Neuroprotective Effects of Physical Activity: Evidence from Human and Animal Studies

Exercise and Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a complex mental disorder that affects millions of people worldwide and has a profound impact on various aspects of life, including physical activity. The relationship between schizophrenia and physical activity is an area of growing interest in medical and health research from a physical, mental, and psychosocial health perspective. Physical activity and structured exercise have been identified as promising interventions to improve physical and psychological health outcomes of people living with schizophrenia. This chapter provides a brief overview that explores various aspects of the relationship between physical activity, exercise, and schizophrenia. The impact of schizophrenia on human movement is discussed, along with an overview of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness levels in adults with schizophrenia. Additionally, the influence of exercise interventions on physical and psychological outcomes will be discussed, along with current physical activity recommendations for those living with schizophrenia.

The mitochondrial quality control system: a new target for exercise therapeutic intervention in the treatment of brain insulin resistance-induced neurodegeneration in obesity

Obesity is a major global health concern because of its strong association with metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases such as diabetes, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease. Unfortunately, brain insulin resistance in obesity is likely to lead to neuroplasticity deficits. Since the evidence shows that insulin resistance in brain regions abundant in insulin receptors significantly alters mitochondrial efficiency and function, strategies targeting the mitochondrial quality control system may be of therapeutic and practical value in obesity-induced cognitive decline. Exercise is considered as a powerful stimulant of mitochondria that improves insulin sensitivity and enhances neuroplasticity. It has great potential as a non-pharmacological intervention against the onset and progression of obesity associated neurodegeneration. Here, we integrate the current knowledge of the mechanisms of neurodegenration in obesity and focus on brain insulin resistance to explain the relationship between the impairment of neuronal plasticity and mitochondrial dysfunction. This knowledge was synthesised to explore the exercise paradigm as a feasible intervention for obese neurodegenration in terms of improving brain insulin signals and regulating the mitochondrial quality control system.

Effects of aerobic exercise on children's executive function and academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

To investigate the effects of exercise on executive function in children, providing an evidence-based foundation to inform future research in school physical education and health education.

Methods

We searched ten databases: Cochrane Library, Scopus, OVID, Web of Science, PubMed, EBSCOhost, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, CNKI, WANFANG DATA, VIP, and SinoMed, and eight articles were included. Applying the revised Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for Randomized Trials (RoB2), funnel plots and Egger regression analysis were integrated with R meta-analysis to screen for publication bias. The quality of the evidence was appraised using the Grading system.

Results

The included literature contained 2655 participants, with 1308 in the experimental group and 1347 in the control group. The results indicated that the aerobic exercise group considerably improved inhibitory control in children compared to the control group [SMD = 0.29, 95% CI (0.05, 0.54), P = 0.018]; working memory [SMD = 0.25, 95% CI (0.07, 0.42), P = 0.005]; and cognitive flexibility [SMD = 0.36, 95% CI (0.17, 0.54), P < 0.001]. However, the findings indicated that only aerobic exercise interventions extending beyond 50 weeks positively influenced academic performance in children [SMD = 1.19, 95% CI (0.34, 2.04), P = 0.006]. The results of an Egger regression analysis revealed that the p-values for inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and academic performance were more significant than 0.1. The Grade system said that the quality of evidence was all low regarding the level of evidence.

Conclusion

Aerobic exercise enhanced executive function but only aerobic exercise interventions extending beyond 50 weeks demonstrated a significant effect on the academic performance of children. Due to the low quality of evidence presented in this study, additional high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these findings.

[Sports and Physical Exercise Therapy in the Treatment of Mental Health Issues in Children and Adolescents]

Sports and Physical Exercise Therapy in the Treatment of Mental Health Issues in Children and Adolescents Abstract: Mental disorders are among the most common chronic diseases in childhood and adolescence in Germany and worldwide. The health benefits of a physically active lifestyle during adolescence are well documented. Furthermore, a growing body of evidence suggests a positive impact of physical activity on mental health and emotional well-being. Longitudinal studies also show an association between physical activity and reduced risk of developing a mental disorder. Therefore, therapeutic exercise plays an important role in child and adolescent psychiatry. High-quality randomized-controlled trials are needed to substantiate the described effects.

The Association of Physical Activity with Glaucoma and Related Traits in the UK Biobank

PURPOSE

To examine the association of physical activity (PA) with glaucoma and related traits, to assess whether genetic predisposition to glaucoma modified these associations, and to probe causal relationships using Mendelian randomization (MR).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational and gene-environment interaction analyses in the UK Biobank. Two-sample MR experiments using summary statistics from large genetic consortia.

PARTICIPANTS

UK Biobank participants with data on self-reported or accelerometer-derived PA and intraocular pressure (IOP; n = 94 206 and n = 27 777, respectively), macular inner retinal OCT measurements (n = 36 274 and n = 9991, respectively), and glaucoma status (n = 86 803 and n = 23 556, respectively).

METHODS

We evaluated multivariable-adjusted associations of self-reported (International Physical Activity Questionnaire) and accelerometer-derived PA with IOP and macular inner retinal OCT parameters using linear regression and with glaucoma status using logistic regression. For all outcomes, we examined gene-PA interactions using a polygenic risk score (PRS) that combined the effects of 2673 genetic variants associated with glaucoma.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Intraocular pressure, macular retinal nerve fiber layer (mRNFL) thickness, macular ganglion cell-inner plexiform layer (mGCIPL) thickness, and glaucoma status.

RESULTS

In multivariable-adjusted regression models, we found no association of PA level or time spent in PA with glaucoma status. Higher overall levels and greater time spent in higher levels of both self-reported and accelerometer-derived PA were associated positively with thicker mGCIPL (P < 0.001 for trend for each). Compared with the lowest quartile of PA, participants in the highest quartiles of accelerometer-derived moderate- and vigorous-intensity PA showed a thicker mGCIPL by +0.57 μm (P < 0.001) and +0.42 μm (P = 0.005). No association was found with mRNFL thickness. High overall level of self-reported PA was associated with a modestly higher IOP of +0.08 mmHg (P = 0.01), but this was not replicated in the accelerometry data. No associations were modified by a glaucoma PRS, and MR analyses did not support a causal relationship between PA and any glaucoma-related outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher overall PA level and greater time spent in moderate and vigorous PA were not associated with glaucoma status but were associated with thicker mGCIPL. Associations with IOP were modest and inconsistent. Despite the well-documented acute reduction in IOP after PA, we found no evidence that high levels of habitual PA are associated with glaucoma status or IOP in the general population.

FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S)

Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Impact of an online guided physical activity training on cognition and gut-brain axis interactions in older adults: protocol of a randomized controlled trial

Introduction

By 2050, the worldwide percentage of people 65 years and older is assumed to have doubled compared to current numbers. Therefore, finding ways of promoting healthy (cognitive) aging is crucial. Physical activity is considered an effective approach to counteract not only physical but also cognitive decline. However, the underlying mechanisms that drive the benefits of regular physical activity on cognitive function are not fully understood. This randomized controlled trial aims to analyze the effect of an eight-week standardized physical activity training program in older humans on cognitive, brain, and gut-barrier function as well as the relationship between the resulting changes.

Methods and analysis

One-hundred healthy participants aged 60 to 75 years will be recruited. First, participants will undergo an extensive baseline assessment consisting of neurocognitive tests, functional and structural brain imaging, physical fitness tests, and gut-microbiome profiling. Next, participants will be randomized into either a multi-component physical activity group (experimental condition) or a relaxation group (active control condition), with each training lasting 8 weeks and including an equal number and duration of exercises. The whole intervention will be online-based, i.e., participants will find their intervention schedule and all materials needed on the study website. After the intervention phase, participants will have their post-intervention assessment, which consists of the same measures and tests as the baseline assessment. The primary outcome of this study is the change in the cognitive parameter of visual processing speed from baseline to post-measurement, which will on average take place 10 weeks after the randomization. Secondary outcomes related to cognitive, brain, and microbiome data will be analyzed exploratory. Clinical trial registration: https://drks.de/search/de/trial/DRKS00028022.

Association Between Symptom Cluster Endorsement at Initiation of a Graduated Return-to-Activity Protocol and Time to Return to Unrestricted Activity After Concussion in United States Service Academy Cadets

BACKGROUND

The endorsement of symptoms upon initiation of a graduated return-to-activity (GRTA) protocol has been associated with prolonged protocols. It is unclear whether there are specific symptom clusters affecting protocol durations.

PURPOSE

To describe the endorsement of specific concussion symptom clusters at GRTA protocol initiation and examine the association between symptom cluster endorsement and GRTA protocol duration.

STUDY DESIGN

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 2.

METHODS

This study was conducted among cadets enrolled at 3 US service academies. Participants completed an evaluation upon GRTA protocol initiation. Participants endorsing symptoms were binarized based on 6 symptom clusters (cognitive, emotional, insomnia, physical, sensitivity, and ungrouped). The primary outcome of interest was GRTA protocol duration based on symptom cluster endorsement severity. Prevalence rates were calculated to describe symptom cluster endorsement. Kaplan-Meier survival estimates and univariate and multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models were calculated for all 6 symptom clusters to estimate GRTA protocol duration while controlling for significant covariates.

RESULTS

Data from 961 concussed participants were analyzed. Of these, 636 participants were asymptomatic upon GRTA protocol initiation. Among the 325 symptomatic participants, the physical symptom cluster (80%) was most endorsed, followed by the cognitive (29%), insomnia (23%), ungrouped (19%), sensitivity (15%), and emotional (9%) clusters. Univariate results revealed a significant association between endorsing cognitive (hazard ratio [HR], 0.79; p = .001), physical (HR, 0.84; p < .001), insomnia (HR, 0.83; p = .013), sensitivity (HR, 0.70; p < .001), and ungrouped (HR, 0.75; p = .005) symptom clusters and GRTA protocol duration. Endorsing physical (HR, 0.84; p < .001) and sensitivity (HR, 0.81; p = .036) clusters maintained a significant association with GRTA protocol duration in the multivariable models.

CONCLUSION

Participants endorsing physical or sensitivity symptom clusters displayed GRTA protocols prolonged by 16% to 19% compared with participants not endorsing that respective cluster after controlling for significant covariates.

Physical activity mitigates the influence of blood cadmium on memory function: a cross-sectional analysis in US elderly population

Current evidence showed that heavy metal exposure including cadmium (Cd) exposure might contribute to memory function impairment in youth, while this association has not been extensively explored in senior groups. Complementary therapy like physical activity (PA) is proved to enhance memory; however, the combined effects of Cd exposure and PA are interesting issues worth investigating. Cross-sectional data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014 were analyzed. Multivariable weighted linear regression model and restricted cubic splines analysis were used to examine the association between blood Cd, PA, and memory function. Ultimately, 1884 samples were analyzed, and the weighted participants were 98,350,183. Results showed that in the immediate and delayed recall tests, a negative association was found between blood Cd and scores for the fully adjusted model, while a positive association was detected with PA on memory test scores. In subgroup analysis, for the delayed recall test, in lower Cd exposure (Cd = Q1), stronger effect size was found in the moderate level PA group than the higher level PA group (moderate level PA group, β = 1.133, 95% CI: 0.330, 1.936; high level PA group, β = 0.203, 95% CI: - 0.314, 0.719), and this finding also existed in higher (Cd = Q4) exposure (moderate level PA group, β = 0.988, 95% CI: 0.267, 1.708; high level PA group, β = 0.830, 95% CI: 0.261, 1.400). Moreover, the non-linear relationship between Cd exposure and performance of CERAD test under different levels of PA was reported, and the moderate level PA group performed best from lower to higher blood Cd. According to our research, the benefit of PA did not always expand with the PA intensity increment under different Cd exposure. Performing an appropriate level of physical exercise could alleviate the memory decline under Cd exposure in the elder groups. Further biological investigations are warranted to verify these findings.

Internal and external modulation factors of the orexin system (REVIEW)

Orexin-A and -B (identical to hypocretin-1 and -2) are neuropeptides synthesized in the lateral hypothalamus and perifornical area, and orexin neurons project their axon terminals broadly throughout the entire central nervous system (CNS). The activity of orexins is mediated by two specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), termed orexin type1 receptor (OX1R) and orexin type2 receptor (OX2R). The orexin system plays a relevant role in various physiological functions, including arousal, feeding, reward, and thermogenesis, and is key to human health. Orexin neurons receive various signals related to environmental, physiological, and emotional stimuli. Previous studies have reported that several neurotransmitters and neuromodulators influence the activation or inhibition of orexin neuron activity. In this review, we summarize the modulating factors of orexin neurons in the sleep/wake rhythm and feeding behavior, particularly in the context of the modulation of appetite, body fluids, and circadian signaling. We also describe the effects of life activity, behavior, and diet on the orexin system. Some studies have observed phenomena that have been verified in animal experiments, revealing the detailed mechanism and neural pathway, while their applications to humans is expected in future research.

Examining the Relation Between Exercise and Word Learning in Preschool-Age Children

PURPOSE

There is evidence suggesting that aerobic exercise immediately after vocabulary training can improve word recall in school-age children. This work examined whether the previously identified word-learning benefits associated with exercise can be extended to preschoolers. Additionally, we evaluated whether the effects of physical activity on vocabulary learning may be influenced by existing language skills that the child possesses.

METHOD

Children ages 3-6 years completed the study (N = 42). Data were collected via a virtual testing session in which participants completed a word-learning task that included two experimental conditions (exercise and resting). In the resting measure, children were taught names of novel objects and then sat down and colored for 3 min before being tested on their ability to identify the trained words. The exercise condition was identical, except that participants engaged in 3 min of guided aerobic exercise before testing. Additionally, at the end of the visit, participants completed the Quick Interactive Language Screener (QUILS), which measured general language skills.

RESULTS

Accuracy of word recognition was significantly higher after the exercise condition compared to the resting condition. Furthermore, this pattern of results was not related to children's existing language skills, as measured by the QUILS.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is one of the first to closely examine the relation between physical activity and word-learning abilities in children as young as 3-6 years of age. Results align with previous findings stating that aerobic exercise can boost vocabulary learning and suggest that this is the case regardless of existing language skills.

Sex-specific relationships between obesity, physical activity, and gray and white matter volume in cognitively unimpaired older adults

Independently, obesity and physical activity (PA) influence cerebral structure in aging, yet their interaction has not been investigated. We examined sex differences in the relationships among PA, obesity, and cerebral structure in aging with 340 participants who completed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) acquisition to quantify grey matter volume (GMV) and white matter volume (WMV). Height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI). A PA questionnaire was used to estimate weekly Metabolic Equivalents. The relationships between BMI, PA, and their interaction on GMV Regions of Interest (ROIs) and WMV ROIs were examined. Increased BMI was associated with higher GMV in females, an inverse U relationship was found between PA and GMV in females, and the interaction indicated that regardless of BMI greater PA was associated with enhanced GMV. Males demonstrated an inverse U shape between BMI and GMV, and in males with high PA and had normal weight demonstrated greater GMV than normal weight low PA revealed by the interaction. WMV ROIs had a linear relationship with moderate PA in females, whereas in males, increased BMI was associated with lower WMV as well as a positive relationship with moderate PA and WMV. Males and females have unique relationships among GMV, PA and BMI, suggesting sex-aggregated analyses may lead to biased or non-significant results. These results suggest higher BMI, and PA are associated with increased GMV in females, uniquely different from males, highlighting the importance of sex-disaggregated models. Future work should include other imaging parameters, such as perfusion, to identify if these differences co-occur in the same regions as GMV.

A Tutorial for Speech-Language Pathologists: Physical Activity and Social Engagement to Prevent or Slow Cognitive Decline in Older Adults

PURPOSE

This tutorial provides an overview of two behavioral approaches, physical activity and social engagement, to prevent or slow cognitive decline in older adults and to increase awareness in the field of speech-language pathology of the important role that speech-language pathologists (SLPs) play in an interprofessional team working with this population.

METHOD

A review of exercise science, neuroscience, and social science literature was used to synthesize evidence and to outline the impact of physical activity and social engagement on cognition. The following topics were explored: How do exercise and social engagement support cognition? What are modifiable risk factors of dementia? What is the impact of inactivity and isolation on cognition? What is the potential role of the SLP on an interprofessional team focusing on preventive measures for cognitive decline? What is the impact of physical exercise and social engagement on nursing home residents?

RESULTS

Research increasingly points to the critical importance of physical activity and social engagement to prevent cognitive decline in normal aging and to slow cognitive decline associated with mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Research suggests that physical activity maintains or improves memory, attention, executive function, visuospatial function, speed of processing, and general cognitive function. Social engagement has been found to maintain and improve general cognitive function.

CONCLUSIONS

Behavioral interventions are an effective strategy to prevent or slow cognitive decline in the older adult population. SLPs have a role to play on an interprofessional team that works to prevent cognitive decline. By considering factors that play a role in the prevention of cognitive decline, such as physical activity and social engagement, the quality of life and overall health of older adults can be improved. Areas of improvement include memory, attention, executive function, visuospatial function, speed of processing, and general cognitive function.

The Influence of Physical Exercise Frequency and Intensity on Individual Entrepreneurial Behavior: Evidence from China

Physical exercise can benefit individuals' physical and mental health and also influence individuals' long-term behavioral choices. Doing exercise is particularly important given that physical exercise can impact individuals' cognitive abilities and positive emotional states, which may further impact entrepreneurial behavior. Therefore, understanding the relationship between exercise and entrepreneurial behavior is essential, because it can provide policy suggestions for popularizing athletic activities and boosting entrepreneurship. Consequently, the present study examined whether physical exercise could predict entrepreneurial behavior and the possible psychological mechanisms within this relationship. Based on the 2017 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS2017), this study tested the hypotheses using the Probit and Tobit models. The results showed that individuals' physical exercise intensity and frequency positively affected their entrepreneurial behavior. In addition, five variables moderated the relationships between physical exercise and individual entrepreneurial behavior: urban-rural differences, education level, marital status, the existence of minor children, and age. Moreover, positive emotions and physical/mental health mediated the influence of physical exercise (exercise frequency and exercise intensity) on individual entrepreneurial behavior. Endogeneity explanations were ruled out by including instrumental variable, copula terms and adopting coarsened exact matching.

Boosting effect of regular sport practice in young adults: Preliminary results on cognitive and emotional abilities

Several studies have shown that physical exercise (PE) improves behavior and cognitive functioning, reducing the risk of various neurological diseases, protecting the brain from the detrimental effects of aging, facilitating body recovery after injuries, and enhancing self-efficacy and self-esteem. Emotion processing and regulation abilities are also widely acknowledged to be key to success in sports. In this study, we aim to prove that regular participation in sports enhances cognitive and emotional functioning in healthy individuals. A sample of 60 students (mean age = 22.12; SD = 2.40; M = 30), divided into sportive and sedentary, were subjected to a neuropsychological tests battery to assess their overall cognitive abilities (Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices, APM), verbal and graphic fluency (Word Fluency Task and modified Five Point Test, m-FPT), as well as their emotional awareness skills (Toronto Alexithymia Scale, TAS-20). Our results showed that sportive students performed better than sedentary ones in all cognitive tasks. Regarding emotional processing abilities, significant differences were found in the TAS-20 total score as well as in the Difficulty Describing Feelings (DDF) subscale and the Difficulty Identifying Feeling (DIF) subscale. Lastly, gender differences were found in the External-Oriented Thinking (EOT) subscale. Overall, our findings evidence that PE has positive effects on cognitive functioning and emotion regulation, suggesting how sports practice can promote mental health and wellbeing.

Acute effects of real and imagined endurance exercise on sustained attention performance

This study investigated acute effects of real and imagined endurance exercise on sustained attention performance in healthy young adults in order to shed light on the action mechanisms underlying changes in cognitive functioning. The neural similarities between both imagined and physically performed movements reveal that imagery induces transient hypofrontality, whereas real exercise reflects both transient hypofrontality effects and the global release of signaling factors (e.g., BDNF or serotonin) due to muscle contraction and the accompanying sensory feedback. We hypothesized improved cognitive functioning after both interventions (imagery and physical endurance exercise) with greater improvements for real exercise because it targets both mechanisms. Fifty-three sport science students completed two 25-min sessions of moderate endurance exercise in either a motor imagery modality or an executed bodily activity within the framework of an order-balanced crossover study. Assessments for sustained attention performance (d2-R) were performed before and after each endurance exercise condition. Statistical results showed improvements for both groups over time, which can mostly be explained by retest effects. However, we observed a significant interaction effect between group and time, F(1.6, 81.9) = 3.64, p = 0.04, η² = 0.07, with higher increases in the first session in case physical endurance exercise was performed compared to motor imagery exercise, t(51) = −2.71, p = 0.09, d = 0.75. This might suggest that the release of signaling factors due to muscle contractions with sensory feedback processing is an additional mediating mechanism alongside motor-related transient hypofrontality that improves cognitive performance.

Actigraphy-estimated physical activity is associated with functional and structural brain connectivity among older adults

Higher physical activity levels are associated with reduced cognitive decline among older adults; however, current understanding of underlying brain mechanisms is limited. This cross-sectional study investigated the relationship between actigraphy-estimated total volume of physical activity (TVPA) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measures of white matter hyperintensities (WMH), and functional and structural brain connectivity, measured by resting-state functional MRI and diffusion tensor imaging. Study participants (N = 156, mean age = 71 years) included 136 with normal cognition and 20 with Mild Cognitive Impairment. Higher TVPA was associated with greater functional connectivity within the default-mode network and greater network modularity (a measure of network specialization), as well as with greater anisotropy and lower radial diffusion in white matter, suggesting better structural connectivity. These associations with functional and structural connectivity were independent of one another and independent of the level of vascular risk, APOE-ε4 status, cognitive reserve, and WMH volume, which were not associated with TVPA. Findings suggest that physical activity is beneficial for brain connectivity among older individuals with varying levels of risk for cognitive decline.

Sedentary behaviour and brain health in middle-aged and older adults: a systematic review

Sedentary behaviour may increase the risk of dementia. Studying physiological effects of sedentary behaviour on cerebral health may provide new insights into the nature of this association. Accordingly, we reviewed if and how acute and habitual sedentary behaviour relate to brain health factors in middle-aged and older adults (≥45 years). Four databases were searched. Twenty-nine studies were included, with mainly cross-sectional designs. Nine studies examined neurotrophic factors and six studied functional brain measures, with the majority of these studies finding no associations with sedentary behaviour. The results from studies on sedentary behaviour and cerebrovascular measures were inconclusive. There was a tentative association between habitual sedentary behaviour and structural white matter health. An explanatory pathway for this effect might relate to the immediate vascular effects of sitting, such as elevation of blood pressure. Nevertheless, due to the foremost cross-sectional nature of the available evidence, reverse causality could also be a possible explanation. More prospective studies are needed to understand the potential of sedentary behaviour as a target for brain health.

Physiological Role of Orexinergic System for Health

Orexins, or hypocretins, are excitatory neuropeptides involved in the regulation of feeding behavior and the sleep and wakefulness states. Since their discovery, several lines of evidence have highlighted that orexin neurons regulate a great range of physiological functions, giving it the definition of a multitasking system. In the present review, we firstly describe the mechanisms underlining the orexin system and their interactions with the central nervous system (CNS). Then, the system’s involvement in goal-directed behaviors, sleep/wakefulness state regulation, feeding behavior and energy homeostasis, reward system, and aging and neurodegenerative diseases are described. Advanced evidence suggests that the orexin system is crucial for regulating many physiological functions and could represent a promising target for therapeutical approaches to obesity, drug addiction, and emotional stress.

Software professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey: Factors affecting their mental well-being and work engagement in the home-based work setting

With the COVID-19 pandemic, strict measures have been taken to slow down the spread of the virus, and consequently, software professionals have been forced to work from home. However, home-based working entails many challenges, as the home environment is shared by the whole family simultaneously under pandemic conditions. The aim of this study is to explore software professionals' mental well-being and work engagement and the relationships of these variables with job strain and resource-related factors in the forced home-based work setting during the COVID-19 pandemic. An online cross-sectional survey based on primarily well-known, validated scales was conducted with software professionals in Turkey. The analysis of the results was performed through hierarchical multivariate regression. The results suggest that despite the negative effect of job strain, the resource-related protective factors, namely, sleep quality, decision latitude, work-life balance, exercise predict mental well-being. Additionally, work engagement is predicted by job strain, sleep quality, and decision latitude. The results of the study will provide valuable insights to management of the software companies and professionals about the precautions that can be taken to have a better home-based working experience such as allowing greater autonomy and enhancing the quality of sleep and hence mitigating the negative effects of pandemic emergency situations on software professionals' mental well-being and work engagement.

Can exercise shape your brain? A review of aerobic exercise effects on cognitive function and neuro-physiological underpinning mechanisms

It is widely accepted that physical exercise can be used as a tool for the prevention and treatment of various diseases or disorders. In addition, in the recent years, exercise has also been successfully used to enhance people's cognition. There is a large amount of research that has supported the benefits of physical exercise on human cognition, both in children and adults. Among these studies, some have focused on the acute or transitory effects of exercise on cognition, while others have focused on the effects of regular physical exercise. However, the relation between exercise and cognition is complex and we still have limited knowledge about the moderators and mechanisms underlying this relation. Most of human studies have focused on the behavioral aspects of exercise-effects on cognition, while animal studies have deepened in its possible neuro-physiological mechanisms. Even so, thanks to advances in neuroimaging techniques, there is a growing body of evidence that provides valuable information regarding these mechanisms in the human population. This review aims to analyze the effects of regular and acute aerobic exercise on cognition. The exercise-cognition relationship will be reviewed both from the behavioral perspective and from the neurophysiological mechanisms. The effects of exercise on animals, adult humans, and infant humans will be analyzed separately. Finally, physical exercise intervention programs aiming to increase cognitive performance in scholar and workplace environments will be reviewed.

Exercise Training Improves Memory Performance in Older Adults: A Narrative Review of Evidence and Possible Mechanisms

As human life expectancy increases, cognitive decline and memory impairment threaten independence and quality of life. Therefore, finding prevention and treatment strategies for memory impairment is an important health concern. Moreover, a better understanding of the mechanisms involved underlying memory preservation will enable the development of appropriate pharmaceuticals drugs for those who are activity limited. Exercise training as a non-pharmacological tool, has been known to increase the mean lifespan by maintaining general body health and improving the cardiovascular and nervous systems function. Among different exercise training protocols, aerobic exercise has been reported to prevent the progression of memory decline, provided adequate exertion level, duration, and frequency. Mechanisms underlying exercise training effects on memory performance have not been understood yet. Convergent evidence suggest several direct and indirect mechanisms at molecular and supramolecular levels. The supramolecular level includes improvement in blood circulation, synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis which are under controls of complex molecular signaling of neurotransmitters, neurotrophic factors, exerkines, and epigenetics factors. Among these various factors, irisin/BDNF signaling seems to be one of the important mediators of crosstalk between contracted skeletal muscles and the brain during exercise training. This review provides an affordable and effective method to improve cognitive function in old ages, particularly those who are most vulnerable to neurodegenerative disorders.

APOE ε4 and exercise interact in a sex‐specific manner to modulate dementia risk factors

Introduction

Apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 is the strongest genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRDs), affecting many different pathways that lead to cognitive decline. Exercise is one of the most widely proposed prevention and intervention strategies to mitigate risk and symptomology of ADRDs. Importantly, exercise and APOE ε4 affect similar processes in the body and brain. While both APOE ε4 and exercise have been studied extensively, their interactive effects are not well understood.

Methods

To address this, male and female APOE ε3/ε3, APOE ε3/ε4, and APOE ε4/ε4 mice ran voluntarily from wean (1 month) to midlife (12 months). Longitudinal and cross‐sectional phenotyping were performed on the periphery and the brain, assessing markers of risk for dementia such as weight, body composition, circulating cholesterol composition, murine daily activities, energy expenditure, and cortical and hippocampal transcriptional profiling.

Results

Data revealed chronic running decreased age‐dependent weight gain, lean and fat mass, and serum low‐density lipoprotein concentration dependent on APOE genotype. Additionally, murine daily activities and energy expenditure were significantly influenced by an interaction between APOE genotype and running in both sexes. Transcriptional profiling of the cortex and hippocampus predicted that APOE genotype and running interact to affect numerous biological processes including vascular integrity, synaptic/neuronal health, cell motility, and mitochondrial metabolism, in a sex‐specific manner.

Discussion

These data in humanized mouse models provide compelling evidence that APOE genotype should be considered for population‐based strategies that incorporate exercise to prevent ADRDs and other APOE‐relevant diseases.

Neuro-consequences of the spaceflight environment

As human space exploration advances to establish a permanent presence beyond the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) with NASA's Artemis mission, researchers are striving to understand and address the health challenges of living and working in the spaceflight environment. Exposure to ionizing radiation, microgravity, isolation and other spaceflight hazards pose significant risks to astronauts. Determining neurobiological and neurobehavioral responses, understanding physiological responses under Central Nervous System (CNS) control, and identifying putative mechanisms to inform countermeasure development are critically important to ensuring brain and behavioral health of crew on long duration missions. Here we provide a detailed and comprehensive review of the effects of spaceflight and of ground-based spaceflight analogs, including simulated weightlessness, social isolation, and ionizing radiation on humans and animals. Further, we discuss dietary and non-dietary countermeasures including artificial gravity and antioxidants, among others. Significant future work is needed to ensure that neural, sensorimotor, cognitive and other physiological functions are maintained during extended deep space missions to avoid potentially catastrophic health and safety outcomes.

Parkinson's disease patients benefit from bicycling - a systematic review and meta-analysis

Many Parkinson's disease (PD) patients are able to ride a bicycle despite being severely compromised by gait disturbances up to freezing of gait. This review [PROSPERO CRD 42019137386] aimed to find out, which PD-related symptoms improve from bicycling, and which type of bicycling exercise would be most beneficial. Following a systematic database literature search, peer-reviewed studies with randomized control trials (RCT) and with non-randomized trials (NRCT) investigating the interventional effects of bicycling on PD patients were included. A quality analysis addressing reporting, design and possible bias of the studies, as well as a publication bias test was done. Out of 202 references, 22 eligible studies with 505 patients were analysed. An inverse variance-based analysis revealed that primary measures, defined as motor outcomes, benefitted from bicycling significantly more than cognitive measures. Additionally, secondary measures of balance, walking speed and capacity, and the PDQ-39 ratings improved with bicycling. The interventions varied in durations, intensities and target cadences. Conclusively, bicycling is particularly beneficial for the motor performance of PD patients, improving crucial features of gait. Furthermore, our findings suggest that bicycling improves the overall quality-of-life of PD patients.

Behavioral Restriction Determines Left Attentional Bias: Preliminary Evidences From COVID-19 Lockdown

During the COVID-19 lockdown, individuals were forced to remain at home, hence severely limiting the interaction within environmental stimuli, reducing the cognitive load placed on spatial competences. The effects of the behavioral restriction on cognition have been little examined. The present study is aimed at analyzing the effects of lockdown on executive function prominently involved in adapting behavior to new environmental demands. We analyze non-verbal fluency abilities, as indirectly providing a measure of cognitive flexibility to react to spatial changes. Sixteen students (mean age 20.75; SD 1.34), evaluated before the start of the lockdown (T1) in a battery of psychological tasks exploring different cognitive domains, have been reassessed during lockdown (T2). The assessment included the modified Five-Point Test (m-FPT) to analyze non-verbal fluency abilities. At T2, the students were also administered the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). The restriction of behaviors following a lockdown determines increased non-verbal fluency, evidenced by the significant increase of the number of new drawings. We found worsened verbal span, while phonemic verbal fluency remained unchanged. Interestingly, we observed a significant tendency to use the left part of each box in the m-FPT correlated with TAS-20 and with the subscales that assess difficulty in describing and identifying feelings. Although our data were collected from a small sample, they evidence that the restriction of behaviors determines a leftward bias, suggesting a greater activation of the right hemisphere, intrinsically connected with the processing of non-verbal information and with the need to manage an emotional situation.

Limonene has anti-anxiety activity via adenosine A2A receptor-mediated regulation of dopaminergic and GABAergic neuronal function in the striatum

BACKGROUND

Limonene, a common terpene found in citrus fruits, is assumed to reduce stress and mood disorders. Dopamine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) have been reported to play an important role in modulating anxiety in different parts of the brain.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

Herein, we report the anxiolytic activity of limonene. In addition, we identified a possible mechanism underlying the effect of limonene on DAergic and GABAergic neurotransmission.

STUDY DESIGN

In this study, mice were injected with saline in the control group and limonene in the test group before behavioral analysis. We performed immunoblotting and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis after the behavioral study.

RESULTS

The limonene treated group showed increased locomotor activity and open-arm preference in the elevated plus maze experiment. Limonene treatment increased the expression of both tyrosine hydroxylase and GAD-67 proteins and significantly upregulated dopamine levels in the striatum. Furthermore, tissue dopamine levels were increased in the striatum of mice following limonene treatment, and depolarization-induced GABA release was enhanced by limonene pre-treatment in PC-12 cells. Interestingly, limonene-induced anxiolytic activity and GABA release augmentation were blocked by an adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) antagonist.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that limonene inhibits anxiety-related behavior through A2A receptor-mediated regulation of DAergic and GABAergic neuronal activity.

Longitudinal Assessment of Physical Activity and Cognitive Outcomes Among Women at Midlife

IMPORTANCE

The increasing prevalence of cognitive decline, impairment, and dementia spurs intense interest in cognitive preservation strategies.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the longitudinal association between physical activity (PA) and cognitive performance among women at midlife.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cohort study is an analysis from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation. Enrollment occurred from 1996 through 1997, and follow-up extended into 2017. Included individuals were those who had undergone cognitive measures during the first 3 cognitive test visits and had at least 1 additional cognitive measurement. Stroke prior to baseline was an exclusion, and observations were censored for subsequent stroke. Data were analyzed from June 2018 through August 2019.

EXPOSURES

Engaging in sport or exercise PA (self-reported).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) was used to assess cognitive processing speed. The East Boston Memory Test-Delayed (EBMT-D) was used to measure verbal episodic memory. The digit span backwards (DSB) test was used to evaluate working memory.

RESULTS

Among 1718 women with a median (range) observation time of 11.9 (0.60-13.5) years, the mean (SD) baseline age was 45.7 (2.5) years. From baseline through age 61 years, mean change in SDMT score was -0.20 annually (95% CI, -0.26 to -0.15; P < .001). After age 61 years, the mean change in SDMT was -0.51 yearly (95% CI, -0.54 to -0.41; P < .001). Beginning at age 58 years of the mean change in EBMT was -0.03 yearly (95% CI, -0.04 to -0.02; P < .001). Starting at age 61 years, mean (SD) change in DSB was -0.03 annually (95% CI, -0.04 to -0.01; P = .001). When adjusted for attrition and practice effect, PA was associated with higher concurrent SDMT and EBMT scores and a smaller decrease in SDMT score. For each unit increment in PA, there was a 0.36 increment in concurrent SDMT score (95% CI, 0.14 to 0.59; P = .002) and a 0.10 increment in concurrent EBMT score (95% CI, 0.05 to 0.15; P < .001). Greater PA was associated with a smaller annual mean decrease in SDMT score (0.06 yearly; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.09; P = .001). After additional adjustment for demographic characteristics, menopause symptoms, hormone therapy use, and the presence of diabetes and hypertension, PA was not associated with trajectories (ie, levels or slopes) of any cognitive outcome.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This cohort study found no association between greater PA levels and cognitive outcomes among women in midlife, unlike cohort studies that begin observations at later ages, which may be associated with confounding by reverse causation (ie, cognitive decline associated with an outcome of lower PA levels).

The Effects of a 5-Year Physical Exercise Intervention with Music in Community- Dwelling Normal Elderly People: The Mihama-Kiho Follow-Up Project

BACKGROUND

We previously reported the enhanced effects of physical exercise when combined with music (ExM) on cognitive function in community-dwelling normal elderly people compared to exercise alone. Following that study, participants voluntarily continued the ExM classes for 5 years.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the effects of a 5-year ExM intervention on cognitive function in normal elderly people.

METHODS

Fifty-four subjects continued the ExM classes once a week for 5 years (ExM group). Thirty-three subjects retired from the ExM class during the 5 years (Retired group). Twenty-one subjects never participated in any intervention over the 5 years (No-exercise group). Cognitive function and ADLs were assessed using neuropsychological batteries and the functional independence measure (FIM), respectively. The voxel-based specific regional analysis system for Alzheimer's disease (VSRAD) was used to investigate medial temporal lobe atrophy.

RESULTS

Analyses of the raw scores after the 5-year intervention showed significant differences between the ExM and No-exercise groups in their MMSE scores, Raven's colored progressive matrices (RCPM) time, logical memory (LM)-I, as well as the total and physical exercise sub-scores of the FIM. Analysis of subjects aged 70- 79 years at the beginning of this project showed significantly quicker performance on the RCPM in the ExM compared to No-exercise groups. The correlation coefficients between the total number of ExM sessions attended and the degree of changes in physical, neuropsychological, and VSRAD scores were significant for RCPM performance time and LM-I scores.

CONCLUSION

Long-term ExM intervention reinforces multifaceted cognitive function in normal elderly people, and is especially beneficial for psychomotor speed.

Role of Lifestyle in Neuroplasticity and Neurogenesis in an Aging Brain

Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to transform its shape, adapt, and develop a new neuronal connection provided with a new stimulus. The stronger the electrical stimulation, the robust is the transformation. Neurogenesis is a complex process when the new neuronal blast cells present in the dentate gyrus divide in the hippocampus. We collected articles from the past 11 years for review, using the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) strategy from PubMed. Quality appraisal was done for each research article using various assessment tools. A total of 24 articles were chosen, applying all the mentioned inclusion and exclusion criteria and reviewed. The reviewed studies emphasized that modifiable lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise should be implemented as an intervention in the elderly for healthy aging of the brain, as the world's aging population is going to be increased, leading to the expansion of health care and cost. Multiple studies have publicized the relation of diet and exercise with cognition function in aging people. A diet consisting of curcumin in its food has its anti-oxidative property, which prevents rapid aging of the brain, other diet patterns such as a caloric restriction diet can influence brain plasticity and preclude the decline of memory. Exercise can increase brain-derived growth factor (BDGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), synapsin one, and tyrosine kinase activity that can expand the size of the brain, enhance the plasticity and neurogenesis. This review aimed at exploring lifestyle factors that contribute to neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. Thus, providing a new path for clinicians and researchers to map out the future possible significant benefits for optimal brain aging in a healthy fashion.

Analysis of a New Work-Related Stress Assessment Tool

Background:

Work-related stress is a relevant phenomenon in terms of health and safety at work, as occupational distress has a negative impact on individual and organisational well-being. It is a complex and multifactorial phenomenon, whose evaluation must be carried out through a specific and adequate methodology.

Objective:

This work aims to identify versatile tools that can quickly provide reliable measures of work distress. It analyzes the proposal elaborated by the “Comitato Unico di Garanzia per le Pari Opportunità, la Valorizzazione del Benessere di chi lavora e contro le Discriminazioni” of Rome, i.e. the tool “Valutazione è prevenzione, Sicurezza è partecipazione”.

Methods:

A study was carried out on a sample of 474 employees of the Neapolitan Judicial Offices, who were given a standardized questionnaire to investigate the stress, associated with the proposal of the Comitato Unico di Garanzia.

Results:

From the elaboration of the results, it emerges that the conditions of working wellbeing are linked to two main factors related to the perception of workers both of physical-environmental and organisational-relational aspects. In particular, it emerged that the new assessment tool, consisting of a small number of items, contributes to the detection of work stress, so it is necessary to deepen through future research the contribution that this tool can offer to the survey on work-related stress.

Conclusion:

Having highlighted two factors that significantly saturate the presence of a working discomfort, through an agile tool, allows us to plan a new research path, which can approach the complexity of the phenomenon through the methods of deep learning.

Physical exercise interventions have no effect on serum BDNF concentration in older adults living in long-term nursing homes

Physical exercise protects against age-related cognitive decline. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may mediate some of the cognitive benefits of physical exercise, but the effect of physical exercise on serum BDNF is unclear. Indeed, differential findings have been reported depending on the characteristics of the participants and the intensity, duration, and type of exercise. The aim of this study was to determine whether three different physical exercise interventions alter serum BDNF levels in older adults living in long-term nursing homes (LTNHs) and whether changes in physical, cognitive, and dual-task performance are related to changes in serum BDNF. LTNH study participants (n = 126) were randomly assigned to multicomponent or dual-task training or a walking program and serum BDNF levels were analyzed by ELISA. We also assessed physical, cognitive, and dual-task parameters. Neither the multicomponent, dual-task, nor walking exercise programs caused changes in serum BDNF concentration in older adults living in LTNHs. Changes in BDNF during the interventions were not significantly associated with modifications in physical, cognitive or dual-task performance parameters. Our results provide new evidence clarifying the relationship between physical and cognitive exercise and BDNF.

Impact of Physical Activity on Cognitive Functions: A New Field for Research and Management of Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease inherited by an autosomal recessive mechanism and characterized by a progressive and severe multi-organ failure. Mutations in Cystic Fibrosis Conductance Regulator (CFTR) protein cause duct obstructions from dense mucus secretions and chronic inflammation related to organ damage. The progression of the disease is characterized by a decline of lung function associated with metabolic disorders and malnutrition, musculoskeletal disorders and thoracic deformities, leading to a progressive decrement of the individual’s quality of life. The World Health Organization (WHO) qualifies Physical Activity (PA) as a structured activity produced by skeletal muscles’ movements that requires energy consumption. In the last decade, the number of studies on PA increased considerably, including those investigating the effects of exercise on cognitive and brain health and mental performance. PA is recommended in CF management guidelines, since it improves clinic outcomes, such as peripheral neuropathy, oxygen uptake peak, bone health, glycemic control and respiratory functions. Several studies regarding the positive effects of exercise in patients with Cystic Fibrosis were carried out, but the link between the effects of exercise and cognitive and brain health in CF remains unclear. Animal models showed that exercise might improve learning and memory through structural changes of brain architecture, and such a causal relationship can also be described in humans. Indeed, both morphological and environmental factors seem to be involved in exercise-induced neural plasticity. An increase of gray matter volume in specific areas is detectable as a consequence of regular training in humans. Neurobiological processes associated with brain function improvements include biochemical modifications, such as neuromodulator or neurohormone release, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) production and synaptic activity changes. From a functional point of view, PA also seems to be an environmental factor enhancing cognitive abilities, such as executive functions, memory and processing speed. This review describes the current state of research regarding the impacts of physical activity and exercise on cognitive functions, introducing a possible novel field of research for optimizing the management of Cystic Fibrosis.

Identification of nonclinical interventions for spontaneous recovery of depression using mathematical modeling

BACKGROUND

In order to make a risk or vulnerability assessment of major depressive disorder (MDD) in adolescents and suggest nonclinical interventions for spontaneous recovery for low-vulnerable adolescents a novel network mathematical model has been proposed.

METHODS

In the existing network theory, the theoretical model consists of a symptom network surrounded by the triggering factors as external field which are the cause for adolescents being diagnosed with MDD. But in our network model, the triggering external field is replaced by nonclinical interventions, easily implementable in schools and colleges with teachers as facilitators.

RESULTS

The four variables of subjective well-being (SWB), emotional quotient-Attention (EQ-A), emotional quotient-Clarity (EQ-C) and emotional quotient-Reparation (EQ-R) were the symptoms considered for stratification of the vulnerability. The mathematical model was created using the four symptoms and the four nonclinical interventions of technology use, physical exercise, peer pressure positive and peer pressure negative, and their inter-relationship.

CONCLUSION

A balance of tech use and physical exercise and of the peer pressure help maintain the adolescents in the low-vulnerability group in our study with 227 adolescents in Bangalore. Furthermore, we predict that positive peer pressure and physical exercise could increase the EQ thus suggesting a preventive model for the onset of major depressive disorder (MDD).

Effects of a high-DHA multi-nutrient supplement and exercise on mobility and cognition in older women (MOBILE): a randomised semi-blinded placebo-controlled study

There is a complex interplay between mobility and cognition in older adults. We have previously shown that a high-DHA multi-nutrient supplement improves habitual walking speed, verbal memory and psychomotor response latency in older women. Exercise also improves mobility and cognition in older adults, and n-3 fatty acids and exercise share a range of overlapping biological effects. This study examined for the first time the effects of the high-DHA multi-nutrient supplement and aerobic exercise on mobility and cognition in older women. Women (mean age 67 (sd 8) years) were assigned to the following groups: multi-nutrient (1 g DHA, 160 mg EPA, 240 mg Ginkgo biloba, 60 mg phosphatidylserine, 20 mg d-α tocopherol, 1 mg folic acid and 20 µg vitamin B12 per d, n 13), multi-nutrient and exercise (spin class twice per week, n 14), exercise and placebo (n 12) or placebo (n 12). The multi-nutrient was given for 24 weeks and exercise for 12 weeks. No treatment effects were observed for the primary outcome, habitual walking speed. Improvements in verbal memory and executive function were seen for all treatments groups v. placebo (all, P < 0·05). Significant improvements in self-reported emotional well-being were seen with multi-nutrient and exercise groups v. placebo (P = 0·03). The results suggest that the high-DHA multi-nutrient supplement produces similar improvements in cognitive function to aerobic exercise, offering the intriguing prospect that supplementation may be able to mitigate some of the effects of low physical activity on cognitive function in the elderly.

Aerobic Exercise and Metabolic Syndrome: The Role of Sympathetic Activity and the Redox System

BACKGROUND

Aerobic exercise can greatly assist in reducing collateral effects of metabolic syndrome (MetS). Moreover, aerobic exercise is associated with sympathetic activation and adaptive responses to sustain muscle engagement, changes in the release of Orexin A, a pleiotropic neuropeptide.

AIM

The aim of this study was to analyze the beneficial effects of aerobic exercise without dietary changes, in a cohort of MetS subjects, focusing on the role of sympathetic and orexinergic activity. Several blood parameters linked to MetS ROS production, heart rate, galvanic skin response, d-ROM test, and Orexin A serum levels were evaluated in ten males with MetS (BMI 30-34.9) before and after a period of 6 months of aerobic exercise compared to ten healthy subjects.

METHODS

Ten male subjects (aged 54 ± 4.16) with MetS (MetS group) and ten healthy males (aged 49.7 ± 2.79, Healthy group) were told about the study protocol and possible risks, signed the informed consent, and voluntarily participated in the study. Several blood parameters were evaluated in the two tested groups and were re-evaluated in the MetS group after 6 months of training (MetS6M group). The training protocol consisted of more than 30 min/day of walking (average speed of 4.5 km/h) and 3 days/week of aerobic activities (jogging under heart rate control - 120-140 bpm for 45 min).

RESULTS

The results showed that exercise induced a significant increase in GSR and plasma Orexin A but no significant increase in d-ROM values. Significant decreases in the serum ALT enzyme, triglycerides, and total cholesterol were found, while the HDL levels were significantly higher. Finally, a significant reduction of BMI and resting HR were reported.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study confirm that physical activity is associated with sympathetic activation, having a pivotal role against adverse effects linked to MetS. Moreover, this study demonstrates that, in patients with MetS, Orexin A is involved in hormonal adaptations to exercise.

Transcriptional profiling predicts running promotes cerebrovascular remodeling in young but not midlife mice

Background

The incidence of dementia and cognitive decline is increasing with no therapy or cure. One of the reasons treatment remains elusive is because there are various pathologies that contribute to age-related cognitive decline. Specifically, with Alzheimer’s disease, targeting to reduce amyloid beta plaques and phosphorylated tau aggregates in clinical trials has not yielded results to slow symptomology, suggesting a new approach is needed. Interestingly, exercise has been proposed as a potential therapeutic intervention to improve brain health and reduce the risk for dementia, however the benefits throughout aging are not well understood.

Results

To better understand the effects of exercise, we preformed transcriptional profiling on young (1–2 months) and midlife (12 months) C57BL/6 J (B6) male mice after 12 weeks of voluntary running. Data was compared to age-matched sedentary controls. Interestingly, the midlife running group naturally broke into two cohorts based on distance ran - either running a lot and more intensely (high runners) or running less and less intensely (low runners). Midlife high runners had lower LDL cholesterol as well as lower adiposity (%fat) compared to sedentary, than midlife low runners compared to sedentary suggesting more intense running lowered systemic markers of risk for age-related diseases including dementias. Differential gene analysis of transcriptional profiles generated from the cortex and hippocampus showed thousands of differentially expressed (DE) genes when comparing young runners to sedentary controls. However, only a few hundred genes were DE comparing either midlife high runners or midlife low runners to midlife sedentary controls. This indicates that, in our study, the effects of running are reduced through aging. Gene set enrichment analyses identified enrichment of genes involved in extracellular matrix (ECM), vascular remodeling and angiogenesis in young runners but not midlife runners. These genes are known to be expressed in multiple vascular-related cell types including astrocytes, endothelial cells, pericytes and smooth muscle cells.

Conclusions

Taken together these results suggest running may best serve as a preventative measure to reduce risk for cerebrovascular decline. Ultimately, this work shows that exercise may be more effective to prevent dementia if introduced at younger ages.

Exercise for Brain Health: An Investigation into the Underlying Mechanisms Guided by Dose

There is a strong link between the practice of regular physical exercise and maintenance of cognitive brain health. Animal and human studies have shown that exercise exerts positive effects on cognition through a variety of mechanisms, such as changes in brain volume and connectivity, cerebral perfusion, synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, and regulation of trophic factors. However, much of this data has been conducted in young humans and animals, raising questions regarding the generalizability of these findings to aging adults. Furthermore, it is not clear at which doses these effects might take place, and if effects would differ with varying exercise modes (such as aerobic, resistance training, combinations, or other). The purpose of this review is to summarize the evidence on the effects of exercise interventions on various mechanisms believed to support cognitive improvements: cerebral perfusion, synaptic neuroplasticity, brain volume and connectivity, neurogenesis, and regulation of trophic factors. We synthesized the findings according to exposure to exercise (short- [1 day-16 weeks], medium- [24-40 weeks], and long-term exercise [52 weeks and beyond]) and have limited our discussion of dose effects to studies in aging adults and aged animals (when human data was not available).

Health Benefits of Endurance Training: Implications of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor-A Systematic Review

This article presents a concept that wide expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its receptors (TrkB) in the nervous tissue, evoked by regular endurance training (ET), can cause numerous motor and metabolic adaptations, which are beneficial for human health. The relationships between the training-evoked increase of endogenous BDNF and molecular and/or physiological adaptations in the nervous structures controlling both motor performance and homeostasis of the whole organism have been presented. Due to a very wide range of plastic changes that ET has exerted on various systems of the body, the improvement of motor skills and counteraction of the development of civilization diseases resulting from the posttraining increase of BDNF/TrkB levels have been discussed, as important for people, who undertake ET. Thus, this report presents the influence of endurance exercises on the (1) transformation of motoneuron properties, which are a final element of the motor pathways, (2) reduction of motor deficits evoked by Parkinson disease, and (3) prevention of the metabolic syndrome (MetS). This review suggests that the increase of posttraining levels of BDNF and its TrkB receptors causes simultaneous changes in the activity of the spinal cord, the substantia nigra, and the hypothalamic nuclei neurons, which are responsible for the alteration of the functional properties of motoneurons innervating the skeletal muscles, for the enhancement of dopamine release in the brain, and for the modulation of hormone levels involved in regulating the metabolic processes, responsively. Finally, training-evoked increase of the BDNF/TrkB leads to a change in a manner of regulation of skeletal muscles, causes a reduction of motor deficits observed in the Parkinson disease, and lowers weight, glucose level, and blood pressure, which accompany the MetS. Therefore, BDNF seems to be the molecular factor of pleiotropic activity, important in the modulation processes, underlying adaptations, which result from ET.

Therapeutic exercise accompanied by neuronal modulation to enhance neurotrophic factors in the brain with central nervous system disorders

Exercise is a primary therapeutic regimen in physical therapy to rehabilitate the motor function of patients with central nervous system (CNS) disorders such as cerebrovascular accident (CVA). Furthermore, exercise positively contributes to cognitive function related to neuroplasticity and neuroprotection in the hippocampus. Neurotrophins play a crucial role in neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, and neuroprotection in the CNS. Exercise enhances the expression of neurotrophins in the brain. Thus, novel regimens for kinesiotherapy in CNS disorders to further enhance exercise-induced expression are expected. In this review, we described three novel regimens for kinesiotherapy in CNS disorders based on the interaction between exercise and pharmacological treatment with the idea of "inhibition of inhibition" in the CNS.

Dynamic Office Environments Improve Brain Activity and Attentional Performance Mediated by Increased Motor Activity

Current research demonstrates beneficial effects of physical activity on brain functions and cognitive performance. To date, less is known on the effects of gross motor movements that do not fall into the category of sports-related aerobic or anaerobic exercise. In previous studies, we found beneficial effects of dynamic working environments, i.e., environments that encourage movements during cognitive task performance, on cognitive performance and corresponding brain activity. Aim of the present study was to examine the effects of working in a dynamic and a static office environment on attentional and vigilance performance, and on the corresponding electroencephalographic (EEG) brain oscillatory patterns. In a 2-week intervention study, participants worked either in a dynamic or a static office. In each intervention group, 12 subjects performed attentional and vigilance tasks. Spontaneous EEG was measured from 19 electrodes continuosly before, during, and immediately after each experimental condition at the first, and at the last intervention session. Results showed differences in EEG brain activity in the dynamic compared to the static office at the beginning as well as at the end of the intervention. EEG theta power increased in the vigilance task in anterior regions, alpha power in central and parietal regions in the dynamic compared to the static office. Further, increases in beta activity in the attention and vigilance task were shown in frontal and central regions in the dynamic office. Gamma power increased in the attention task in frontal and central regions. After 2 weeks, effects on brain activity increased in the attentional and vigilance task in the dynamic office. Increased theta and alpha oscillations were obtained in anterior areas with higher activity in the beta band in anterior and central areas in the dynamic compared to the static office. EEG oscillatory patterns indicate beneficial effects of dynamic office environments on attentional and vigilance performance that are mediated by increased motor activity. We discuss the obtained patterns of EEG oscillations in terms of the close interrelations between the attentional and the motor system.

Modifiable Lifestyle Factors and Cognitive Function in Older People: A Cross-Sectional Observational Study

Background: The development of evidence-based interventions for delaying or preventing cognitive impairment is an important challenge. Most previous studies using self-report questionnaires face problems with reliability and consistency due to recall bias or misclassification among older people. Therefore, objective measurement of lifestyle components is needed to confirm the relationships between lifestyle factors and cognitive function. Aims: The current study examined the relationship between lifestyle factors collected with wearable sensors and cognitive function among community-dwelling older people using machine learning. Methods: In total, 855 participants (mean age: 73.8 years) wore a wristband sensor for 7.8 days on average every 3 months. Various lifestyle parameters were measured, including walking steps, conversation time, total sleep time (TST), sleep efficiency, time awake after sleep onset, awakening count, napping time, and heart rate. Random forest (RF) regression analysis was used to examine the relationships between total daily sensing data and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores. Confounding factor analysis was conducted with models that were adjusted and unadjusted for demographic and vascular risk factors, and selected variables were assessed as risk and protective factors using partial dependence plots (PDPs). Results: Lifestyle data were collected for 31.3 ± 7.1 days per year using wristband sensors. RF regression analysis adjusted for age, gender, and education levels selected four variables, including number of walking steps, conversation time, TST, and heart rate. Moreover, walking steps, conversation time, and heart rate remained after RF regression analysis adjusted for demographic and vascular risk factors. Number of walking steps, conversation time, and heart rate were categorized as protective factors, whereas TST was categorized as a risk factor for cognitive function. Although PDPs of number of walking steps and heart rate revealed continuously increased MMSE scores, those of conversation time and TST and revealed that the tendency in the graph was reversed at the boundary of a particular threshold (321.1 min for conversation time, 434.1 min for TST). Conclusions: Lifestyle factors, such as physical activity, sleep, and social activity appear to be associated with cognitive function among older people. Physical activity and appropriate durations of sleep and conversation are important for cognitive function.

Behavior of mice aboard the International Space Station

Interest in space habitation has grown dramatically with planning underway for the first human transit to Mars. Despite a robust history of domestic and international spaceflight research, understanding behavioral adaptation to the space environment for extended durations is scant. Here we report the first detailed behavioral analysis of mice flown in the NASA Rodent Habitat on the International Space Station (ISS). Following 4-day transit from Earth to ISS, video images were acquired on orbit from 16- and 32-week-old female mice. Spaceflown mice engaged in a full range of species-typical behaviors. Physical activity was greater in younger flight mice as compared to identically-housed ground controls, and followed the circadian cycle. Within 7-10 days after launch, younger (but not older), mice began to exhibit distinctive circling or 'race-tracking' behavior that evolved into coordinated group activity. Organized group circling behavior unique to spaceflight may represent stereotyped motor behavior, rewarding effects of physical exercise, or vestibular sensation produced via self-motion. Affording mice the opportunity to grab and run in the RH resembles physical activities that the crew participate in routinely. Our approach yields a useful analog for better understanding human responses to spaceflight, providing the opportunity to assess how physical movement influences responses to microgravity.

Epigenetic modifications induced by exercise: Drug-free intervention to improve cognitive deficits associated with obesity

Obesity and metabolic disorders are increasing worldwide and are associated with brain atrophy and dysfunction, which are risk factors for late-onset dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Epidemiological studies demonstrated that changes in lifestyle, including the frequent practice of physical exercise are able to prevent and treat not only obesity/metabolic disorders, but also to improve cognitive function and dementia. Several biochemical pathways and epigenetic mechanisms have been proposed to understand the beneficial effects of physical exercise on cognition. This manuscript revised central ongoing research on epigenetic mechanisms induced by exercise and the beneficial effects on obesity-associated cognitive decline, highlighting potential mechanistic mediators.

Orexin-A Exerts Neuroprotective Effects via OX1R in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive and selective death of dopaminergic neurons. Orexin-A is involved in many biological effects of the body. It has been reported that orexin-A has protective effects in cellular models of PD. However, little is known about the protective effects of orexin-A in animal parkinsonian models and the cellular mechanism has not yet been fully clarified. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of orexin-A in MPTP mice model of PD as well as the possible neuroprotective mechanisms of orexin-A on dopaminergic neurons. The results from animal experiments demonstrated that orexin-A attenuated the loss of dopaminergic neurons and the decrease of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in the substantia nigra, normalized the striatal dopaminergic fibers, and prevented the depletion of dopamine and its metabolites in the striatum. MPTP-treated mice showed cognitive impairments accompanied with significant motor deficiency. Orexin-A improved MPTP-induced impairments in both motor activity and spatial memory. Importantly, orexin-A increased the protein level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. Furthermore, the protective effects of orexin-A on MPTP parkinsonian mice could be blocked by orexinergic receptor 1 (OX1R) antagonist, SB334867. In another set of experiments with SH-SY5Y dopaminergic cells, orexin-A significantly induced the expression of BDNF in a dose and time-dependent manner. The upregulation of BDNF is mainly concerned with PI3K and PKC signaling pathways via OX1R. The present study demonstrated that orexin-A exerted neuroprotective effects on MPTP parkinsonian mice, which may imply orexin-A as a potential therapeutic target for PD.

Orexin-A Exerts Neuroprotective Effects via OX1R in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive and selective death of dopaminergic neurons. Orexin-A is involved in many biological effects of the body. It has been reported that orexin-A has protective effects in cellular models of PD. However, little is known about the protective effects of orexin-A in animal parkinsonian models and the cellular mechanism has not yet been fully clarified. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of orexin-A in MPTP mice model of PD as well as the possible neuroprotective mechanisms of orexin-A on dopaminergic neurons. The results from animal experiments demonstrated that orexin-A attenuated the loss of dopaminergic neurons and the decrease of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in the substantia nigra, normalized the striatal dopaminergic fibers, and prevented the depletion of dopamine and its metabolites in the striatum. MPTP-treated mice showed cognitive impairments accompanied with significant motor deficiency. Orexin-A improved MPTP-induced impairments in both motor activity and spatial memory. Importantly, orexin-A increased the protein level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra. Furthermore, the protective effects of orexin-A on MPTP parkinsonian mice could be blocked by orexinergic receptor 1 (OX1R) antagonist, SB334867. In another set of experiments with SH-SY5Y dopaminergic cells, orexin-A significantly induced the expression of BDNF in a dose and time-dependent manner. The upregulation of BDNF is mainly concerned with PI3K and PKC signaling pathways via OX1R. The present study demonstrated that orexin-A exerted neuroprotective effects on MPTP parkinsonian mice, which may imply orexin-A as a potential therapeutic target for PD.