger and RNA quantification with droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR). Methods Air samples were collected in COVID-19 patient rooms to assess efficiency and/or sensitivity of different air samplers, liquid collection media, and reverse transcriptases (RT). Findings Mineral oil retains airborne RNA better than does hydrophilic media without impairing integrity. SARS-CoV-2 ORF1ab target was detected in 80% of the air samples using BioSampler with mineral oil. No significant differences in effectiveness were obtained with MD8 sampler equipped with gelatine membrane filters, but the SARS-CoV-2 copies/m3 air obtained with the latter were lower (28.4 ± 6.1 vs 9 ± 1.7). SuperScript II RT allows the detection of a single SARS-CoV-2 genome RNA molecule by ddPCR with high efficiency. This was the only RT that allowed the detection of SARS-CoV-2 N1 target in air samples. Conclusion The collection efficiency and detection sensivity of a protocol to quantify SARS-CoV-2 RNA levels in indoor air has been improved in the present study. Such optimization is important to improve our understanding of the microbiological safety of indoor air.
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Affiliation(s)
- Truyols-Vives Joan
- Molecular Biology and One Health Research Group (MolONE), Universitat de Les Illes Balears (UIB), Palma, Spain
| | | | - Sala-Llinàs Ernest
- Molecular Biology and One Health Research Group (MolONE), Universitat de Les Illes Balears (UIB), Palma, Spain; Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Balearic Islands, Spain; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Hospital Universitari Son Espases (HUSE), Balearic Islands, Spain; Biomedical Research Networking Center on Respiratory Diseases (CIBERES), Madrid, Spain
| | - Toledo-Pons Nuria
- Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Balearic Islands, Spain; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Hospital Universitari Son Espases (HUSE), Balearic Islands, Spain
| | - G Baldoví Herme
- Department of Chemistry, Universitat Politècnica de València (UPV)
| | - Mercader-Barceló Josep
- Molecular Biology and One Health Research Group (MolONE), Universitat de Les Illes Balears (UIB), Palma, Spain; Health Research Institute of the Balearic Islands (IdISBa), Balearic Islands, Spain.
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Silva PG, Branco PTBS, Soares RRG, Mesquita JR, Sousa SIV. SARS-CoV-2 air sampling: A systematic review on the methodologies for detection and infectivity. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13083. [PMID: 36040285 PMCID: PMC9538005 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This systematic review aims to present an overview of the current aerosol sampling methods (and equipment) being used to investigate the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in the air, along with the main parameters reported in the studies that are essential to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of each method and perspectives for future research regarding this mode of transmission. A systematic literature review was performed on PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus to assess the current air sampling methodologies being applied to SARS-CoV-2. Most of the studies took place in indoor environments and healthcare settings and included air and environmental sampling. The collection mechanisms used were impinger, cyclone, impactor, filters, water-based condensation, and passive sampling. Most of the reviewed studies used RT-PCR to test the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the collected samples. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected with all collection mechanisms. From the studies detecting the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA, fourteen assessed infectivity. Five studies detected viable viruses using impactor, water-based condensation, and cyclone collection mechanisms. There is a need for a standardized protocol for sampling SARS-CoV-2 in air, which should also account for other influencing parameters, including air exchange ratio in the room sampled, relative humidity, temperature, and lighting conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscilla G Silva
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Porto, Portugal
- School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE - Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Epidemiology Research Unit (EPI Unit), Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro T B S Branco
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE - Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ruben R G Soares
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Science for Life Laboratory, Stockholm University, Solna, Sweden
- Division of Nanobiotechnology, Department of Protein Science, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Solna, Sweden
| | - João R Mesquita
- Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Porto, Portugal
- Epidemiology Research Unit (EPI Unit), Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sofia I V Sousa
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE - Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Diagnostic Laboratory Characteristics of COVID-19 Patients Infected by Fomites: COVID-19 Outbreak in a South Korean Public Administrative Facility. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11060700. [PMID: 35745554 PMCID: PMC9228738 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11060700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a paucity of data regarding the differentiating characteristics of patients who were infected with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by fomites around the world. We conducted an event-based outbreak investigation, involving 795 public officers and 277 assistant staff, in the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries (MOF) or the same building from March 2 to March 18, 2020. The SARS-CoV-2 patients were found to have more frequently touched fomites and used public toilets than those who were tested negative for the virus (cOR, 24.38; 95% CI, 4.95-120.01). Symptoms such as coughing and loss of taste and smell were more frequently found in the office-cleaner group than in the public-officer group. The SARS-CoV-2 office-cleaner patients were more likely to have a high RdRp(Ct) value of PCR (median: 34.17 vs. 24.99; p = 0.035) and E(Ct) value of PCR (median: 32.30 vs. 24.74; p = 0.045). All office cleaner patients (100%) had a ground glass opacity in both lobes. Regarding segmental lung involvement of CT, two patients (100%) had a lesion in the right middle lobe, which invaded the whole lobe later. This implies that the fomite might be a selective risk factor of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Izzotti A, Grasselli E, Barbaresi M, Bixio M, Colombo M, Pfeffer U, Pulliero A, Sossai D, Borneto A, Boccaccio A, Manfredi V, Bassetti M, Nicosia E, Tiso M. Development of an integrated environmental monitoring protocol for SARS-CoV-2 contamination. Applications at the IRCSS San Martino Polyclinic Hospital in Genoa, Italy. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 209:112790. [PMID: 35104484 PMCID: PMC8800503 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.112790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND Environmental sampling of SARS-CoV-2 is a fundamental tool for evaluating the effectiveness of non-specific prophylaxis measures in counteracting virus spread. The purpose of our work was to evaluate the effectiveness of the different sampling methods in the hospital setting to assess their correlation with the structural, functional, and operational situation of the monitored departments and to define the dynamics of the spread of the virus in indoor environments. METHODS The monitoring (air bubbling sampling, surface wipe test) was carried out at the San Martino Polyclinic Hospital (Genoa, Italy) in the period since April 2020 to June 2021. The presence of viral RNA in the collected samples was evaluated by qPCR. The infection capacity of the samples collected was also evaluated by an in vitro challenge test on cells sensitive to SARS-CoV-2 infection. RESULTS The percentage of positivity with respect to the number of tests performed (sensitivity) were air bubbler 50%, wipe test 17%, and challenge test 11%. Only 20% of the samples tested positive in the wipe test and 43% of the samples tested positive in the bubbler sampling were also positive in the challenge test. All the positivity obtained was detected at a distance of less than 2 m and height of less than 1.5 from COVID-19 patients. CONCLUSIONS Environmental contamination from SARS-CoV-2 detected at the San Martino Polyclinic Hospital is found lower than similar assessments performed in other hospitals both in Italy and abroad. Our study predicted that environmental monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 must be carried out in an integrated way by not using a single sampling method, as each individual test has a different biological significance and performance. However, the virus detected by wipe test only is often a degraded viral fragment and not an intact infecting virion.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Izzotti
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy; Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Italy.
| | - E Grasselli
- Life Sciences Department, University of Genoa, Italy.
| | - M Barbaresi
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy.
| | - M Bixio
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy.
| | - M Colombo
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy.
| | - U Pfeffer
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy.
| | - A Pulliero
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, Italy.
| | - D Sossai
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy.
| | - A Borneto
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy.
| | | | | | - M Bassetti
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy; Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, Italy.
| | - E Nicosia
- Environmental Department, Ligurian Region, Italy.
| | - M Tiso
- Life Sciences Department, University of Genoa, Italy; MICAMO Environmental and Molecular Microbiology - Spin-Off University of Genoa, Italy.
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12
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Dinoi A, Feltracco M, Chirizzi D, Trabucco S, Conte M, Gregoris E, Barbaro E, La Bella G, Ciccarese G, Belosi F, La Salandra G, Gambaro A, Contini D. A review on measurements of SARS-CoV-2 genetic material in air in outdoor and indoor environments: Implication for airborne transmission. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 809:151137. [PMID: 34699823 PMCID: PMC8539199 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has been object of debate in the scientific community since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic. This mechanism of transmission could arise from virus-laden aerosol released by infected individuals and it is influenced by several factors. Among these, the concentration and size distribution of virus-laden particles play an important role. The knowledge regarding aerosol transmission increases as new evidence is collected in different studies, even if it is not yet available a standard protocol regarding air sampling and analysis, which can create difficulties in the interpretation and application of results. This work reports a systematic review of current knowledge gained by 73 published papers on experimental determination of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in air comparing different environments: outdoors, indoor hospitals and healthcare settings, and public community indoors. Selected papers furnished 77 datasets: outdoor studies (9/77, 11.7%) and indoor studies (68/77. 88.3%). The indoor datasets in hospitals were the vast majority (58/68, 85.3%), and the remaining (10/68, 14.7%) were classified as community indoors. The fraction of studies having positive samples, as well as positivity rates (i.e. ratios between positive and total samples) are significantly larger in hospitals compared to the other typologies of sites. Contamination of surfaces was more frequent (in indoor datasets) compared to contamination of air samples; however, the average positivity rate was lower compared to that of air. Concentrations of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in air were highly variables and, on average, lower in outdoors compared to indoors. Among indoors, concentrations in community indoors appear to be lower than those in hospitals and healthcare settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adelaide Dinoi
- Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima (ISAC-CNR), Str. Prv. Lecce-Monteroni km 1.2, Lecce, Italy
| | - Matteo Feltracco
- Istituto di Scienze Polari (ISP-CNR), Via Torino 155, Venice, Mestre, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Informatica e Statistica, Università Ca' Foscari di Venezia, Via Torino 155, Venezia, Mestre, Italy
| | - Daniela Chirizzi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata (IZSPB), Via Manfredonia 20, Foggia, Italy
| | - Sara Trabucco
- Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima (ISAC-CNR), Via Gobetti 101, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marianna Conte
- Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima (ISAC-CNR), Str. Prv. Lecce-Monteroni km 1.2, Lecce, Italy; Laboratory for Observations and Analyses of Earth and Climate, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA), 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - Elena Gregoris
- Istituto di Scienze Polari (ISP-CNR), Via Torino 155, Venice, Mestre, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Informatica e Statistica, Università Ca' Foscari di Venezia, Via Torino 155, Venezia, Mestre, Italy
| | - Elena Barbaro
- Istituto di Scienze Polari (ISP-CNR), Via Torino 155, Venice, Mestre, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Informatica e Statistica, Università Ca' Foscari di Venezia, Via Torino 155, Venezia, Mestre, Italy
| | - Gianfranco La Bella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata (IZSPB), Via Manfredonia 20, Foggia, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Ciccarese
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata (IZSPB), Via Manfredonia 20, Foggia, Italy
| | - Franco Belosi
- Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima (ISAC-CNR), Via Gobetti 101, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giovanna La Salandra
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata (IZSPB), Via Manfredonia 20, Foggia, Italy
| | - Andrea Gambaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, Informatica e Statistica, Università Ca' Foscari di Venezia, Via Torino 155, Venezia, Mestre, Italy
| | - Daniele Contini
- Istituto di Scienze dell'Atmosfera e del Clima (ISAC-CNR), Str. Prv. Lecce-Monteroni km 1.2, Lecce, Italy.
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13
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Angel DM, Gao D, DeLay K, Lin EZ, Eldred J, Arnold W, Santiago R, Redlich C, Martinello RA, Sherman JD, Peccia J, Godri Pollitt KJ. Development and Application of a Polydimethylsiloxane-Based Passive Air Sampler to Assess Personal Exposure to SARS-CoV-2. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2022; 9:153-159. [PMID: 37566382 PMCID: PMC8768000 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Exhaled respiratory droplets and aerosols can carry infectious viruses and are an important mode of transmission for COVID-19. Recent studies have been successful in detecting airborne SARS-CoV-2 RNA in indoor settings using active sampling methods. The cost, size, and maintenance of these samplers, however, limit their long-term monitoring ability in high-risk transmission areas. As an alternative, passive samplers can be small, lightweight, and inexpensive and do not require electrical power or maintenance for continual operation. Integration of passive samplers into wearable designs can be used to better understand personal exposure to the respiratory virus. This study evaluated the use of a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based passive sampler to assess personal exposure to aerosol and droplet SARS-CoV-2. The rate of uptake of virus-laden aerosol on PDMS was determined in lab-based rotating drum experiments to estimate time-weighted averaged airborne viral concentrations from passive sampler viral loading. The passive sampler was then embedded in a wearable clip design and distributed to community members across Connecticut to surveil personal SARS-CoV-2 exposure. The virus was detected on clips worn by five of the 62 participants (8%) with personal exposure ranging from 4 to 112 copies of SARS-CoV-2 RNA/m3, predominantly in indoor restaurant settings. Our findings demonstrate that PDMS-based passive samplers may serve as a useful exposure assessment tool for airborne viral exposure in real-world high-risk settings and provide avenues for early detection of potential cases and guidance on site-specific infection control protocols that preempt community transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darryl M. Angel
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United
States
| | - Dong Gao
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences,
Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut 06520,
United States
| | - Kayley DeLay
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United
States
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences,
Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut 06520,
United States
| | - Elizabeth Z. Lin
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences,
Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut 06520,
United States
| | - Jacob Eldred
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials
Science, Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, United
States
| | - Wyatt Arnold
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United
States
| | - Romero Santiago
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale
School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United
States
| | - Carrie Redlich
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale
School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United
States
| | - Richard A. Martinello
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale
School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United
States
- Department of Infection Prevention, Yale
New Haven Health System, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United
States
- Department of Pediatrics, Yale School of
Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United
States
| | - Jodi D. Sherman
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences,
Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut 06520,
United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, Yale School of
Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510, United
States
| | - Jordan Peccia
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United
States
| | - Krystal J. Godri Pollitt
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,
Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science, Yale
University, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, United
States
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences,
Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut 06520,
United States
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14
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Ribaric NL, Vincent C, Jonitz G, Hellinger A, Ribaric G. Hidden hazards of SARS-CoV-2 transmission in hospitals: A systematic review. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e12968. [PMID: 34862811 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Despite their considerable prevalence, dynamics of hospital-associated COVID-19 are still not well understood. We assessed the nature and extent of air- and surface-borne SARS-CoV-2 contamination in hospitals to identify hazards of viral dispersal and enable more precise targeting of infection prevention and control. PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Medrxiv, and Biorxiv were searched for relevant articles until June 1, 2021. In total, 51 observational cross-sectional studies comprising 6258 samples were included. SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in one in six air and surface samples throughout the hospital and up to 7.62 m away from the nearest patients. The highest detection rates and viral concentrations were reported from patient areas. The most frequently and heavily contaminated types of surfaces comprised air outlets and hospital floors. Viable virus was recovered from the air and fomites. Among size-fractionated air samples, only fine aerosols contained viable virus. Aerosol-generating procedures significantly increased (ORair = 2.56 (1.46-4.51); ORsurface = 1.95 (1.27-2.99)), whereas patient masking significantly decreased air- and surface-borne SARS-CoV-2 contamination (ORair = 0.41 (0.25-0.70); ORsurface = 0.45 (0.34-0.61)). The nature and extent of hospital contamination indicate that SARS-CoV-2 is likely dispersed conjointly through several transmission routes, including short- and long-range aerosol, droplet, and fomite transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noach Leon Ribaric
- Faculty of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Charles Vincent
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Günther Jonitz
- German Medical Association, Berlin, Germany
- State Chamber of Physicians Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Achim Hellinger
- Department of General, Visceral, Endocrine and Oncologic Surgery, Fulda Hospital, University Medicine Marburg Campus Fulda, Fulda, Germany
| | - Goran Ribaric
- Johnson & Johnson Institute, Norderstedt, Germany
- MedTech Europe, Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and Healthcare Associated Infections (HAI) Sector Group, Brussels, Belgium
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15
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Gonçalves J, da Silva PG, Reis L, Nascimento MSJ, Koritnik T, Paragi M, Mesquita JR. Surface contamination with SARS-CoV-2: A systematic review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 798:149231. [PMID: 34325141 PMCID: PMC8302502 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Little is known about contaminated surfaces as a route of transmission for SARS-CoV- 2 and a systematic review is missing and urgently needed to provide guidelines for future research studies. As such, the aim of the present study was to review the current scientific knowledge and to summarize the existing studies in which SARS-CoV-2 has been detected in inanimate surfaces. This systematic review includes studies since the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, available in PubMed/MEDLINE and Scopus. Duplicate publications were removed, and exclusion criteria was applied to eliminate unrelated studies, resulting in 37 eligible publications. The present study provides the first overview of SARS-CoV-2 detection in surfaces. The highest detection rates occurred in hospitals and healthcare facilities with COVID-19 patients. Contamination with SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces was detected in a wide range of facilities and surfaces. There is a lack of studies performing viability testing for SARS-CoV-2 recovered from surfaces, and consequently it is not yet possible to assess the potential for transmission via surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Gonçalves
- Department for Public Health Microbiology Ljubljana, Centre for Medical Microbiology, National Laboratory of Health, Environment and Food, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Institute of Sustainable Processes, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain.
| | - Priscilla Gomes da Silva
- Abel Salazar Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Epidemiology Research Unit (EPIunit), Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Luís Reis
- Abel Salazar Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Tom Koritnik
- Department for Public Health Microbiology Ljubljana, Centre for Medical Microbiology, National Laboratory of Health, Environment and Food, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Metka Paragi
- Department for Public Health Microbiology Ljubljana, Centre for Medical Microbiology, National Laboratory of Health, Environment and Food, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - João R Mesquita
- Abel Salazar Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Epidemiology Research Unit (EPIunit), Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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16
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The Impact of Large Mobile Air Purifiers on Aerosol Concentration in Classrooms and the Reduction of Airborne Transmission of SARS-CoV-2. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111523. [PMID: 34770037 PMCID: PMC8583054 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, an increased risk of infection by virus-containing aerosols indoors is assumed. Especially in schools, the duration of stay is long and the number of people in the rooms is large, increasing the risk of infection. This problem particularly affects schools without pre-installed ventilation systems that are equipped with filters and/or operate with fresh air. Here, the aerosol concentration is reduced by natural ventilation. In this context, we are investigating the effect of large mobile air purifiers (AP) with HEPA filters on particle concentration and their suitability for classroom use in a primary school in Germany. The three tested APs differ significantly in their air outlet characteristics. Measurements of the number of particles, the particle size distribution, and the CO2 concentration were carried out in the classroom with students (April/May 2021) and with an aerosol generator without students. In this regard, the use of APs leads to a substantial reduction of aerosol particles in the considered particle size range of 0.178-17.78 µm. At the same time, the three APs are found to have differences in their particle decay rate, noise level, and flow velocity. In addition to the measurements, the effect of various influencing parameters on the potential inhaled particle dose was investigated using a calculation model. The parameters considered include the duration of stay, particle concentration in exhaled air, respiratory flow rate, virus lifetime, ventilation interval, ventilation efficiency, AP volumetric flow, as well as room size. Based on the resulting effect diagrams, significant recommendations can be derived for reducing the risk of infection from virus-laden aerosols. Finally, the measurements were compared to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling, as such tools can aid the optimal placement and configuration of APs and can be used to study the effect of the spread of aerosols from a source in the classroom.
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17
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Faezeh Seif, Noorimotlagh Z, Mirzaee SA, Kalantar M, Barati B, Fard ME, Fard NK. The SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) pandemic in hospital: An insight into environmental surfaces contamination, disinfectants' efficiency, and estimation of plastic waste production. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 202:111809. [PMID: 34333010 PMCID: PMC8320441 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
The current COVID-19 pandemic that is caused by SARS-CoV-2 has led all the people around the globe to implement preventive measures such as environmental cleaning using alcohol-based materials, and social distancing in order to prevent and minimize viral transmission via fomites. The role of environmental surface contamination in viral transmission in within hospital wards is still debatable, especially considering the spread of new variants of the virus in the world. The present comprehensive study aims to investigate environmental surface contamination in different wards of a hospital as well as the efficacy of two common disinfectants for virus inactivation, and tries to produce an estimate of plastic residue pollution as an environmental side effect of the pandemic. With regard to environmental surface contamination, 76 samples were taken from different wards of the hospital, from which 40 were positive. These samples were taken from contaminated environmental surfaces such as patient bed handles, the nursing station, toilet door handles, cell phones, patient toilet sinks, toilet bowls, and patient's pillows, which are regularly-touched surfaces and can pose a high risk for transmission of the virus. The number of positive samples also reveals that SARS-CoV-2 can survive on inanimate surfaces after disinfection by ethanol 70 % and sodium hypochlorite (0.001 %). The results correspond to the time that the VOC 202012/01 (lineage B.1.1.7) had emerged in the hospital and this should be considered that this variant could possibly have different traits, characteristics, and level of persistence in the environment. The plastic waste as an environmental side effect of the pandemic was also investigated and it was confirmed that the amount of plastic residue for a single (RT) PCR confirmatory test for COVID-19 diagnosis is 821.778 g of plastic residue/test. As a result, it is recommended that for improving plastic waste management programs, considering challenges such as minimizing plastic waste pollution, optimization of gas control technologies in incinerators, process redesign, reduction of single-use plastics and PPE, etc. Is of utmost importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faezeh Seif
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Sciences, Shoushtar, Iran.
| | - Zahra Noorimotlagh
- Health & Environment Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
| | - Seyyed Abbas Mirzaee
- Health & Environment Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
| | - Mojtaba Kalantar
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Sciences, Shoushtar, Iran.
| | - Barat Barati
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Sciences, Shoushtar, Iran.
| | - Mahdi Emamian Fard
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Sciences, Shoushtar, Iran.
| | - Nozar Kalantar Fard
- Department of Public Health, Shoushtar Faculty of Medical Sciences, Shoushtar, Iran.
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18
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Young S, Pollard RJ, Shapiro FE. Pushing the Envelope: New Patients, Procedures, and Personal Protective Equipment in the Ambulatory Surgical Center for the COVID-19 Era. Adv Anesth 2021; 39:97-112. [PMID: 34715983 PMCID: PMC8313519 DOI: 10.1016/j.aan.2021.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Steven Young
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, 300 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Harvard Medical School
| | - Richard J Pollard
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, 300 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA; Harvard Medical School
| | - Fred E Shapiro
- Harvard Medical School; Department of Anesthesia, Mass Eye and Ear Infirmary, 243 Charles Street, Suite 712, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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19
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Fogerty RL, Aniskiewicz M, Hedges T, Ryan S, Brien P, Beley P, Tangredi M, Mitchell M, d'Atri H, Jansen L, Williams E, LoRusso F, Sevilla M, Menillo J, Doyle D, Parrott H, Sheehan S, Martinello RA, Holmes M. Inpatient Capacity Management during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Yale New Haven Hospital Capacity Expansion Experience. Hosp Top 2021; 100:69-76. [PMID: 34470597 DOI: 10.1080/00185868.2021.1926383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The 2019 SARS-CoV2 virus presented a capacity demand scenario for Yale New Haven Hospital. The response was created with a focus on clinical needs, but was also driven by the unique characteristics of the buildings within our institution. These physical characteristics were considered in the response as a safety measure as little was known about the transmissibility risk in the acute hospital setting of SARS-CoV2 at the time of response. The lessons learned in capacity expansion to meet the potentially catastrophic demand for acute care services due to a novel, poorly understood pathogen are discussed here.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sean Ryan
- Yale New Haven Health, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Richard A Martinello
- Yale New Haven Health, New Haven, CT, USA.,School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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20
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Escandón K, Rasmussen AL, Bogoch II, Murray EJ, Escandón K, Popescu SV, Kindrachuk J. COVID-19 false dichotomies and a comprehensive review of the evidence regarding public health, COVID-19 symptomatology, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, mask wearing, and reinfection. BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21:710. [PMID: 34315427 PMCID: PMC8314268 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-021-06357-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Scientists across disciplines, policymakers, and journalists have voiced frustration at the unprecedented polarization and misinformation around coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Several false dichotomies have been used to polarize debates while oversimplifying complex issues. In this comprehensive narrative review, we deconstruct six common COVID-19 false dichotomies, address the evidence on these topics, identify insights relevant to effective pandemic responses, and highlight knowledge gaps and uncertainties. The topics of this review are: 1) Health and lives vs. economy and livelihoods, 2) Indefinite lockdown vs. unlimited reopening, 3) Symptomatic vs. asymptomatic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, 4) Droplet vs. aerosol transmission of SARS-CoV-2, 5) Masks for all vs. no masking, and 6) SARS-CoV-2 reinfection vs. no reinfection. We discuss the importance of multidisciplinary integration (health, social, and physical sciences), multilayered approaches to reducing risk ("Emmentaler cheese model"), harm reduction, smart masking, relaxation of interventions, and context-sensitive policymaking for COVID-19 response plans. We also address the challenges in understanding the broad clinical presentation of COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and SARS-CoV-2 reinfection. These key issues of science and public health policy have been presented as false dichotomies during the pandemic. However, they are hardly binary, simple, or uniform, and therefore should not be framed as polar extremes. We urge a nuanced understanding of the science and caution against black-or-white messaging, all-or-nothing guidance, and one-size-fits-all approaches. There is a need for meaningful public health communication and science-informed policies that recognize shades of gray, uncertainties, local context, and social determinants of health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Escandón
- School of Medicine, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia.
| | - Angela L Rasmussen
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
- Georgetown Center for Global Health Science and Security, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Isaac I Bogoch
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Toronto, Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Canada
| | - Eleanor J Murray
- Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, USA
| | - Karina Escandón
- Department of Anthropology, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Saskia V Popescu
- Georgetown Center for Global Health Science and Security, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
- Schar School of Policy and Government, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Jason Kindrachuk
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
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21
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Vicente VA, Lustosa BPR, Grisolia ME, Pavini Beato C, Balsanelli E, de Souza Gubert Fruet V, Bordignon Nogueira M, Raboni SM, Carvalho KAT, Flôr IC, Ferreira Voidaleski M, Etchepare RG, Meis JF, Soccol VT, Souza EM. Environmental Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Virus RNA in Health Facilities in Brazil and a Systematic Review on Contamination Sources. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:3824. [PMID: 33917465 PMCID: PMC8038740 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18073824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 environmental monitoring can track the rate of viral contamination and can be used to establish preventive measures. This study aimed to detect by RT-PCR the presence of SARS-CoV-2 from inert surface samples in public health settings with a literature review about surface contamination and its burden on spread virus. Samples were collected from health settings in Curitiba, Brazil, between July and December 2020. A literature review was conducted using PRISMA. A total of 711 environmental surface samples were collected from outpatient areas, dental units, doctors' offices, COVID-19 evaluation areas, and hospital units, of which 35 (4.9%) were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. The frequency of environmental contamination was higher in primary care units than in hospital settings. The virus was detected on doctors' personal items. Remarkably, the previously disinfected dental chair samples tested positive. These findings agree with those of other studies in which SARS-CoV-2 was found on inanimate surfaces. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA on surfaces in public health settings, including those not meant to treat COVID-19, indicates widespread environmental contamination. Therefore, the intensification of disinfection measures for external hospital areas may be important for controlling community COVID-19 dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vania Aparecida Vicente
- Engineering Bioprocess and Biotechnology Graduate Program, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (B.P.R.L.); (M.E.G.); (J.F.M.); (V.T.S.)
- Microbiology, Parasitology and Pathology Graduate Program, Department of Basic Pathology, Microbiology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (I.C.F.); (M.F.V.)
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Basic Pathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | - Bruno Paulo Rodrigues Lustosa
- Engineering Bioprocess and Biotechnology Graduate Program, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (B.P.R.L.); (M.E.G.); (J.F.M.); (V.T.S.)
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Basic Pathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | - Maria Eduarda Grisolia
- Engineering Bioprocess and Biotechnology Graduate Program, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (B.P.R.L.); (M.E.G.); (J.F.M.); (V.T.S.)
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Basic Pathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | - Caroline Pavini Beato
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Basic Pathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | - Eduardo Balsanelli
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | | | - Meri Bordignon Nogueira
- Virology Laboratory, Clinical Hospital, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 80060-900, Brazil; (M.B.N.); (S.M.R.)
| | - Sonia Maria Raboni
- Virology Laboratory, Clinical Hospital, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 80060-900, Brazil; (M.B.N.); (S.M.R.)
| | - Katherine Athayde Teixeira Carvalho
- The Pelé Pequeno Príncipe Institute, Child and Adolescent Health Research & Pequeno Príncipe Faculties and Pequeno Príncipe Hospital, Curitiba 802450-0260, Brazil;
| | - Izadora Cervelin Flôr
- Microbiology, Parasitology and Pathology Graduate Program, Department of Basic Pathology, Microbiology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (I.C.F.); (M.F.V.)
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Basic Pathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | - Morgana Ferreira Voidaleski
- Microbiology, Parasitology and Pathology Graduate Program, Department of Basic Pathology, Microbiology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (I.C.F.); (M.F.V.)
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Department of Basic Pathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | - Ramiro Gonçalves Etchepare
- Technology Sector, Department of Hydraulics and Sanitation, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
| | - Jacques F. Meis
- Engineering Bioprocess and Biotechnology Graduate Program, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (B.P.R.L.); (M.E.G.); (J.F.M.); (V.T.S.)
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius-Wilhelmina Hospital, 6525GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Vanete Thomaz Soccol
- Engineering Bioprocess and Biotechnology Graduate Program, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil; (B.P.R.L.); (M.E.G.); (J.F.M.); (V.T.S.)
| | - Emanuel Maltempi Souza
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba 81530-000, Brazil;
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22
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Noorimotlagh Z, Jaafarzadeh N, Martínez SS, Mirzaee SA. A systematic review of possible airborne transmission of the COVID-19 virus (SARS-CoV-2) in the indoor air environment. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 193:110612. [PMID: 33309820 PMCID: PMC7726526 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
At the end of December 2019, the rapid spread of the COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) disease and, subsequently, deaths around the world, lead to the declaration of the pandemic situation in the world. At the beginning of the epidemic, much attention is paid to person-to-person transmission, disinfection of virus-contaminated surfaces, and social distancing. However, there is much debate about the routes of disease transmission, including airborne transmission, so it is important to elucidate the exact route of transmission of the COVID-19 disease. To this end, the first systematic review study was conducted to comprehensively search all databases to collect studies on airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in indoor air environments. In total, 14 relevant and eligible studies were included. Based on the findings, there is a great possibility of airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in indoor air environments. Therefore, some procedures are presented such as improving ventilation, especially in hospitals and crowded places, and observing the interpersonal distance of more than 2 m so that experts in indoor air quality consider them to improve the indoor air environments. Finally, in addition to the recommendations of the centers and official authorities such as hand washing and observing social distancing, the route of air transmission should also be considered to further protect health personnel, patients in hospitals, and the public in other Public Buildings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Noorimotlagh
- Biotechnology and Medical Plants Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
| | - Neemat Jaafarzadeh
- Environmental Technologies Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran.
| | - Susana Silva Martínez
- Centro de Investigación en Ingeniería y Ciencias Aplicadas, Av. Universidad 1001, Col. Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico.
| | - Seyyed Abbas Mirzaee
- Zoonotic Diseases Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran.
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23
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Llandro H, Allison JR, Currie CC, Edwards DC, Bowes C, Durham J, Jakubovics N, Rostami N, Holliday R. Evaluating splatter and settled aerosol during orthodontic debonding: implications for the COVID-19 pandemic. Br Dent J 2021:10.1038/s41415-020-2503-9. [PMID: 33414542 PMCID: PMC7789079 DOI: 10.1038/s41415-020-2503-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Dental procedures produce splatter and aerosol which have potential to spread pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2. Mixed evidence exists on the aerosol-generating potential of orthodontic procedures. The aim of this study was to evaluate splatter and/or settled aerosol contamination during orthodontic debonding.Material and methods Fluorescein dye was introduced into the oral cavity of a mannequin. Orthodontic debonding was undertaken with surrounding samples collected. Composite bonding cement was removed using a speed-increasing handpiece with dental suction. A positive control condition included a water-cooled, high-speed air-turbine crown preparation. Samples were analysed using digital image analysis and spectrofluorometric analysis.Results Contamination across the eight-metre experimental rig was 3% of the positive control on spectrofluorometric analysis and 0% on image analysis. Contamination of the operator, assistant and mannequin was 8%, 25% and 28% of the positive control, respectively.Discussion Splatter and settled aerosol from orthodontic debonding is distributed mainly within the immediate locality of the mannequin. Widespread contamination was not observed.Conclusions Orthodontic debonding is unlikely to produce widespread contamination via splatter and settled aerosol, but localised contamination is likely. This highlights the importance of personal protective equipment for the operator, assistant and patient. Further work is required to examine suspended aerosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley Llandro
- Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - James R Allison
- Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Charlotte C Currie
- Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - David C Edwards
- Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Charlotte Bowes
- Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | - Justin Durham
- Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, UK
| | | | | | - Richard Holliday
- Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK; School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, UK.
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24
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Birgand G, Peiffer-Smadja N, Fournier S, Kerneis S, Lescure FX, Lucet JC. Assessment of Air Contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in Hospital Settings. JAMA Netw Open 2020. [PMID: 33355679 DOI: 10.1001/jamaetworkopen.2020.33232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Controversy remains regarding the transmission routes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). OBJECTIVE To review current evidence on air contamination with SARS-CoV-2 in hospital settings and the factors associated with contamination, including viral load and particle size. EVIDENCE REVIEW The MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science databases were systematically queried for original English-language articles detailing SARS-CoV-2 air contamination in hospital settings between January 1 and October 27, 2020. This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. The positivity rate of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA and culture were described and compared according to the setting, clinical context, air ventilation system, and distance from patients. The SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies per meter cubed of air were pooled, and their distribution was described by hospital areas. Particle sizes and SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies or median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) per meter cubed were analyzed after categorization as less than 1 μm, from 1 to 4 μm, and greater than 4 μm. FINDINGS Among 2284 records identified, 24 cross-sectional observational studies were included in the review. Overall, 82 of 471 air samples (17.4%) from close patient environments were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, with a significantly higher positivity rate in intensive care unit settings (intensive care unit, 27 of 107 [25.2%] vs non-intensive care unit, 39 of 364 [10.7%]; P < .001). There was no difference according to the distance from patients (≤1 m, 3 of 118 [2.5%] vs >1-5 m, 13 of 236 [5.5%]; P = .22). The positivity rate was 5 of 21 air samples (23.8%) in toilets, 20 of 242 (8.3%) in clinical areas, 15 of 122 (12.3%) in staff areas, and 14 of 42 (33.3%) in public areas. A total of 81 viral cultures were performed across 5 studies, and 7 (8.6%) from 2 studies were positive, all from close patient environments. The median (interquartile range) SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations varied from 1.0 × 103 copies/m3 (0.4 × 103 to 3.1 × 103 copies/m3) in clinical areas to 9.7 × 103 copies/m3 (5.1 × 103 to 14.3 × 103 copies/m3) in the air of toilets or bathrooms. Protective equipment removal and patient rooms had high concentrations per titer of SARS-CoV-2 (varying from 0.9 × 103 to 40 × 103 copies/m3 and 3.8 × 103 to 7.2 × 103 TCID50/m3), with aerosol size distributions that showed peaks in the region of particle size less than 1 μm; staff offices had peaks in the region of particle size greater than 4 μm. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In this systematic review, the air close to and distant from patients with coronavirus disease 2019 was frequently contaminated with SARS-CoV-2 RNA; however, few of these samples contained viable viruses. High viral loads found in toilets and bathrooms, staff areas, and public hallways suggest that these areas should be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Birgand
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Nathan Peiffer-Smadja
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Sandra Fournier
- Central Infection Control Team, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Solen Kerneis
- Equipe Mobile d'Infectiologie, Hôpital Cochin, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe de Prévention du Risque Infectieux, Hôpital Bichat, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - François-Xavier Lescure
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Lucet
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Infection Control Unit, Paris, France
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25
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Birgand G, Peiffer-Smadja N, Fournier S, Kerneis S, Lescure FX, Lucet JC. Assessment of Air Contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in Hospital Settings. JAMA Netw Open 2020; 3:e2033232. [PMID: 33355679 PMCID: PMC7758808 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Controversy remains regarding the transmission routes of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). OBJECTIVE To review current evidence on air contamination with SARS-CoV-2 in hospital settings and the factors associated with contamination, including viral load and particle size. EVIDENCE REVIEW The MEDLINE, Embase, and Web of Science databases were systematically queried for original English-language articles detailing SARS-CoV-2 air contamination in hospital settings between January 1 and October 27, 2020. This study was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. The positivity rate of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA and culture were described and compared according to the setting, clinical context, air ventilation system, and distance from patients. The SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies per meter cubed of air were pooled, and their distribution was described by hospital areas. Particle sizes and SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in copies or median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) per meter cubed were analyzed after categorization as less than 1 μm, from 1 to 4 μm, and greater than 4 μm. FINDINGS Among 2284 records identified, 24 cross-sectional observational studies were included in the review. Overall, 82 of 471 air samples (17.4%) from close patient environments were positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA, with a significantly higher positivity rate in intensive care unit settings (intensive care unit, 27 of 107 [25.2%] vs non-intensive care unit, 39 of 364 [10.7%]; P < .001). There was no difference according to the distance from patients (≤1 m, 3 of 118 [2.5%] vs >1-5 m, 13 of 236 [5.5%]; P = .22). The positivity rate was 5 of 21 air samples (23.8%) in toilets, 20 of 242 (8.3%) in clinical areas, 15 of 122 (12.3%) in staff areas, and 14 of 42 (33.3%) in public areas. A total of 81 viral cultures were performed across 5 studies, and 7 (8.6%) from 2 studies were positive, all from close patient environments. The median (interquartile range) SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations varied from 1.0 × 103 copies/m3 (0.4 × 103 to 3.1 × 103 copies/m3) in clinical areas to 9.7 × 103 copies/m3 (5.1 × 103 to 14.3 × 103 copies/m3) in the air of toilets or bathrooms. Protective equipment removal and patient rooms had high concentrations per titer of SARS-CoV-2 (varying from 0.9 × 103 to 40 × 103 copies/m3 and 3.8 × 103 to 7.2 × 103 TCID50/m3), with aerosol size distributions that showed peaks in the region of particle size less than 1 μm; staff offices had peaks in the region of particle size greater than 4 μm. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In this systematic review, the air close to and distant from patients with coronavirus disease 2019 was frequently contaminated with SARS-CoV-2 RNA; however, few of these samples contained viable viruses. High viral loads found in toilets and bathrooms, staff areas, and public hallways suggest that these areas should be carefully considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Birgand
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire de Nantes, Nantes, France
| | - Nathan Peiffer-Smadja
- National Institute of Health Research Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infection and Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Sandra Fournier
- Central Infection Control Team, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Solen Kerneis
- Equipe Mobile d’Infectiologie, Hôpital Cochin, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe de Prévention du Risque Infectieux, Hôpital Bichat, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
| | - François-Xavier Lescure
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, Infectious Diseases Unit, Paris, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Universitaire Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Lucet
- INSERM, IAME, UMR 1137, Paris, France
- Equipe Operationnelle d'Hygiène, Siège Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat–Claude Bernard, Infection Control Unit, Paris, France
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26
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Is it wise not to include hair and shoe covers in personal protective equipment (PPE) recommendations? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2020; 42:1412. [PMID: 33118895 PMCID: PMC8160485 DOI: 10.1017/ice.2020.1306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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