1
|
Xiong H, Shen Z. Tissue-resident memory T cells in immunotherapy and immune-related adverse events by immune checkpoint inhibitor. Int J Cancer 2024; 155:193-202. [PMID: 38554117 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.34940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024]
Abstract
Tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) are a specialized subset of T cells that reside in tissues and provide long-term protective immunity against pathogens that enter the body through that specific tissue. TRM cells have specific phenotype and reside preferentially in barrier tissues. Recent studies have revealed that TRM cells are the main target of immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy since their role in cancer immunosurveillance. Furthermore, TRM cells also play a crucial part in pathogenesis of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Here, we provide a concise review of biological characteristics of TRM cells, and the major advances and recent findings regarding their involvement in immune checkpoint inhibitor immunotherapy and the corresponding irAEs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Xiong
- Department of Dermatology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhu Shen
- Department of Dermatology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yoon SA, Lim Y, Byeon HR, Jung J, Ma S, Hong MG, Kim D, Song EJ, Nam YD, Seo JG, Lee SN. Heat-killed Akkermansia muciniphila ameliorates allergic airway inflammation in mice. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1386428. [PMID: 38784796 PMCID: PMC11111871 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1386428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Allergic asthma (AA) is a common inflammatory airway disease characterized by increased airway hyper-responsiveness (AHR), inflammation, and remodeling. Akkermansia muciniphila is a strictly anaerobic bacterium residing in the gut and is a promising next-generation probiotic to improve metabolic inflammatory syndrome. A recent study suggested the beneficial effect of live A. muciniphila on allergic airway inflammation (AAI) in mice. However, whether the heat-killed form can improve AAI requires further investigation. Mice sensitized and challenged with house dust mites (HDM) develop AA hallmarks including inflammatory cell infiltration, goblet cell hyperplasia, and subepithelial collagen deposition in the lungs. These phenomena were reversed by oral administration of the heat-killed A. muciniphila strain EB-AMDK19 (AMDK19-HK) isolated from the feces of healthy Koreans. Furthermore, AMDK19-HK diminished the HDM-induced AHR to inhaled methacholine, lung mast cell accumulation, and serum HDM-specific IgE levels. It also led to the overall suppression of IL-4, IL-13, and eotaxin production in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids, and Il4, Il5, Il13, and Ccl17 gene expression in lung tissues. Moreover, AMDK19-HK suppressed Th2-associated cytokine production in the splenocytes of HDM-sensitized mice in vitro. Additionally, a combination of 16S rRNA gene sequencing and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) analysis in cecal samples revealed that AMDK19-HK modulated the relative abundance of circulating SCFA-associated gut genera, including a positive correlation with Lachnospiraceae_ NK4A136_group and a negative correlation with Lachnoclostridium and significantly increased cecal SCFA concentrations. Finally, AMDK19-HK improved intestinal mucosal barrier function. These results suggest that the oral administration of AMDK19-HK ameliorates HDM-induced AAI in mice by suppressing Th2-mediated immune responses and could have a protective effect against AA development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seol Ah Yoon
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Younggap Lim
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Rim Byeon
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiyeon Jung
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongho Ma
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Moon-Gi Hong
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Dohak Kim
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Ji Song
- Research Group of Personalized Diet, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Do Nam
- Research Group of Personalized Diet, Korea Food Research Institute, Wanju-gun, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Gu Seo
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Nam Lee
- R&D Center, Enterobiome Inc., Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shapiro A, Caballes NWS, Vera RN, Klein BS, Brennan PJ, Wu YF, Wiesner DL. Sensitization with Fungal Protease Allergen Establishes Long-Lived, Allergenic Th Cell Memory in the Lung. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2024; 212:1420-1427. [PMID: 38488501 PMCID: PMC11037450 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2300694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects millions of individuals worldwide. Exposure to allergens produced by a variety of otherwise harmless microbes, including fungi, predisposes individuals to immunopathologic disease upon subsequent encounters with allergen. We developed a mouse model that employs a purified protease produced by Aspergillus (Asp f 13) to investigate the contributions of CD4+ Th cells to recurrent lung inflammation. Notably, memory CD4+ T cells enhanced the eosinophil response of sensitized/rechallenged animals. In addition, memory CD4+ T cells maintained allergenic features, including expression of GATA-binding protein 3 and IL-5. Th2 memory T cells persisted in the peribronchiolar interstitium of the lung and expressed markers of tissue residence, such as CD69, CCR8, and IL-33R. Lastly, we identified a peptide epitope contained within Asp f 13 and generated a peptide-MHC class II tetramer. Using these tools, we further demonstrated the durability and exquisite sensitivity of memory T cells in promoting lung eosinophilia. Our data highlight important features of memory T cells that strengthen the notion that memory T cells are principal drivers of eosinophilic disease in murine models of allergic sensitization and episodic airway inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Shapiro
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
- Department of Medicine, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
| | - Nicolas W S Caballes
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
- Department of Medicine, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
| | - Rebecca N Vera
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
- Department of Medicine, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
| | - Bruce S Klein
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
- Department of Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Paul J Brennan
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
- Department of Medicine, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
| | - Yen-Fei Wu
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
- Department of Medicine, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
| | - Darin L Wiesner
- Center for Immunity and Inflammation, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
- Department of Medicine, NJ Medical School, Rutgers-The State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kandel A, Li L, Wang Y, Tuo W, Xiao Z. Differentiation and Regulation of Bovine Th2 Cells In Vitro. Cells 2024; 13:738. [PMID: 38727273 PMCID: PMC11083891 DOI: 10.3390/cells13090738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Bovine Th2 cells have usually been characterized by IL4 mRNA expression, but it is unclear whether their IL4 protein expression corresponds to transcription. We found that grass-fed healthy beef cattle, which had been regularly exposed to parasites on the grass, had a low frequency of IL4+ Th2 cells during flow cytometry, similar to animals grown in feedlots. To assess the distribution of IL4+ CD4+ T cells across tissues, samples from the blood, spleen, abomasal (draining), and inguinal lymph nodes were examined, which revealed limited IL4 protein detection in the CD4+ T cells across the examined tissues. To determine if bovine CD4+ T cells may develop into Th2 cells, naïve cells were stimulated with anti-bovine CD3 under a Th2 differentiation kit in vitro. The cells produced primarily IFNγ proteins, with only a small fraction (<10%) co-expressing IL4 proteins. Quantitative PCR confirmed elevated IFNγ transcription but no significant change in IL4 transcription. Surprisingly, GATA3, the master regulator of IL4, was highest in naïve CD4+ T cells but was considerably reduced following differentiation. To determine if the differentiated cells were true Th2 cells, an unbiased proteomic assay was carried out. The assay identified 4212 proteins, 422 of which were differently expressed compared to those in naïve cells. Based on these differential proteins, Th2-related upstream components were predicted, including CD3, CD28, IL4, and IL33, demonstrating typical Th2 differentiation. To boost IL4 expression, T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation strength was reduced by lowering anti-CD3 concentrations. Consequently, weak TCR stimulation essentially abolished Th2 expansion and survival. In addition, extra recombinant bovine IL4 (rbIL4) was added during Th2 differentiation, but, despite enhanced expansion, the IL4 level remained unaltered. These findings suggest that, while bovine CD4+ T cells can respond to Th2 differentiation stimuli, the bovine IL4 pathway is not regulated in the same way as in mice and humans. Furthermore, Ostertagia ostertagi (OO) extract, a gastrointestinal nematode in cattle, inhibited signaling via CD3, CD28, IL4, and TLRs/MYD88, indicating that external pathogens can influence bovine Th2 differentiation. In conclusion, though bovine CD4+ T cells can respond to IL4-driven differentiation, IL4 expression is not a defining feature of differentiated bovine Th2 cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anmol Kandel
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; (A.K.); (L.L.)
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; (A.K.); (L.L.)
| | - Yan Wang
- Mass Spectrometry Facility, National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Wenbin Tuo
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA;
| | - Zhengguo Xiao
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; (A.K.); (L.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Park HW, Lee HS. IL-23 contributes to Particulate Matter induced allergic asthma in the early life of mice and promotes asthma susceptibility. J Mol Med (Berl) 2024; 102:129-142. [PMID: 37994911 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-023-02393-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Air pollutant exposure leads to and exacerbates respiratory diseases. Particulate Matter (PM) is a major deleterious factor in the pathophysiology of asthma. Nonetheless, studies on the effects and mechanisms of exposure in the early life of mice remain unresolved. This study aimed to investigate changes in allergic phenotypes and effects on allergen-specific memory T cells resulting from co-exposure of mice in the early life to PM and house dust mites (HDM) and to explore the role of interleukin-23 (IL-23) in this process. PM and low-dose HDM were administered intranasally in 4-day-old C57BL/6 mice. After confirming an increase in IL-23 expression in mouse lung tissues, changes in the asthma phenotype and lung effector/memory Th2 or Th17 cells were evaluated after intranasal administration of anti-IL-23 antibody (Ab) during co-exposure to PM and HDM. Evaluation was performed up to 7 weeks after the last administration. Co-exposure to PM and low-dose HDM resulted in increases in airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), eosinophils, neutrophils, and persistent Th2/Th17 effector/memory cells, which were all inhibited by anti-IL-23 Ab administration. When low-dose HDM was administered twice after a 7-week rest, mice exposed to PM and HDM during the previous early life period exhibited re-increases AHR, eosinophil count, HDM-specific IgG1, and effector/memory Th2 and Th17 cell populations. However, anti-IL-23 Ab administration during the early life period resulted in inhibition. Co-exposure to PM and low-dose HDM reinforced the allergic phenotypes and allergen-specific memory responses in early life of mice. During this process, IL-23 contributes to the enhancement of effector/memory Th2/Th17 cells and allergic phenotypes. KEY MESSAGES: PM-induced IL-23 expression, allergic responses in HDMinstilled mice of early life period. PM-induced effector/memory Th2/Th17 cells in HDMinstilled mice of early life period. Inhibition of IL-23 reduced the increase in allergic responses. Inhibition of IL-23 reduced the increase in allergic responses. After the resting period, HDM administration showed re-increase in allergic responses. Inhibition of IL-23 reduced the HDM-recall allergic responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heung-Woo Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Seung Lee
- Institute of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Biomedical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, 101 Daehak-Ro, Jongno-Gu, Seoul, 110-744, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Herrera-De La Mata S, Ramírez-Suástegui C, Mistry H, Castañeda-Castro FE, Kyyaly MA, Simon H, Liang S, Lau L, Barber C, Mondal M, Zhang H, Arshad SH, Kurukulaaratchy RJ, Vijayanand P, Seumois G. Cytotoxic CD4 + tissue-resident memory T cells are associated with asthma severity. MED 2023; 4:875-897.e8. [PMID: 37865091 PMCID: PMC10964988 DOI: 10.1016/j.medj.2023.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with severe uncontrolled asthma represent a distinct endotype with persistent airway inflammation and remodeling that is refractory to corticosteroid treatment. CD4+ TH2 cells play a central role in orchestrating asthma pathogenesis, and biologic therapies targeting their cytokine pathways have had promising outcomes. However, not all patients respond well to such treatment, and their effects are not always durable nor reverse airway remodeling. This observation raises the possibility that other CD4+ T cell subsets and their effector molecules may drive airway inflammation and remodeling. METHODS We performed single-cell transcriptome analysis of >50,000 airway CD4+ T cells isolated from bronchoalveolar lavage samples from 30 patients with mild and severe asthma. FINDINGS We observed striking heterogeneity in the nature of CD4+ T cells present in asthmatics' airways, with tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells making a dominant contribution. Notably, in severe asthmatics, a subset of CD4+ TRM cells (CD103-expressing) was significantly increased, comprising nearly 65% of all CD4+ T cells in the airways of male patients with severe asthma when compared to mild asthma (13%). This subset was enriched for transcripts linked to T cell receptor activation (HLA-DRB1, HLA-DPA1) and cytotoxicity (GZMB, GZMA) and, following stimulation, expressed high levels of transcripts encoding for pro-inflammatory non-TH2 cytokines (CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, TNF, LIGHT) that could fuel persistent airway inflammation and remodeling. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate the need to look beyond the traditional T2 model of severe asthma to better understand the heterogeneity of this disease. FUNDING This research was funded by the NIH.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Heena Mistry
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; The David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St. Mary's Hospital, Newport PO30 5TG, Isle of Wight, UK
| | | | - Mohammad A Kyyaly
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; The David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St. Mary's Hospital, Newport PO30 5TG, Isle of Wight, UK
| | - Hayley Simon
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Shu Liang
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Laurie Lau
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | - Clair Barber
- National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK
| | | | - Hongmei Zhang
- Division of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA
| | - Syed Hasan Arshad
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; The David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St. Mary's Hospital, Newport PO30 5TG, Isle of Wight, UK
| | - Ramesh J Kurukulaaratchy
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; National Institute for Health Research Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton Foundation Trust, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK; The David Hide Asthma and Allergy Research Centre, St. Mary's Hospital, Newport PO30 5TG, Isle of Wight, UK.
| | - Pandurangan Vijayanand
- La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK.
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Xiao J, Chen X, Liu W, Qian W, Bulek K, Hong L, Miller-Little W, Li X, Liu C. TRAF4 is crucial for ST2+ memory Th2 cell expansion in IL-33-driven airway inflammation. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e169736. [PMID: 37607012 PMCID: PMC10561728 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.169736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 4 (TRAF4) is an important regulator of type 2 responses in the airway; however, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain elusive. Herein, we generated T cell-specific TRAF4-deficient (CD4-cre Traf4fl/fl) mice and investigated the role of TRAF4 in memory Th2 cells expressing IL-33 receptor (ST2, suppression of tumorigenicity 2) (ST2+ mTh2 cells) in IL-33-mediated type 2 airway inflammation. We found that in vitro-polarized TRAF4-deficient (CD4-cre Traf4fl/fl) ST2+ mTh2 cells exhibited decreased IL-33-induced proliferation as compared with TRAF4-sufficient (Traf4fl/fl) cells. Moreover, CD4-cre Traf4fl/fl mice showed less ST2+ mTh2 cell proliferation and eosinophilic infiltration in the lungs than Traf4fl/fl mice in the preclinical models of IL-33-mediated type 2 airway inflammation. Mechanistically, we discovered that TRAF4 was required for the activation of AKT/mTOR and ERK1/2 signaling pathways as well as the expression of transcription factor Myc and nutrient transporters (Slc2a1, Slc7a1, and Slc7a5), signature genes involved in T cell growth and proliferation, in ST2+ mTh2 cells stimulated by IL-33. Taken together, the current study reveals a role of TRAF4 in ST2+ mTh2 cells in IL-33-mediated type 2 pulmonary inflammation, opening up avenues for the development of new therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianxin Xiao
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Xing Chen
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Weiwei Liu
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Wen Qian
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Katarzyna Bulek
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Lingzi Hong
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - William Miller-Little
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program
- Department of Pathology, and
| | - Xiaoxia Li
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Caini Liu
- Inflammation and Immunity, Cleveland Clinic Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Wang W, Garcia C, Shao F, Cohen JA, Bai Y, Fine A, Ai X. Lung dopaminergic nerves facilitate the establishment of T H2 resident memory cells in early life. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2023; 152:386-399. [PMID: 36841266 PMCID: PMC10440294 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2023.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Allergic asthma develops from allergen exposure in early childhood and progresses into adulthood. The central mediator of progressive allergic asthma is allergen-specific, TH2-resident memory cells (TRMs). Although the crosstalk between nerves and immune cells plays an established role in acute allergic inflammation, whether nerves facilitate the establishment of TH2-TRMs in the immature lung following early life allergen exposure is unknown. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to identify nerve-derived signals that act in TH2 effector cells to regulate the tissue residency in the immature lung. METHODS Following neonatal allergen exposure, allergen-specific TH2-TRMs were tracked temporally and spatially in relationship to developing sympathetic nerves in the lung. Functional mediators of dopamine signaling in the establishment of TH2-TRMs were identified by in vitro bulk RNA-sequencing of dopamine-treated TH2 cells followed by in vivo assessment of candidate genes using adoptive transfer of TH2 cells with viral gene knockdown. RESULTS This study found that sympathetic nerves produce dopamine and reside in proximity to TH2 effector cells during the contraction phase following neonatal allergen exposure. Dopamine signals via DRD4 on TH2 cells to elevate IL2RA and epigenetically facilitate type 2 cytokine expression. Blockade of dopamine-DRD4 signaling following neonatal allergen exposure impairs lung residence of TH2 cells and ameliorates anamnestic inflammation in adults. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that maturing sympathetic nerves enable a dopamine-enriched lung environment in early life that promotes the establishment of allergen-specific TH2-TRMs. The dopamine-DRD4 axis may provide a therapeutic target to modify allergic asthma progression from childhood to adulthood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass.
| | - Carolyn Garcia
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Mass
| | - Fengzhi Shao
- Pulmonary Center, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass
| | - Jonathan A Cohen
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Mass
| | - Yan Bai
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass
| | - Alan Fine
- Pulmonary Center, Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass
| | - Xingbin Ai
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Wu D, Zhang X, Zimmerly KM, Wang R, Wang C, Hunter R, Wu X, Campen M, Liu M, Yang XO. Unfolded protein response factor ATF6 augments T helper cell responses and promotes mixed granulocytic airway inflammation. Mucosal Immunol 2023; 16:499-512. [PMID: 37209959 PMCID: PMC10530451 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2023.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The unfolded protein response (UPR) is associated with the risk of asthma, including treatment-refractory severe asthma. Recent studies demonstrated a pathogenic role of activating transcription factor 6a (ATF6a or ATF6), an essential UPR sensor, in airway structural cells. However, its role in T helper (TH) cells has not been well examined. In this study, we found that ATF6 was selectively induced by signal transducer and activator of transcription6 (STAT6) and STAT3 in TH2 and TH17 cells, respectively. ATF6 upregulated UPR genes and promoted the differentiation and cytokine secretion of TH2 and TH17 cells. T cell-specific Atf6-deficiency impaired TH2 and TH17 responses in vitro and in vivo and attenuated mixed granulocytic experimental asthma. ATF6 inhibitor Ceapin A7 suppressed the expression of ATF6 downstream genes and TH cell cytokines by both murine and human memory clusters of differentiation 4 (CD4)+ T cells. At the chronic stage of asthma, administration of Ceapin A7 lessened TH2 and TH17 responses, leading to alleviation of both airway neutrophilia and eosinophilia. Thus, our results demonstrate a critical role of ATF6 in TH2 and TH17 cell-driven mixed granulocytic airway disease, suggesting a novel option to combat steroid-resistant mixed and even T2-low endotypes of asthma by targeting ATF6.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Wu
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA
| | - Xing Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA
| | - Kourtney M Zimmerly
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA
| | - Ruoning Wang
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA
| | - Chunqing Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA
| | - Russell Hunter
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy, Albuquerque, USA
| | - Xiang Wu
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA; Department of Parasitology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Matthew Campen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of New Mexico College of Pharmacy, Albuquerque, USA
| | - Meilian Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA.
| | - Xuexian O Yang
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Sethi GS, Gracias DT, Gupta RK, Carr D, Miki H, Da Silva Antunes R, Croft M. Anti-CD3 inhibits circulatory and tissue-resident memory CD4 T cells that drive asthma exacerbations in mice. Allergy 2023; 78:2168-2180. [PMID: 36951658 DOI: 10.1111/all.15722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exacerbations of asthma are thought to be strongly dependent on reactivation of allergen-induced lung tissue-resident and circulatory memory CD4 T cells. Strategies that broadly inhibit multiple T cell populations might then be useful to limit asthma. Accordingly, we tested whether targeting CD3 during exposure to inhaled allergen could prevent the accumulation of lung-localized effector memory CD4 T cells and block exacerbations of asthmatic inflammation. METHODS House dust mite-sensitized and repetitively challenged BL/6 mice were transiently treated therapeutically with F(ab')2 anti-CD3ε and memory T cell responses and lung inflammation were assessed. PBMCs from HDM-allergic donors were examined for the effect of anti-CD3 on expansion of allergen-reactive T cells. RESULTS Allergen-sensitized mice undergoing exacerbations of asthma were protected from lung inflammation by transient therapeutic treatment with F(ab')2 anti-CD3. Regardless of whether sensitized mice underwent a secondary or tertiary recall response to inhaled allergen, anti-CD3 inhibited all phenotypes of effector memory CD4 T cells in the lung tissue and lung vasculature by 80%-90%, including those derived from tissue-resident and circulatory memory T cells. This did not depend on Treg cells suggesting it was primarily a blocking effect on memory T cell signaling. Correspondingly, anti-CD3 also strongly inhibited proliferation of human allergen-reactive memory CD4 T cells from allergic individuals. In contrast, the number of surviving tissue-resident memory CD4 T cells that were maintained in the lungs at later times was not robustly reduced by anti-CD3. CONCLUSION Anti-CD3 F(ab')2 administration at the time of allergen exposure represents a viable strategy for limiting the immediate activity of allergen-responding memory T cells and asthma exacerbations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gurupreet S Sethi
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Donald T Gracias
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Rinkesh K Gupta
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Daniel Carr
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Haruka Miki
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Ricardo Da Silva Antunes
- Center for Infectious Disease and Vaccine Research, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Michael Croft
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Raspe J, Schmitz MS, Barbet K, Caso GC, Cover TL, Müller A, Taube C, Reuter S. Therapeutic properties of Helicobacter pylori-derived vacuolating cytotoxin A in an animal model of chronic allergic airway disease. Respir Res 2023; 24:178. [PMID: 37415170 PMCID: PMC10324189 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-023-02484-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has previously been shown that the Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)-derived molecule vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) could be suitable for the treatment of allergic airway disease. The therapeutic activity of the protein, which acts through modulation of dendritic cells (DC) and regulatory T cells (Tregs), was demonstrated in murine short-term acute models. The aim of this study is to further evaluate the therapeutic potential of VacA by determining the effectiveness of different application routes and the suitability of the protein for treating the chronic phase of allergic airway disease. METHODS VacA was administered by the intraperitoneal (i.p.), oral (p.o.) or intratracheal (i.t.) routes, and long-term therapeutic effectiveness, allergic airway disease hallmarks, and immune phenotype were analyzed in murine models of acute and chronic allergic airway disease. RESULTS Administration of VacA via the i.p., p.o or i.t. routes was associated with a reduction in airway inflammation. The i.p. route showed the most consistent effect in reducing airway inflammation and i.p. treatment with VacA was the only treatment that significantly reduced mucus cell hyperplasia. In a murine model of chronic allergic airway disease, both short- and long-term treatment with VacA showed a therapeutic effect, with a reduction in a variety of asthma hallmarks, including bronchoalveolar lavage eosinophilia, lung inflammation and goblet cell metaplasia. Short-term treatment was associated with induction of Tregs, while repetitive long-term administration of VacA influenced immunological memory in the lung. CONCLUSIONS In addition to showing therapeutic efficacy in short-term models, treatment with VacA also appeared to be effective in suppressing inflammation in a chronic airway disease model. The observation that treatment was effective after administration via several different routes highlights the potential of VacA as a therapeutic agent with different routes of administration in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Raspe
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Experimental Pneumology, University Hospital Essen - Ruhrlandklinik, Tueschener Weg 40, Essen, 45239, Germany.
| | - Mona S Schmitz
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Experimental Pneumology, University Hospital Essen - Ruhrlandklinik, Tueschener Weg 40, Essen, 45239, Germany
| | - Kimberly Barbet
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Experimental Pneumology, University Hospital Essen - Ruhrlandklinik, Tueschener Weg 40, Essen, 45239, Germany
| | - Georgia C Caso
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Timothy L Cover
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
- Veterans Affairs Tennessee Valley Healthcare System Nashville, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Anne Müller
- Institute of Molecular Cancer Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christian Taube
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Experimental Pneumology, University Hospital Essen - Ruhrlandklinik, Tueschener Weg 40, Essen, 45239, Germany
| | - Sebastian Reuter
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Experimental Pneumology, University Hospital Essen - Ruhrlandklinik, Tueschener Weg 40, Essen, 45239, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Kobayashi T, Iijima K, Matsumoto K, Lama JK, Kita H. Lung-resident CD69 +ST2 + T H2 cells mediate long-term type 2 memory to inhaled antigen in mice. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2023; 152:167-181.e6. [PMID: 36720287 PMCID: PMC10330297 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2023.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic airway diseases such as asthma are characterized by persistent type 2 immunity in the airways. We know little about the mechanisms that explain why type 2 inflammation continues in these diseases. OBJECTIVE We used mouse models to investigate the mechanisms involved in long-lasting immune memory. METHODS Naive mice were exposed intranasally to ovalbumin (OVA) antigen with Alternaria extract as an adjuvant. Type 2 memory was analyzed by parabiosis model, flow cytometry with in vivo antibody labeling, and intranasal OVA recall challenge. Gene-deficient mice were used to analyze the mechanisms. RESULTS In the parabiosis model, mice previously exposed intranasally to OVA with Alternaria showed more robust antigen-specific immune responses and airway inflammation than mice with circulating OVA-specific T cells. After a single airway exposure to OVA with Alternaria, CD69+ST2+ TH2-type T cells, which highly express type 2 cytokine messenger RNA and lack CD62L expression, appeared in lung tissue within 5 days and persisted for at least 84 days. When exposed again to OVA in vivo, these cells produced type 2 cytokines quickly without involving circulating T cells. Development of tissue-resident CD69+ST2+ TH2 cells and long-term memory to an inhaled antigen were abrogated in mice deficient in ST2 or IL-33, but not TSLP receptor. CONCLUSION CD69+ST2+ TH2 memory cells develop quickly in lung tissue after initial allergen exposure and persist for a prolonged period. The ST2/IL-33 pathway may play a role in the development of immune memory in lung to certain allergens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takao Kobayashi
- Division of Allergic Diseases, Asthma and Clinical Immunology, and Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Ariz
| | - Koji Iijima
- Division of Allergic Diseases, Asthma and Clinical Immunology, and Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Ariz
| | - Koji Matsumoto
- Division of Allergic Diseases, Asthma and Clinical Immunology, and Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Ariz
| | - Jyoti K Lama
- Immunology Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rochester and Scottsdale, Rochester, Minn
| | - Hirohito Kita
- Division of Allergic Diseases, Asthma and Clinical Immunology, and Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Ariz; Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, and Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Ariz.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Bošnjak B, Henze E, Lueder Y, Do KTH, Rezalotfi A, Čuvalo B, Ritter C, Schimrock A, Willenzon S, Georgiev H, Fritz L, Galla M, Wagner K, Messerle M, Förster R. MCK2-mediated MCMV infection of macrophages and virus dissemination to the salivary gland depends on MHC class I molecules. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112597. [PMID: 37289588 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection of macrophages relies on MCMV-encoded chemokine 2 (MCK2), while infection of fibroblasts occurs independently of MCK2. Recently, MCMV infection of both cell types was found to be dependent on cell-expressed neuropilin 1. Using a CRISPR screen, we now identify that MCK2-dependent infection requires MHC class Ia/β-2-microglobulin (B2m) expression. Further analyses reveal that macrophages expressing MHC class Ia haplotypes H-2b and H-2d, but not H-2k, are susceptible to MCK2-dependent infection with MCMV. The importance of MHC class I expression for MCK2-dependent primary infection and viral dissemination is highlighted by experiments with B2m-deficient mice, which lack surface expression of MHC class I molecules. In those mice, intranasally administered MCK2-proficient MCMV mimics infection patterns of MCK2-deficient MCMV in wild-type mice: it does not infect alveolar macrophages and subsequently fails to disseminate into the salivary glands. Together, these data provide essential knowledge for understanding MCMV-induced pathogenesis, tissue targeting, and virus dissemination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Berislav Bošnjak
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Elisa Henze
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Yvonne Lueder
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Kim Thi Hoang Do
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Alaleh Rezalotfi
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Berislav Čuvalo
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Christiane Ritter
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Anja Schimrock
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Stefanie Willenzon
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Hristo Georgiev
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Lea Fritz
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Melanie Galla
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Karen Wagner
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Messerle
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany; Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Reinhold Förster
- Institute of Immunology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover, Hannover, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Humphries DC, O’Connor RA, Stewart HL, Quinn TM, Gaughan EE, Mills B, Williams GO, Stone JM, Finlayson K, Chabaud-Riou M, Boudet F, Dhaliwal K, Pavot V. Specific in situ immuno-imaging of pulmonary-resident memory lymphocytes in human lungs. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1100161. [PMID: 36845117 PMCID: PMC9951616 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1100161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Pulmonary-resident memory T cells (TRM) and B cells (BRM) orchestrate protective immunity to reinfection with respiratory pathogens. Developing methods for the in situ detection of these populations would benefit both research and clinical settings. Methods To address this need, we developed a novel in situ immunolabelling approach combined with clinic-ready fibre-based optical endomicroscopy (OEM) to detect canonical markers of lymphocyte tissue residency in situ in human lungs undergoing ex vivo lung ventilation (EVLV). Results Initially, cells from human lung digests (confirmed to contain TRM/BRM populations using flow cytometry) were stained with CD69 and CD103/CD20 fluorescent antibodies and imaged in vitro using KronoScan, demonstrating it's ability to detect antibody labelled cells. We next instilled these pre-labelled cells into human lungs undergoing EVLV and confirmed they could still be visualised using both fluorescence intensity and lifetime imaging against background lung architecture. Finally, we instilled fluorescent CD69 and CD103/CD20 antibodies directly into the lung and were able to detect TRM/BRM following in situ labelling within seconds of direct intra-alveolar delivery of microdoses of fluorescently labelled antibodies. Discussion In situ, no wash, immunolabelling with intra-alveolar OEM imaging is a novel methodology with the potential to expand the experimental utility of EVLV and pre-clinical models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Duncan C. Humphries
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,Research & Development, Sanofi, Marcy L’Etoile, France
| | - Richard A. O’Connor
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Hazel L. Stewart
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Tom M. Quinn
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Erin E. Gaughan
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Beth Mills
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth O.S. Williams
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - James M. Stone
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,Centre for Photonic and Physics, Bath University, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Keith Finlayson
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Kevin Dhaliwal
- Translational Healthcare Technologies Group, Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom,*Correspondence: Kevin Dhaliwal, ; Vincent Pavot,
| | - Vincent Pavot
- Research & Development, Sanofi, Marcy L’Etoile, France,*Correspondence: Kevin Dhaliwal, ; Vincent Pavot,
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Choi A, Jung YW, Choi H. The extrinsic factors important to the homeostasis of allergen-specific memory CD4 T cells. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1080855. [PMID: 36591273 PMCID: PMC9798121 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1080855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Memory T cells, which are generated after the primary immune response to cognate antigens, possess unique features compared to naïve or effector T cells. These memory T cells are maintained for a long period of time and robustly reactivate in lymphoid or peripheral tissues where they re-encounter antigens. Environments surrounding memory T cells are importantly involved in the process of the maintenance and reactivation of these T cells. Although memory T cells are generally believed to be formed in response to acute infections, the pathogenesis and persistence of chronic inflammatory diseases, including allergic diseases, are also related to the effector functions of memory CD4 T cells. Thus, the factors involved in the homeostasis of allergen-specific memory CD4 T cells need to be understood to surmount these diseases. Here, we review the characteristics of allergen-specific memory CD4 T cells in allergic diseases and the importance of extrinsic factors for the homeostasis and reactivation of these T cells in the view of mediating persistence, recurrence, and aggravation of allergic diseases. Overall, this review provides a better understanding of memory CD4 T cells to devise effective therapeutic strategies for refractory chronic inflammatory diseases.
Collapse
|
16
|
Saheb Sharif-Askari N, Alabed M, Selvakumar B, Mdkhana B, Salam Bayram O, Kalaji Z, Hafezi S, Elemam NM, Saheb Sharif-Askari F, Halwani R. Simvastatin reduced infiltration of memory subsets of T lymphocytes in the lung tissue during Th2 allergic inflammation. Int Immunopharmacol 2022; 113:109347. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
17
|
The Memory T Cell “Communication Web” in Context with Gastrointestinal Disorders—How Memory T Cells Affect Their Surroundings and How They Are Influenced by It. Cells 2022; 11:cells11182780. [PMID: 36139354 PMCID: PMC9497182 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Gut-related diseases like ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, or colorectal cancer affect millions of people worldwide. It is an ongoing process finding causes leading to the development and manifestation of those disorders. This is highly relevant since understanding molecular processes and signalling pathways offers new opportunities in finding novel ways to interfere with and apply new pharmaceuticals. Memory T cells (mT cells) and their pro-inflammatory properties have been proven to play an important role in gastrointestinal diseases and are therefore increasingly spotlighted. This review focuses on mT cells and their subsets in the context of disease pathogenesis and maintenance. It illustrates the network of regulatory proteins and metabolites connecting mT cells with other cell types and tissue compartments. Furthermore, the crosstalk with various microbes will be a subject of discussion. Characterizing mT cell interactions will help to further elucidate the sophisticated molecular and cellular networking system in the intestine and may present new ideas for future research approaches to control gut-related diseases.
Collapse
|
18
|
Liu SH, Kazemi S, Karrer G, Bellaire A, Weckwerth W, Damkjaer J, Hoffmann O, Epstein MM. Influence of the environment on ragweed pollen and their sensitizing capacity in a mouse model of allergic lung inflammation. FRONTIERS IN ALLERGY 2022; 3:854038. [PMID: 35991309 PMCID: PMC9390857 DOI: 10.3389/falgy.2022.854038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) is an invasive plant with allergenic pollen. Due to environmental changes, ragweed pollen (RWP) airborne concentrations are predicted to quadruple in Europe by 2050 and more than double allergic sensitization of Europeans by 2060. We developed an experimental RWP model of allergy in BALB/c mice to evaluate how the number of RWP and how RWP collected from different geographical environments influence disease. We administered RWP six times over 3 weeks intranasally to the mice and then evaluated disease parameters 72 h later or allowed the mice to recover for at least 90 days before rechallenging them with RWP to elicit a disease relapse. Doses over 300 pollen grains induced lung eosinophilia. Higher doses of 3,000 and 30,000 pollen grains increased both eosinophils and neutrophils and induced disease relapses. RWP harvested from diverse geographical regions induced a spectrum of allergic lung disease from mild inflammation to moderate eosinophilic and severe mixed eosinophilic-neutrophilic lung infiltrates. After a recovery period, mice rechallenged with pollen developed a robust disease relapse. We found no correlation between Amb a 1 content, the major immunodominant allergen, endotoxin content, or RWP structure with disease severity. These results demonstrate that there is an environmental impact on RWP with clinical consequences that may underlie the increasing sensitization rates and the severity of pollen-induced disease exacerbation in patients. The multitude of diverse environmental factors governing distinctive patterns of disease induced by RWP remains unclear. Further studies are necessary to elucidate how the environment influences the complex interaction between RWP and human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Hua Liu
- Laboratory of Experimental Allergy, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sahar Kazemi
- Laboratory of Experimental Allergy, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Karrer
- Institute of Botany, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Anke Bellaire
- Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfram Weckwerth
- Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, Molecular Systems Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Vienna Metabolomics Center (VIME), University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Oskar Hoffmann
- Division of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michelle M. Epstein
- Laboratory of Experimental Allergy, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Michelle M. Epstein
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sethi GS, Gracias D, Croft M. Contribution of circulatory cells to asthma exacerbations and lung tissue-resident CD4 T cell memory. Front Immunol 2022; 13:951361. [PMID: 35936001 PMCID: PMC9353789 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.951361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue-resident memory CD4 T cells (Trm) are thought to be a major contributor to asthma relapse, but the role of circulatory T cells in asthma exacerbations or to maintaining the population of lung Trm cells is not fully understood. Here, we used a house dust mite allergen-based murine model of asthma relapse, and monitored the development of lung effector/Trm phenotype CD44hiCD62LloCD69+ CD4 T cells. To determine the contribution of circulatory cells, mice were treated with FTY720, to block lymphocyte egress from lymph nodes. Inhibiting the primary migration of circulatory cells to the lungs mitigated the accumulation and expansion of allergen-driven Trm phenotype cells, but subsequent allergen challenges still resulted in strong lung inflammation and Trm cell accumulation. This was blocked if FTY720 was also given at the time of allergen re-exposure, showing that new circulatory cells contributed to this lung memory/effector T cell pool at times well after the initial sensitization. However, once lung-localized Trm cells developed at high frequency, circulatory cells were not required to maintain this population following allergen re-encounter, even though circulatory cells still were major contributors to the overall asthmatic lung inflammatory response. Our results suggest that strategies that target the response of circulatory memory T cells and Trm cells together might be required to strongly inhibit T cell reactivity to airborne allergens and to limit exacerbations of asthma and their reoccurrence, but the contribution of circulatory T cells might vary in long-term asthmatics possessing a large stable Trm cell population in the lungs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gurupreet S. Sethi
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Donald Gracias
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Michael Croft
- Center for Autoimmunity and Inflammation, La Jolla Institute for Immunology, La Jolla, CA, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Michael Croft,
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Carr TF, Peters MC. Novel potential treatable traits in asthma: Where is the research taking us? THE JOURNAL OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY. GLOBAL 2022; 1:27-36. [PMID: 37780590 PMCID: PMC10509971 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacig.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Asthma is a complex, heterogeneous disease in which the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Patients are often grouped into phenotypes (based on clinical, biologic, and physiologic characteristics) and endotypes (based on distinct genetic or molecular mechanisms). Recently, patients with asthma have been broadly split into 2 phenotypes based on their levels of type 2 inflammation: type 2 and non-type 2 asthma. However, this approach is likely oversimplified, and our understanding of the non-type 2 mechanisms in asthma remains extremely limited. A better understanding of asthma phenotypes and endotypes may assist in development of drugs for new therapeutic targets in asthma. One approach is to identify "treatable traits," which are specific patient characteristics related to phenotypes and endotypes that can be targeted by therapies. This review will focus on emerging treatable traits in asthma and aim to describe novel patient subgroups and endotypes that may represent the next step in the search for new therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tara F. Carr
- Asthma and Airway Disease Research Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz
| | - Michael C. Peters
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, Calif
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Oja AE, van Lier RAW, Hombrink P. Two sides of the same coin: Protective versus pathogenic CD4 + resident memory T cells. Sci Immunol 2022; 7:eabf9393. [PMID: 35394815 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.abf9393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The ability of the adaptive immune system to form memory is key to providing protection against secondary infections. Resident memory T cells (TRM) are specialized T cell populations that reside within tissue sites where they await reencounter with their cognate antigen. TRM are distinct from circulating memory cells, including central and effector memory T cells, both functionally and transcriptionally. Since the discovery of TRM, most research has focused on CD8+ TRM, despite that CD4+ TRM are also abundant in most tissues. In the past few years, more evidence has emerged that CD4+ TRM can contribute both protective and pathogenic roles in disease. A complexity inherent to the CD4+ TRM field is the ability of CD4+ T cells to polarize into a multitude of distinct subsets and recognize not only viruses and intracellular bacteria but also extracellular bacteria, fungi, and parasites. In this review, we outline the key features of CD4+ TRM in health and disease, including their contributions to protection against SARS-CoV-2 and potential contributions to immunopathology associated with COVID-19.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Oja
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - René A W van Lier
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Pleun Hombrink
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Wisgrill L, Fyhrquist N, Ndika J, Paalanen L, Berger A, Laatikainen T, Karisola P, Haahtela T, Alenius H. Bet v 1 triggers antiviral-type immune signaling in birch pollen allergic individuals. Clin Exp Allergy 2022; 52:929-941. [PMID: 35147263 PMCID: PMC9540660 DOI: 10.1111/cea.14108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Background In allergic patients, clinical symptoms caused by pollen remind of symptoms triggered by viral respiratory infections, which are also the main cause of asthmatic exacerbations. In patients sensitized to birch pollen, Bet v 1 is the major symptom‐causing allergen. Immune mechanisms driving Bet v 1‐related responses of human blood cells have not been fully characterized. Objective To characterize the immune response to Bet v 1 in peripheral blood in patients allergic to birch pollen. Methods The peripheral blood mononuclear cells of birch‐allergic (n = 24) and non‐allergic (n = 47) adolescents were stimulated ex‐vivo followed by transcriptomic profiling. Systems‐biology approaches were employed to decipher disease‐relevant gene networks and deconvolution of associated cell populations. Results Solely in birch‐allergic patients, co‐expression analysis revealed activation of networks of innate immunity and antiviral signalling as the immediate response to Bet v 1 stimulation. Toll‐like receptors and signal transducer transcription were the main drivers of gene expression patterns. Macrophages and dendritic cells were the main cell subsets responding to Bet v 1. Conclusions and clinical relevance In birch‐pollen‐allergic patients, the activated innate immune networks seem to be, in part, the same as those activated during viral infections. This tendency of the immune system to read pollens as viruses may provide new insight to allergy prevention and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Wisgrill
- Division of Neonatology, Pediatric Intensive Care and Neuropediatrics, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nanna Fyhrquist
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Human microbiome research program (HUMI), Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Joseph Ndika
- Human microbiome research program (HUMI), Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Laura Paalanen
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland; Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Angelika Berger
- Division of Neonatology, Pediatric Intensive Care and Neuropediatrics, Comprehensive Center for Pediatrics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tiina Laatikainen
- National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland; Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Piia Karisola
- Human microbiome research program (HUMI), Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tari Haahtela
- Skin and Allergy Hospital, Helsinki University Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Harri Alenius
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Human microbiome research program (HUMI), Medicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Tissue-resident immunity in the lung: a first-line defense at the environmental interface. Semin Immunopathol 2022; 44:827-854. [PMID: 36305904 PMCID: PMC9614767 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-022-00964-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The lung is a vital organ that incessantly faces external environmental challenges. Its homeostasis and unimpeded vital function are ensured by the respiratory epithelium working hand in hand with an intricate fine-tuned tissue-resident immune cell network. Lung tissue-resident immune cells span across the innate and adaptive immunity and protect from infectious agents but can also prove to be pathogenic if dysregulated. Here, we review the innate and adaptive immune cell subtypes comprising lung-resident immunity and discuss their ontogeny and role in distinct respiratory diseases. An improved understanding of the role of lung-resident immunity and how its function is dysregulated under pathological conditions can shed light on the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases.
Collapse
|
24
|
Schetters STT, Schuijs MJ. Pulmonary Eosinophils at the Center of the Allergic Space-Time Continuum. Front Immunol 2021; 12:772004. [PMID: 34868033 PMCID: PMC8634472 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.772004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Eosinophils are typically a minority population of circulating granulocytes being released from the bone-marrow as terminally differentiated cells. Besides their function in the defense against parasites and in promoting allergic airway inflammation, regulatory functions have now been attributed to eosinophils in various organs. Although eosinophils are involved in the inflammatory response to allergens, it remains unclear whether they are drivers of the asthma pathology or merely recruited effector cells. Recent findings highlight the homeostatic and pro-resolving capacity of eosinophils and raise the question at what point in time their function is regulated. Similarly, eosinophils from different physical locations display phenotypic and functional diversity. However, it remains unclear whether eosinophil plasticity remains as they develop and travel from the bone marrow to the tissue, in homeostasis or during inflammation. In the tissue, eosinophils of different ages and origin along the inflammatory trajectory may exhibit functional diversity as circumstances change. Herein, we outline the inflammatory time line of allergic airway inflammation from acute, late, adaptive to chronic processes. We summarize the function of the eosinophils in regards to their resident localization and time of recruitment to the lung, in all stages of the inflammatory response. In all, we argue that immunological differences in eosinophils are a function of time and space as the allergic inflammatory response is initiated and resolved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sjoerd T T Schetters
- Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Laboratory of Immunoregulation and Mucosal Immunology, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Martijn J Schuijs
- Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Laboratory of Immunoregulation and Mucosal Immunology, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium.,Cancer Research Institute Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Yuan R, Yu J, Jiao Z, Li J, Wu F, Yan R, Huang X, Chen C. The Roles of Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells in Lung Diseases. Front Immunol 2021; 12:710375. [PMID: 34707601 PMCID: PMC8542931 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.710375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The unique environment of the lungs is protected by complex immune interactions. Human lung tissue-resident memory T cells (TRM) have been shown to position at the pathogen entry points and play an essential role in fighting against viral and bacterial pathogens at the frontline through direct mechanisms and also by orchestrating the adaptive immune system through crosstalk. Recent evidence suggests that TRM cells also play a vital part in slowing down carcinogenesis and preventing the spread of solid tumors. Less beneficially, lung TRM cells can promote pathologic inflammation, causing chronic airway inflammatory changes such as asthma and fibrosis. TRM cells from infiltrating recipient T cells may also mediate allograft immunopathology, hence lung damage in patients after lung transplantations. Several therapeutic strategies targeting TRM cells have been developed. This review will summarize recent advances in understanding the establishment and maintenance of TRM cells in the lung, describe their roles in different lung diseases, and discuss how the TRM cells may guide future immunotherapies targeting infectious diseases, cancers and pathologic immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Yuan
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jiang Yu
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ziqiao Jiao
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jinfei Li
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Fang Wu
- Department of Oncology, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Rongkai Yan
- Department of Radiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Xiaojie Huang
- Department Cardiovascular Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Chen Chen
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China.,Hunan Key Laboratory of Early Diagnosis and Precise Treatment of Lung Cancer, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Park SL, Mackay LK. Decoding Tissue-Residency: Programming and Potential of Frontline Memory T Cells. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2021; 13:a037960. [PMID: 33753406 PMCID: PMC8485744 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a037960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Memory T-cell responses are partitioned between the blood, secondary lymphoid organs, and nonlymphoid tissues. Tissue-resident memory T (Trm) cells are a population of immune cells that remain permanently in tissues without recirculating in blood. These nonrecirculating cells serve as a principal node in the anamnestic response to invading pathogens and developing malignancies. Here, we contemplate how T-cell tissue residency is defined and shapes protective immunity in the steady state and in the context of disease. We review the properties and heterogeneity of Trm cells, highlight the critical roles these cells play in maintaining tissue homeostasis and eliciting immune pathology, and explore how they might be exploited to treat disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simone L Park
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection & Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Laura K Mackay
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection & Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Camiolo MJ, Kale SL, Oriss TB, Gauthier M, Ray A. Immune responses and exacerbations in severe asthma. Curr Opin Immunol 2021; 72:34-42. [PMID: 33773471 PMCID: PMC8460694 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2021.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Asthma as a clinical entity manifests with a broad spectrum of disease severity. Unlike milder asthma, severe disease is poorly controlled by inhaled corticosteroids, the current standard of care. Transcriptomic data, along with patient characteristics and response to biologics show that though Type 2 (T2) immune response remains an integral feature of asthma, additional molecular and immunologic factors may play important roles in pathogenesis. Mechanisms of T2 development, cellular sources of T2 cytokines and their relationship to additional immune pathways concurrently activated may distinguish several different subphenotypes, and perhaps endotypes of asthma, with differential response to non-specific and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. Recent data have also associated non-T2 cytokines derived from T cells, particularly IFN-γ, and epithelial mediators with severe asthma. These topics and their relationships to acute asthma exacerbations are discussed in this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Camiolo
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Sagar L Kale
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Timothy B Oriss
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Marc Gauthier
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Anuradha Ray
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA; Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Koenig JFE, Bruton K, Phelps A, Grydziuszko E, Jiménez-Saiz R, Jordana M. Memory Generation and Re-Activation in Food Allergy. Immunotargets Ther 2021; 10:171-184. [PMID: 34136419 PMCID: PMC8200165 DOI: 10.2147/itt.s284823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence has highlighted the critical role of memory cells in maintaining lifelong food allergies, thereby identifying these cells as therapeutic targets. IgG+ memory B cells replenish pools of IgE-secreting cells upon allergen exposure, which contract thereafter due to the short lifespan of tightly regulated IgE-expressing cells. Advances in the detection and highly dimensional analysis of allergen-specific B and T cells from allergic patients have provided insight on their phenotype and function. The newly identified Th2A and Tfh13 populations represent a leap in our understanding of allergen-specific T cell phenotypes, although how these populations contribute to IgE memory responses remains poorly understood. Within, we discuss the mechanisms by which memory B and T cells are activated, integrating knowledge from human systems and fundamental research. We then focus on memory reactivation, specifically, on the pathways of secondary IgE responses. Throughout, we identify areas of future research which will help identify immunotargets for a transformative therapy for food allergy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua F E Koenig
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kelly Bruton
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Allyssa Phelps
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Emily Grydziuszko
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rodrigo Jiménez-Saiz
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital Universitario de la Princesa (IIS-IP), Madrid, Spain.,Department of Immunology and Oncology, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB)-CSIC, Madrid, Spain.,Faculty of Experimental Sciences, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria (UFV), Madrid, Spain
| | - Manel Jordana
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Allergic asthma reflects the interplay between inflammatory mediators and immune, airway epithelial, and other cells. This review summarizes key insights in these areas over the past year. RECENT FINDINGS Key findings over the past year demonstrate that epithelial cells mediate tight junction breakdown to facilitate the development of asthma-like disease in mice. Innate lymph lymphoid cells (ILC), while previously shown to promote allergic airway disease, have now been shown to inhibit the development of severe allergic disease in mice. Fibrinogen cleavage products (previously shown to mediate allergic airway disease and macrophage fungistatic immunity by signaling through Toll-like receptor 4) have now been shown to first bind to the integrin Mac-1 (CD11c/CD18). Therapeutically, recent discoveries include the development of the antiasthma drug PM-43I that inhibits the allergy-related transcription factors STAT5 and STAT6 in mice, and confirmatory evidence of the efficacy of the antifungal agent voriconazole in human asthma. SUMMARY Studies over the past year provide critical new insight into the mechanisms by which epithelial cells, ILC, and coagulation factors contribute to the expression of asthma-like disease and further support the development antiasthma drugs that block STAT factors and inhibit fungal growth in the airways.
Collapse
|
30
|
Vaillant L, Oster P, McMillan B, Velin D. Gastric eosinophils are detrimental for Helicobacter pylori vaccine efficacy. Vaccine 2021; 39:3590-3601. [PMID: 34049736 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (Hp) colonizes the human gastric mucosa with a high worldwide prevalence. Currently, Hp can be eradicated by the use of antibiotics. Due to the increase of antibiotic resistance, new therapeutic strategies need to be devised: one such approach being prophylactic vaccination. Pre-clinical and clinical data showed that a urease-based vaccine is efficient in decreasing Hp infection through the mobilization of T helper (Th)-dependent immune effectors, including eosinophils. Preliminary data have shown that upon vaccination and subsequent Hp infection, eosinophils accumulate in the gastric mucosa, suggesting a possible implication of this granulocyte subset in the vaccine-induced reduction of Hp infection. In our study, we confirm that activated eosinophils, expressing CD63, CD40, MHCII and PD-L1 at their cell surface, infiltrate the gastric mucosa during vaccine-induced reduction of Hp infection. Strikingly, we provide evidence that bone marrow derived eosinophils efficiently kill Hp in vitro, suggesting that eosinophils may participate to the vaccine-induced reduction of Hp infection. However, conversely to our expectations, the absence of eosinophils does not decrease the efficacy of this Hp vaccine in vivo. Indeed, vaccinated mice that have been genetically ablated of the eosinophil lineage or that have received anti-Sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectin F eosinophil-depleting antibodies, display a lower Hp colonization when compared to their eosinophil sufficient counterparts. Although the vaccine induces similar urease-specific humoral and Th responses in both eosinophil sufficient and deficient mice, a decreased production of anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-10, TGFβ, and calgranulin B, was specifically observed in eosinophil depleted mice. Taken together, our results suggest that gastric eosinophils maintain an anti-inflammatory environment, thus sustaining chronic Hp infection. Because eosinophils are one of the main immune effectors mobilized by Th2 responses, our study strongly suggests that the formulation of an Hp vaccine needs to include an adjuvant that preferentially primes Hp-specific Th1/Th17 responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laurie Vaillant
- Service of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Paul Oster
- Service of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Brynn McMillan
- Service of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dominique Velin
- Service of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Harker JA, Lloyd CM. Overlapping and distinct features of viral and allergen immunity in the human lung. Immunity 2021; 54:617-631. [PMID: 33852829 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Immunity in the human respiratory tract is provided by a diverse range of tissue-resident cells, including specialized epithelial and macrophage populations and a network of innate and innate-like lymphocytes, such as natural killer cells, innate lymphoid cells, and invariant T cells. Lung-resident memory T and B cells contribute to this network following initial exposure to antigenic stimuli. This review explores how advances in the study of human immunology have shaped our understanding of this resident immune network and its response to two of the most commonly encountered inflammatory stimuli in the airways: viruses and allergens. It discusses the many ways in which pathogenic infection and allergic inflammation mirror each other, highlighting the key checkpoints at which they diverge and how this can result in a lifetime of allergic exacerbation versus protective anti-viral immunity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James A Harker
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Clare M Lloyd
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
The basic immunology of asthma. Cell 2021; 184:1469-1485. [PMID: 33711259 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 343] [Impact Index Per Article: 114.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In many asthmatics, chronic airway inflammation is driven by IL-4-, IL-5-, and IL-13-producing Th2 cells or ILC2s. Type 2 cytokines promote hallmark features of the disease such as eosinophilia, mucus hypersecretion, bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR), IgE production, and susceptibility to exacerbations. However, only half the asthmatics have this "type 2-high" signature, and "type 2-low" asthma is more associated with obesity, presence of neutrophils, and unresponsiveness to corticosteroids, the mainstay asthma therapy. Here, we review the underlying immunological basis of various asthma endotypes by discussing results obtained from animal studies as well as results generated in clinical studies targeting specific immune pathways.
Collapse
|
33
|
Liu H, Li L, Chen Z, Song Y, Liu W, Gao G, Li L, Jiang J, Xu C, Yan G, Cui H. S1PR2 Inhibition Attenuates Allergic Asthma Possibly by Regulating Autophagy. Front Pharmacol 2021; 11:598007. [PMID: 33643037 PMCID: PMC7902893 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.598007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study is to investigate the role of Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) in the asthma progression, and the involvement of autophagy. Airway remodeling mice were subjected to the HE, PAS, and Masson staining. Protein expression levels in the tissues, samples and model cells were detected with ELISA, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemical/immunofluorescent analysis. The S1P2 receptor antagonist JTE-013 decreased the inflammatory cell infiltration and goblet cell production in asthmatic mice tissues. The IL-1, IL-4, IL-5 and serum IgE contents were decreased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, while the Beclin1 expression in lung tissues was decreased. The LC3B1 to LC-3B2 conversion was decreased, with increased P62 accumulation and decreased p-P62 expression. In airway remodeling mice, JTE-013 significantly decreased collagen deposition in lung tissues and decreased smooth muscle cell smooth muscle activating protein expression. In lung tissue, the expression levels of Beclin1 were decreased, with decreased LC3B1 to LC-3B2 conversion, as well as the increased P62 accumulation and decreased p-P62 expression. However, these effects were reversed by the RAC1 inhibitor EHT 1864. Similar results were observed for the silencing of S1P2 receptor in the cells, as shown by the decreased Beclin1 expression, decreased LC3B1 to LC-3B2 conversion, increased P62 accumulation, and decreased p-P62 expression. The smooth muscle activators were significantly decreased in the JTE-013 and EHT1864 groups, and the EHT 1864 + S1P2-SiRNA expression level was increased. S1P is involved in the progression of asthma and airway remodeling, which may be related to the activation of S1PR2 receptor and inhibition of autophagy through RAC1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanye Liu
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Pharmacology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China.,Center of Medical Functional Experiment, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Liangchang Li
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Zhengai Chen
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Pharmacology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Yilan Song
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Weidong Liu
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Center of Medical Functional Experiment, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Ge Gao
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Center of Medical Functional Experiment, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Li Li
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Jingzhi Jiang
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Chang Xu
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Guanghai Yan
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| | - Hong Cui
- Jilin Key Laboratory for Immune and Targeting Research on Common Allergic Diseases, Yanbian University, Yanji, China.,Center of Medical Functional Experiment, Yanbian University College of Medicine, Yanji, China
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Qian Y, Zhu Y, Li Y, Li B. Legend of the Sentinels: Development of Lung Resident Memory T Cells and Their Roles in Diseases. Front Immunol 2021; 11:624411. [PMID: 33603755 PMCID: PMC7884312 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.624411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 is wreaking havoc around the world. To get the world back on track, hundreds of vaccines are under development. A deeper understanding of how the immune system responds to SARS-CoV-2 re-infection will certainly help. Studies have highlighted various aspects of T cell response in resolving acute infection and preventing re-infections. Lung resident memory T (TRM) cells are sentinels in the secondary immune response. They are mostly differentiated from effector T cells, construct specific niches and stay permanently in lung tissues. If the infection recurs, locally activated lung TRM cells can elicit rapid immune response against invading pathogens. In addition, they can significantly limit tumor growth or lead to pathologic immune responses. Vaccines targeting TRM cells are under development, with the hope to induce stable and highly reactive lung TRM cells through mucosal administration or "prime-and-pull" strategy. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in lung TRM cell generation and maintenance, explore their roles in different diseases and discuss how these cells may guide the development of future vaccines targeting infectious disease, cancer, and pathologic immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yangyang Li
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Shanghai Institute of Immunology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Alberca-Custodio RW, Faustino LD, Gomes E, Nunes FPB, de Siqueira MK, Labrada A, Almeida RR, Câmara NOS, da Fonseca DM, Russo M. Allergen-Specific Immunotherapy With Liposome Containing CpG-ODN in Murine Model of Asthma Relies on MyD88 Signaling in Dendritic Cells. Front Immunol 2020; 11:692. [PMID: 32391011 PMCID: PMC7191058 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Changing the immune responses to allergens is the cornerstone of allergen immunotherapy. Allergen-specific immunotherapy that consists of repeated administration of increasing doses of allergen extract is potentially curative. The major inconveniences of allergen-specific immunotherapy include failure to modify immune responses, long-term treatment leading to non-compliance and the potential for developing life-threating anaphylaxis. Here we investigated the effect of a novel liposomal formulation carrying low dose of allergen combined with CpG-ODN, a synthetic TLR9 agonist, on established allergic lung inflammation. We found that challenge with allergen (OVA) encapsulated in cationic liposome induced significantly less severe cutaneous anaphylactic reaction. Notably, short-term treatment (three doses) with a liposomal formulation containing co-encapsulated allergen plus CpG-ODN, but not allergen or CpG-ODN alone, reversed an established allergic lung inflammation and provided long-term protection. This liposomal formulation was also effective against allergens derived from Blomia tropicalis mite extract. The attenuation of allergic inflammation was not associated with increased numbers of Foxp3-positive or IL-10-producing regulatory T cells or with increased levels of IFN-gamma in the lungs. Instead, the anti-allergic effect of the liposomal formulation was dependent of the innate immune signal transduction generated in CD11c-positive putative dendritic cells expressing MyD88 molecule. Therefore, we highlight the pivotal role of dendritic cells in mediating the attenuation of established allergic lung inflammation following immunotherapy with a liposomal formulation containing allergen plus CpG-ODN.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Lucas D. Faustino
- Center for Immunology and Inflammatory Diseases, Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Eliane Gomes
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Immunology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Alexis Labrada
- Department of Allergens, National Center of Bioproducts (BIOCEN), Havana, Cuba
| | - Rafael Ribeiro Almeida
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Immunology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Denise Morais da Fonseca
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Immunology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Momtchilo Russo
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Immunology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Integrating resident memory into T cell differentiation models. Curr Opin Immunol 2020; 63:35-42. [PMID: 32018169 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2020.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Advances in the field of T cell memory, including the discovery of tissue residency, continue to add to the list of defined T cell subsets. Here, we briefly review the role of resident memory T cells (TRM) in protective immunity, and propose that they exhibit developmental and migrational plasticity. We discuss T cell classification, the concept of cell type versus 'subset', and the difficulty of inferring developmental relationships between cells occupying malleable differentiation states. We propose that popular subsetting strategies do not perfectly define boundaries of developmental potential. We integrate TRM into a 'terrace' model that classifies memory T cells along a continuous axis of decreasing developmental potential. This model also segregates cells on the basis of migration properties, although different migration properties are viewed as parallel differentiation states that may be permissive to change.
Collapse
|