Carbon-Based Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications: A Recent Study

Advances in inorganic nanoparticles-based drug delivery in targeted breast cancer theranostics

Theranostic nanoparticles (NPs) have the potential to dramatically improve cancer management by providing personalized medicine. Inorganic NPs have attracted widespread interest from academic and industrial communities because of their unique physicochemical properties (including magnetic, thermal, and catalytic performance) and excellent functions with functional surface modifications or component dopants (e.g., imaging and controlled release of drugs). To date, only a restricted number of inorganic NPs are deciphered into clinical practice. This review highlights the recent advances of inorganic NPs in breast cancer therapy. We believe that this review can provides various approaches for investigating and developing inorganic NPs as promising compounds in the future prospects of applications in breast cancer treatment and material science.

Nanomaterials in the environment and their pragmatic voyage at various trophic levels in an ecosystem

In the development of nanotechnology, nanomaterials (NMs) have a huge credential in advancing the existing follow-ups of analytical and diagnosis techniques, drug designing, agricultural science, electronics, cosmetics, sports, textiles and water purification. However, NMs have also grasped attention of researchers onto their toxicity. In the present review, initially the development of notable NMs such as metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles (NPs), magnetic NPs, carbon-based NMs and quantum dots intended to be commercialized along with their applications are discussed. This is followed by the current scenario of NMs in the environment to widen the outlook on the concentration of NPs in the environmental compartments and the frequency of organism exposed to NPs at varied trophic levels. In order to understand the physiochemical and morphological significance of NPs in exhibiting toxicity, fate of NPs in the environment is briefly deliberated. This is further geared-up to glance in-sightedly on the organisms starting from primary producer to primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer and decomposers encountering NPs in their habitual niche. The state of NPs to which organisms are exposed, mechanism of NP uptake and toxicity, anomalies faced at each trophic level, concentration of NPs that is liable to cause toxicity and, biotransfer of NPs to the next generation and trophic level are detailed. Finally, the future prospects on bioaccumulation and biomagnification of NP-based products are conversed. Thus, the review would be noteworthy in unveiling the significance of NPs in forthcoming years combined with threat towards each organism in an ecosystem.

From bone to nanoparticles: development of a novel generation of bone derived nanoparticles for image guided orthopedic regeneration

Bone related diseases such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, metastatic bone cancer, osteogenesis imperfecta, and Paget's disease, are primarily treated with pharmacologic therapies that often exhibit limited efficacy and substantial side effects. Bone injuries or fractures are primarily repaired with biocompatible materials that produce mixed results in sufficiently regenerating healthy and homogenous bone tissue. Each of these bone conditions, both localized and systemic, use different strategies with the same goal of achieving a healthy and homeostatic bone environment. In this study, we developed a new type of bone-based nanoparticle (BPs) using the entire organic extracellular matrix (ECM) of decellularized porcine bone, additionally encapsulating indocyanine green dye (ICG) for an in vivo monitoring capability. Utilizing the regenerative capability of bone ECM and the functionality of nanoparticles, the ICG encapsulated BPs (ICG/BPs) have been demonstrated to be utilized as a therapeutic option for localized and systemic orthopedic conditions. Additionally, ICG enables an in situ monitoring capability in the Short-Wave Infrared (SWIR) spectrum, capturing the degradation or the biodistribution of the ICG/BPs after both local implantation and intravenous administration, respectively. The efficacy and safety of the ICG/BPs shown within this study lay the foundation for future investigations, which will delve into optimization for clinical translation.

Biomaterials for Targeting Endoplasmic Reticulum in Cancer

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is one of the most important sub-cellular organelles which controls myriads of biological functions including protein biosynthesis with proper functional folded form, protein misfolding, protein transport into Golgi body for secretion, Ca2+ homeostasis and so on. Subsequently, dysregulation in ER function leads to ER stress followed by disease pathology like cancer. Hence, targeting ER in the cancer cells emerged as one of the futuristic strategies for cancer treatment. However, the major challenge is to selectively and specifically target ER in the sub-cellular milieu in the cancer tissues, due to the lack of ER targeting chemical moieties to recognize the ER markers. To address this, in the last decade, numerous biomaterials were explored to selectively impair and image ER in cancer cells to induce ER stress. This review outlines those biomaterials which consists of carbon and silicon materials, lipid nanoparticles (liposomes and micelles), supramolecular self-assembled nanostructures, cell membrane-coated nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles. Moreover, we also discuss the challenges and possible solutions of this promising field to usher the readers towards next-generation ER targeted cancer therapy.

Graphene as a promising material in orthodontics: A review

Graphene is an extraordinary material with unique mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties. Additionally, it boasts high surface area and antimicrobial properties, making it an attractive option for researchers exploring innovative materials for biomedical applications. Although there have been various studies on graphene applications in different biomedical fields, limited reviews have been conducted on its use in dentistry, and no reviews have focused on its application in the orthodontic field. This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of graphene-based materials, with an emphasis on their antibacterial mechanisms and the factors that influence these properties. Additionally, the review summarizes the dental applications of graphene, spotlighting the studies of its orthodontic application as they can be used to enhance the antibacterial and mechanical properties of orthodontic materials such as adhesives, archwires, and splints. Also, they can be utilized to enhance bone remodeling during orthodontic tooth movement. An electronic search was carried out in Scopus, PubMed, Science Direct, and Wiley Online Library digital database platforms using graphene and orthodontics as keywords. The search was restricted to English language publications without a time limit. This review highlights the need for further laboratory and clinical research using graphene-based materials to improve the properties of orthodontic materials to make them available for clinical use.

Curcuma Longa: Nutraceutical Use and Association With Nanotechnology

Curcumin is a natural product found in the rhizome of Curcuma longa (L.) and other Curcuma spp. As a lipophilic molecule, it has greater affinity for polar, non-polar, alkaline, or extremely acidic organic solvents. Several studies indicate that curcumin has several benefits for human health, for example, against degenerative diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases. To obtain a quality product with nutraceutical properties, it is necessary to know its physicochemical characteristics and preserve it from cultivation until ingestion by the human. However, its low solubility leads to low absorption; in this context, nanotechnological systems can contribute to increase curcumin bioavailability. This review aims to highlight important issues in all stages that curcumin goes through: from aspects related to its extraction to its association with nanotechnology. Although curcumin extraction process is already well established, it is possible to observe more and more research focused on increasing yield and being more environmentally friendly. Further, curcumin's low absorption is notable due to its physicochemical characteristics, mainly due to its low aqueous solubility. However, its association with nanotechnology shows to be promising and an increasingly growing trend because the use of this "Indian solid gold" is the hope of many patients.

A comprehensive review on the biomedical frontiers of nanowire applications

This comprehensive review examines the immense capacity of nanowires, nanostructures characterized by unbounded dimensions, to profoundly transform the field of biomedicine. Nanowires, which are created by combining several materials using techniques such as electrospinning and vapor deposition, possess distinct mechanical, optical, and electrical properties. As a result, they are well-suited for use in nanoscale electronic devices, drug delivery systems, chemical sensors, and other applications. The utilization of techniques such as the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) approach and template-assisted approaches enables the achievement of precision in synthesis. This precision allows for the customization of characteristics, which in turn enables the capability of intracellular sensing and accurate drug administration. Nanowires exhibit potential in biomedical imaging, neural interfacing, and tissue engineering, despite obstacles related to biocompatibility and scalable manufacturing. They possess multifunctional capabilities that have the potential to greatly influence the intersection of nanotechnology and healthcare. Surmounting present obstacles has the potential to unleash the complete capabilities of nanowires, leading to significant improvements in diagnostics, biosensing, regenerative medicine, and next-generation point-of-care medicines.

Shielding Effects Provide a Dominant Mechanism in J-Aggregation-Induced Photoluminescence Enhancement of Carbon Nanotubes

The unique photophysical properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) exhibit great potential for bioimaging applications. This led to extensive exploration of photosensitization methods to improve their faint shortwave infrared (SWIR) photoluminescence. Here, we report the mechanisms of SWCNT-assisted J-aggregation of cyanine dyes and the associated photoluminescence enhancement of SWCNTs in the SWIR spectral region. Surprisingly, we found that excitation energy transfer between the cyanine dyes and SWCNTs makes a negligible contribution to the overall photoluminescence enhancement. Instead, the shielding of SWCNTs from the surrounding water molecules through hydrogen bond-assisted macromolecular reorganization of ionic surfactants triggered by counterions and the physisorption of the dye molecules on the side walls of SWCNTs play a primary role in the photoluminescence enhancement of SWCNTs. We observed 2 orders of magnitude photoluminescence enhancement of SWCNTs by optimizing these factors. Our findings suggest that the proper shielding of SWCNTs is the critical factor for their photoluminescence enhancement, which has important implications for their application as imaging agents in biological settings.

Electronic and structural properties of Möbius boron-nitride and carbon nanobelts

For the development of nanofilters and nanosensors, we wish to know the impact of size on their geometric, electronic, and thermal stabilities. Using the semiempirical tight binding method as implemented in the xTB program, we characterized Möbius boron-nitride and carbon-based nanobelts with different sizes and compared them to each other and to normal nanobelts. The calculated properties include the infrared spectra, the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO), the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), the energy gap, the chemical potential, and the molecular hardness. The agreement between the peak positions from theoretical infrared spectra compared with experimental ones for all systems validates the methodology that we used. Our findings show that for the boron-nitride-based nanobelts, the calculated properties have an opposite monotonic relationship with the size of the systems, whereas for the carbon-based nanobelts, the properties show the same monotonic relationship for both types of nanobelts. Also, the torsion presented on the Möbius nanobelts, in the case of boron-nitride, induced an inhomogeneous surface distribution for the HOMO orbitals. High-temperature molecular dynamics also allowed us to contrast carbon-based systems with boron-nitride systems at various temperatures. In all cases, the properties vary with the increase in size of the nanobelts, indicating that it is possible to choose the desired values by changing the size and type of the systems. This work has many implications for future studies, for example our results show that carbon-based nanobelts did not break as we increased the temperature, whereas boron-nitride nanobelts had a rupture temperature that varied with their size; this is a meaningful result that can be tested when the use of more accurate simulation methods become practical for such systems in the future.

Leveraging the Recent Advancements in GelMA Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering: An Assessment of Challenges and Opportunities

The field of bone tissue engineering has seen significant advancements in recent years. Each year, over two million bone transplants are performed globally, and conventional treatments, such as bone grafts and metallic implants, have their limitations. Tissue engineering offers a new level of treatment, allowing for the creation of living tissue within a biomaterial framework. Recent advances in biomaterials have provided innovative approaches to rebuilding bone tissue function after damage. Among them, gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel is emerging as a promising biomaterial for supporting cell proliferation and tissue regeneration, and GelMA has exhibited exceptional physicochemical and biological properties, making it a viable option for clinical translation. Various methods and classes of additives have been used in the application of GelMA for bone regeneration, with the incorporation of nanofillers or other polymers enhancing its resilience and functional performance. Despite promising results, the fabrication of complex structures that mimic the bone architecture and the provision of balanced physical properties for both cell and vasculature growth and proper stiffness for load bearing remain as challenges. In terms of utilizing osteogenic additives, the priority should be on versatile components that promote angiogenesis and osteogenesis while reinforcing the structure for bone tissue engineering applications. This review focuses on recent efforts and advantages of GelMA-based composite biomaterials for bone tissue engineering, covering the literature from the last five years.

Evaluation of Advanced Nanomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Cancer is a persistent global disease and a threat to the human species, with numerous cases reported every year. Over recent decades, a steady but slowly increasing mortality rate has been observed. While many attempts have been made using conventional methods alone as a theragnostic strategy, they have yielded very little success. Most of the shortcomings of such conventional methods can be attributed to the high demands of industrial growth and ever-increasing environmental pollution. This requires some high-tech biomedical interventions and other solutions. Thus, researchers have been compelled to explore alternative methods. This has brought much attention to nanotechnology applications, specifically magnetic nanomaterials, as the sole or conjugated theragnostic methods. The exponential growth of nanomaterials with overlapping applications in various fields is due to their potential properties, which depend on the type of synthesis route used. Either top-down or bottom-up strategies synthesize various types of NPs. The top-down only branches out to one method, i.e., physical, and the bottom-up has two methods, chemical and biological syntheses. This review highlights some synthesis techniques, the types of nanoparticle properties each technique produces, and their potential use in the biomedical field, more specifically for cancer. Despite the evident drawbacks, the success achieved in furthering nanoparticle applications to more complex cancer stages and locations is unmatched.

Nanoparticle-mediated dsRNA delivery for precision insect pest control: a comprehensive review

Nanoparticle-based delivery systems have emerged as powerful tools in the field of pest management, offering precise and effective means of delivering double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), a potent agent for pest control through RNA interference (RNAi). This comprehensive review aims to evaluate and compare various types of nanoparticles for their suitability in dsRNA delivery for pest management applications. The review begins by examining the unique properties and advantages of different nanoparticle materials, including clay, chitosan, liposomes, carbon, gold and silica. Each material's ability to protect dsRNA from degradation and its potential for targeted delivery to pests are assessed. Furthermore, this review delves into the surface modification strategies employed to enhance dsRNA delivery efficiency. Functionalization with oligonucleotides, lipids, polymers, proteins and peptides is discussed in detail, highlighting their role in improving stability, cellular uptake, and specificity of dsRNA delivery.This review also provides valuable guidance on choosing the most suitable nanoparticle-based system for delivering dsRNA effectively and sustainably in pest management. Moreover, it identifies existing knowledge gaps and proposes potential research directions aimed at enhancing pest control strategies through the utilization of nanoparticles and dsRNA.

Carbon Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications: Progress and Outlook

Recent developments in nanoscale materials have found extensive use in various fields, especially in the biomedical industry. Several substantial obstacles must be overcome, particularly those related to nanostructured materials in biomedicine, before they can be used in therapeutic applications. Significant concerns in biomedicine include biological processes, adaptability, toxic effects, and nano-biointerfacial properties. Biomedical researchers have difficulty choosing suitable materials for drug carriers, cancer treatment, and antiviral uses. Carbon nanomaterials are among the various nanoparticle forms that are continually receiving interest for biomedical applications. They are suitable materials owing to their distinctive physical and chemical properties, such as electrical, high-temperature, mechanical, and optical diversification. An individualized, controlled, dependable, low-carcinogenic, target-specific drug delivery system can diagnose and treat infections in biomedical applications. The variety of carbon materials at the nanoscale is remarkable. Allotropes and other forms of the same element, carbon, are represented in nanoscale dimensions. These show promise for a wide range of applications. Carbon nanostructured materials with exceptional mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties include graphene and carbon nanotubes. They can potentially revolutionize industries, including electronics, energy, and medicine. Ongoing investigation and expansion efforts continue to unlock possibilities for these materials, making them a key player in shaping the future of advanced technology. Carbon nanostructured materials explore the potential positive effects of reducing the greenhouse effect. The current state of nanostructured materials in the biomedical sector is covered in this review, along with their synthesis techniques and potential uses.

Viscoelastic microfluidics for enhanced separation resolution of submicron particles and extracellular vesicles

Manipulation, focusing, and separation of submicron- and nanoparticles such as extracellular vesicles (EVs), viruses and bacteria have broad applications in disease diagnostics and therapeutics. Viscoelastic microfluidic technology emerges as a promising technique, and it shows an unparalleled capacity to manipulate and separate submicron particles in a high resolution based on the elastic effects of non-Newtonian mediums. The maximum particle separation resolution for the reported state-of-the-art viscoelastic microfluidics is around 200 nm. To further enhance the reseparation resolution, this work develops a viscoelastic microfluidic device that can achieve a finer separation resolution up to 100 nm, by optimising the operating conditions such as flow rate, flow rate ratio and polyethylene oxide (PEO) concentration. With these optimised conditions, we separated a ternary mixture of 100 nm, 200 nm and 500 nm polystyrene particles, with purities above 90%, 70% and 82%, respectively. Furthermore, we also applied the developed viscoelastic microfluidic device for the separation of cancer cell-secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) into three different size groups. After single processing, the separation efficiencies for small EVs (sEVs, <150 nm), medium EVs (mEVs, 150-300 nm), and large EVs (>300 nm) were 86%, 80% and 50%, respectively. The enrichment factors for the three EV groups were 2.4, 1.1 and 1.3, respectively. Moreover, we observed an unexpected effect of high PEO concentrations (2000-5000 ppm) on the lateral migration of nanoparticles where nanoparticles of up to 50 nm surprisingly can migrate and concentrate at the middle of the microchannel. This simple and label-free viscoelastic microfluidic device possesses excellent potential for sorting submicron particles for various chemical, biological, medical and environmental applications.

Photodynamic Antibacterial Therapy of Gallic Acid-Derived Carbon-Based Nanoparticles (GACNPs): Synthesis, Characterization, and Hydrogel Formulation

Carbon-based nanoparticles (CNPs) have gained recognition because of their good biocompatibility, easy preparation, and excellent phototherapy properties. In biomedicine applications, CNPs are widely applied as photodynamic agents for antibacterial purposes. Photodynamic therapy has been considered a candidate for antibacterial agents because of its noninvasiveness and minimal side effects, especially in the improvement in antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria, compared with conventional antibiotic medicines. Here, we developed CNPs from an active polyhydroxy phenolic compound, namely, gallic acid, which has abundant hydroxyl groups that can yield photodynamic effects. Gallic acid CNPs (GACNPs) were rapidly fabricated via a microwave-assisted technique at 200 °C for 20 min. GACNPs revealed notable antibacterial properties against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). The minimum inhibitory concentrations of GACNPs in S. aureus and E. coli were equal at approximately 0.29 mg/mL and considerably lower than those in gallic acid solution. Furthermore, the GACNP-loaded hydrogel patches demonstrated an attractive photodynamic effect against S. aureus, and it was superior to that of Ag hydrofiber®, a commercial material. Therefore, the photodynamic properties of GACNPs can be potentially used in the development of antibacterial hydrogels for wound healing applications.

Malignant peritoneal mesotheliomas of rats induced by multiwalled carbon nanotubes and amosite asbestos: transcriptome and epigenetic profiles

BACKGROUND

Malignant mesothelioma is an aggressive cancer that often originates in the pleural and peritoneal mesothelium. Exposure to asbestos is a frequent cause. However, studies in rodents have shown that certain multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) can also induce malignant mesothelioma. The exact mechanisms are still unclear. To gain further insights into molecular pathways leading to carcinogenesis, we analyzed tumors in Wistar rats induced by intraperitoneal application of MWCNTs and amosite asbestos. Using transcriptomic and epigenetic approaches, we compared the tumors by inducer (MWCNTs or amosite asbestos) or by tumor type (sarcomatoid, epithelioid, or biphasic).

RESULTS

Genome-wide transcriptome datasets, whether grouped by inducer or tumor type, showed a high number of significant differentially expressed genes (DEGs) relative to control peritoneal tissues. Bioinformatic evaluations using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) revealed that while the transcriptome datasets shared commonalities, they also showed differences in DEGs, regulated canonical pathways, and affected molecular functions. In all datasets, among highly- scoring predicted canonical pathways were Phagosome Formation, IL8 Signaling, Integrin Signaling, RAC Signaling, and TREM1 Signaling. Top-scoring activated molecular functions included cell movement, invasion of cells, migration of cells, cell transformation, and metastasis. Notably, we found many genes associated with malignant mesothelioma in humans, which showed similar expression changes in the rat tumor transcriptome datasets. Furthermore, RT-qPCR revealed downregulation of Hrasls, Nr4a1, Fgfr4, and Ret or upregulation of Rnd3 and Gadd45b in all or most of the 36 tumors analyzed. Bisulfite sequencing of Hrasls, Nr4a1, Fgfr4, and Ret revealed heterogeneity in DNA methylation of promoter regions. However, higher methylation percentages were observed in some tumors compared to control tissues. Lastly, global 5mC DNA, m6A RNA and 5mC RNA methylation levels were also higher in tumors than in control tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings may help better understand how exposure to MWCNTs can lead to carcinogenesis. This information is valuable for risk assessment and in the development of safe-by-design strategies.

A review of aptamer-conjugated nanomaterials for analytical sample preparation: Classification according to the utilized nanomaterials

BACKGROUND

Sample extraction before detection is a critical step in analysis. Since targets of interest are often found in complex matrices, the sample can not be directly introduced to the analytical instrument. Nanomaterials with unique physical-chemical properties are excellent supports for use in sorbent-based extraction. However, they lack selectivity and thus need to be functionalized with target-capturing molecules. Antibodies and molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) can be used for this purpose, but they have some problems that limit their practical applications. Hence, functionalization of nanomaterials for selectivity remains a problem.

RESULTS

Nucleic acid aptamers are affinity reagents that can provide superiority to antibodies since they can be selected in vitro and at a lower cost. Moreover, aptamers can be chemically synthesized and easily modified with different functional groups. Hence, aptamers are good candidates to impart selectivity to the nanomaterials. Recent studies focus on the integration of aptamers with magnetic nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials, metal-organic frameworks, gold nanoparticles, gold nanorods, silica nanomaterials, and nanofibers. The unique properties of nanomaterials and aptamers make the aptamer-conjugated nanomaterials attractive for use in sample preparation. Aptamer-functionalized nanomaterials have been successfully used for selective extraction of proteins, small molecules, and cells from different types of complex samples such as serum, urine, and milk. In particular, magnetic nanoparticles have a wider use due to the rapid extraction of the sample under magnetic field.

SIGNIFICANCE

In this review, we aim to emphasize how beneficial features of nanomaterials and aptamers could be combined for extraction or enrichment of the analytes from complex samples. We aim to highlight that the benefits are twofold in terms of selectivity and efficiency when employing nanomaterials and aptamers together as a single platform.

Mesoporous carbon hemispheres integrated with Fe-Gd nanoparticles for potential MR/PA imaging-guided photothermal therapy

Asymmetric carbon has emerged as an important material to enrich morphologies as well as enhance functions for bioapplications. Here, asymmetric mesoporous carbon hemispheres (CHS) integrated with γ-Fe2O3 and GdPO4 (Fe-Gd) nanoparticles are proposed and prepared for potential imaging-guided photothermal therapy (PTT). Interestingly, Fe-Gd/CHS contributes to an almost 1.5 times enhancement in light harvesting and photothermal conversion efficiency as compared with its corresponding spherical analogue. The possible underlying mechanism is discussed in view of the unique asymmetric structure-featured carbon. Further identification of the inherited photoacoustic (PA) and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging properties leads to the consequent in vivo evaluation of its imaging and PTT performances, which demonstrates its capability as a function-integrated system for potential theranostics.

Recent advances in optical biosensing and imaging of telomerase activity and relevant signal amplification strategies

Telomerase as a new valuable biomarker for early diagnosis and prognosis evaluation of cancer has attracted much interest in the field of biosensors, cell imaging, and drug screening. In this review, we mainly focus on different optical techniques and various signal amplification strategies for telomerase activity determination. Fluorometric, colorimetry, chemiluminescence, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), and dual-mode techniques for telomerase sensing and imaging are summarized. Signal amplification strategies include two categories: one is nucleic acid-based amplification, such as rolling circle amplification (RCA), the hybridization chain reaction (HCR), and catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA); the other is nanomaterial-assisted amplification, including metal nanoclusters, quantum dots, transition metal compounds, graphene oxide, and DNA nanomaterials. Challenges and prospects are also discussed to provide new insights for future development of multifunctional strategies and techniques for in situ and in vivo analysis of biomarkers for accurate cancer diagnosis.

Fouling-resistant electrode for electrochemical sensing based on covalent-organic frameworks TpPA-1 dispersed cabon nanotubes

The key problem that limits the practical applications of nonenzymatic electrochemical sensors in biological media, is the biofouling and chemical fouling of electrodes due to the adsorption of biological molecules and oxidation (reduction) products. Electrode fouling will cause low accuracy, poor stability, and low sensitivity. Here, a simple and efficient antifouling electrode was demonstrated for electrochemical sensing based on covalent-organic framework (COF) TpPA-1 and carboxylic multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNT) composites. COF TpPA-1 possesses abundant hydrophilic groups, which assisted the dispersion of CNT in water and formed uniform composites by π-π interaction. In addition, the introduction of CNT into the composites improved the electron transfer rate of COF TpPA-1. The antifouling interface was characterized by electrochemistry, contact angle measurement, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The electrode showed good chemical and bio-fouling resistant performance for the electrochemical detection of β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and uric acid (UA) in real serum samples.

Multifunctional Carbon Dots for Biomedical Applications: Diagnosis, Therapy, and Theranostic

Designing suitable nanomaterials is an ideal strategy to enable early diagnosis and effective treatment of diseases. Carbon dots (CDs) are luminescent carbonaceous nanoparticles that have attracted considerable attention. Through facile synthesis, they process properties including tunable light emission, low toxicity, and light energy transformation, leading to diverse applications as optically functional materials in biomedical fields. Recently, their potentials have been further explored, such as enzyme-like activity and ability to promote osteogenic differentiation. Through refined synthesizing strategies carbon dots, a rich treasure trove for new discoveries, stand a chance to guide significant development in biomedical applications. In this review, the authors start with a brief introduction to CDs. By presenting mechanisms and examples, the authors focus on how they can be used in diagnosing and treating diseases, including bioimaging failure of tissues and cells, biosensing various pathogenic factors and biomarkers, tissue defect repair, anti-inflammation, antibacterial and antiviral, and novel oncology treatment. The introduction of the application of integrated diagnosis and treatment follows closely behind. Furthermore, the challenges and future directions of CDs are discussed. The authors hope this review will provide critical perspectives to inspire new discoveries on CDs and prompt their advances in biomedical applications.

Therapeutic applications of carbon nanomaterials in renal cancer

Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), including carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, and nanodiamonds (NDs), have shown great promise in detecting and treating numerous cancers, including kidney cancer. CNMs can increase the sensitivity of diagnostic techniques for better kidney cancer identification and surveillance. They enable targeted medicine delivery specifically to tumour locations, with little effect on healthy tissue. Because of their unique chemical and physical characteristics, they can avoid the body's defence mechanisms, making it easier to accumulate where tumours exist. Consequently, CNMs provide more effective drug delivery to kidney cancer cells. It also helps in improving the efficacy of treatment. This review explores the potential of several CNMs in improving therapeutic strategies for kidney cancer. We briefly covered the physicochemical properties and therapeutic applications of CNMs. Additionally, we discussed how structural modifications in CNMs enhance their precision in treating renal cancer. A thorough overview of CNM-based gene, peptide, and drug delivery strategies for the treatment of renal cancer is presented in this review. It covers information on other CNM-based therapeutic approaches, such as hyperthermia, photodynamic therapy, and photoacoustic therapy. Also, the interactions of CNMs with the tumour microenvironment (TME) are explored, including modulation of the immune response, regulation of tumour hypoxia, interactions between CNMs and TME cells, effects of TME pH on CNMs, and more. Finally, potential side effects of CNMs, such as toxicity, bio corona formation, enzymatic degradation, and biocompatibility, are also discussed.

Recent advances in tailoring stimuli-responsive hybrid scaffolds for cardiac tissue engineering and allied applications

To recapitulate bio-physical properties and functional behaviour of native heart tissues, recent tissue engineering-based approaches are focused on developing smart/stimuli-responsive materials for interfacing cardiac cells. Overcoming the drawbacks of the traditionally used biomaterials, these smart materials portray outstanding mechanical and conductive properties while promoting cell-cell interaction and cell-matrix transduction cues in such excitable tissues. To date, a large number of stimuli-responsive materials have been employed for interfacing cardiac tissues alone or in combination with natural/synthetic materials for cardiac tissue engineering. However, their comprehensive classification and a comparative analysis of the role played by these materials in regulating cardiac cell behaviour and in vivo metabolism are much less discussed. In an attempt to cover the recent advances in fabricating stimuli-responsive biomaterials for engineering cardiac tissues, this review details the role of these materials in modulating cardiomyocyte behaviour, functionality and surrounding matrix properties. Furthermore, concerns and challenges regarding the clinical translation of these materials and the possibility of using such materials for the fabrication of bio-actuators and bioelectronic devices are discussed.

Carbonized Tetracycline: a new class of nanomaterial with tuneable antioxidant, reduced cytotoxicity, immunomodulatory, and osteogenic properties

Tetracycline (TET), a broad-spectrum antibiotic, also possesses different non-antibiotic activities such as inhibition of metalloproteinase (MMP), anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, high bone affinity, etc. However, the comparatively low efficacy of these non-antibiotic properties along with adverse effects such as hyperpigmentation, phototoxicity, long-term skeletal retention, etc. have not helped their broad utilization similar to their use as an antibiotic. In a unique attempt to improve the non-antibiotic properties while reducing the adverse effects, we converted the TET to nano-carbons through partial carbonization. After sorting out two water-dispersible C-TETs (C-TET HT - hydrothermal and C-TET HP - hot plate) based on their improved antioxidant activity, they have been characterized through a host of analytical techniques that showed distinct differences in morphology, size, shape, and surface functionality. Excitingly, the C-TET HT and C-TET HP have shown differential biological activity in a dosage and time-dependent manner in terms of cytotoxicity, immunomodulation, and osteogenic activity that was found to be associated with their carbonized parameters. Overall, the carbonized nano-drugs, C-TET HT and C-TET HP have presented substantial early promises on their non-antibiotic properties that could be further explored to develop into some effective therapeutics.

Photo-Chemical Stimulation of Neurons with Organic Semiconductors

Recent advances in light-responsive materials enabled the development of devices that can wirelessly activate tissue with light. Here it is shown that solution-processed organic heterojunctions can stimulate the activity of primary neurons at low intensities of light via photochemical reactions. The p-type semiconducting polymer PDCBT and the n-type semiconducting small molecule ITIC (a non-fullerene acceptor) are coated on glass supports, forming a p-n junction with high photosensitivity. Patch clamp measurements show that low-intensity white light is converted into a cue that triggers action potentials in primary cortical neurons. The study shows that neat organic semiconducting p-n bilayers can exchange photogenerated charges with oxygen and other chemical compounds in cell culture conditions. Through several controlled experimental conditions, photo-capacitive, photo-thermal, and direct hydrogen peroxide effects on neural function are excluded, with photochemical delivery being the possible mechanism. The profound advantages of low-intensity photo-chemical intervention with neuron electrophysiology pave the way for developing wireless light-based therapy based on emerging organic semiconductors.

Carbon Nanomaterial-Based Hydrogels as Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering: A Comprehensive Review

Carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs) are a category of nanomaterials with various systems based on combinations of sp2 and sp3 hybridized carbon bonds, morphologies, and functional groups. CBNs can exhibit distinguished properties such as high mechanical strength, chemical stability, high electrical conductivity, and biocompatibility. These desirable physicochemical properties have triggered their uses in many fields, including biomedical applications. In this review, we specifically focus on applying CBNs as scaffolds in tissue engineering, a therapeutic approach whereby CBNs can act for the regeneration or replacement of damaged tissue. Here, an overview of the structures and properties of different CBNs will first be provided. We will then discuss state-of-the-art advancements of CBNs and hydrogels as scaffolds for regenerating various types of human tissues. Finally, a perspective of future potentials and challenges in this field will be presented. Since this is a very rapidly growing field, we expect that this review will promote interdisciplinary efforts in developing effective tissue regeneration scaffolds for clinical applications.

B, P, and S heteroatom doped, bio- and hemo-compatible 2D graphitic-carbon nitride (g-C3N4) with antioxidant, light-induced antibacterial, and bioimaging endeavors

The synthesis of two-dimensional (2D) graphiticg-C3N4and heteroatom-doped graphitic H@g-C3N4(H: B, P, or S) particles were successfully done using melamine as source compounds and boric acid, phosphorous red, and sulfur as doping agents. The band gap values of 2Dg-C3N4, B50@g-C3N4, P50@g-C3N4, and S50@g-C3N4structures were determined as 2.90, 3.03, 2.89, and 2.93 eV, respectively. The fluorescent emission wavelengths of 2Dg-C3N4, B50@g-C3N4, P50@g-C3N4, and S50@g-C3N4structures were observed at 442, 430, 441, and 442 nm, respectively upon excitation atλEx= 325 nm. There is also one additional new emission wavelength was found at 345 nm for B50@g-C3N4structure. The blood compatibility test results ofg-C3N4, B50@g-C3N4, P50@g-C3N4, and S50@g-C3N4structures revealed that all materials are blood compatible with <2% hemolysis and >90% blood clotting indices at 100μg ml-1concentration. The cell toxicity of the prepared 2D graphitic structures were also tested on L929 fibroblast cells, and even the heteroatom doped hasg-C3N4structures induce no cytotoxicity was observed with >91% cell viability even at 250μg ml-1particle concentration with the exception of P50@g-C3N4which as >75 viability. Moreover, for 2Dg-C3N4, B50@g-C3N4, and S50@g-C3N4constructs, even at 500μg ml-1concentration, >90% cell viabilities was monitored. As a diagnostic material, B50@g-C3N4was found to have significantly high penetration and distribution abilities into L929 fibroblast cells granting a great potential in fluorescence imaging and bioimaging applications. Furthermore, the elemental doping with B, P, and S ofg-C3N4were found to significantly increase the photodynamic antibacterial activity e.g. more than half of bacterial elimination by heteroatom-doped forms ofg-C3N4under UVA treatment was achieved.

Progress and prospect of nanotechnology for cardiac fibrosis treatment

Cardiac fibrosis is the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components in the heart, leading to reduced cardiac functionality and heart failure. This review provides an overview of the therapeutic applications of nanotechnology for the treatment of cardiac fibrosis. We first delve into the fundamental pathophysiology of cardiac fibrosis, highlighting the key molecular players, including Matrix Metalloproteinases, Transforming Growth Factor-beta, and several growth factors, cytokines, and signaling molecules. Each target presents a unique opportunity to develop targeted nano-therapies. We then focus on recent advancements in nanotechnology and how nanoparticles can be engineered to deliver drugs or therapeutic genes. These advanced delivery approaches have shown significant potential to inhibit fibrosis-promoting factors, thereby mitigating the fibrotic response and potentially reversing disease progression. In addition, we discuss the challenges associated with developing and translating nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, including ensuring biocompatibility, safety, and regulatory compliance. This review highlights how nanotechnology can bridge the gap between lab research and clinical practice for treating cardiac fibrosis.

Graphene Oxide Nanostructures as Nanoplatforms for Delivering Natural Therapeutic Agents: Applications in Cancer Treatment, Bacterial Infections, and Bone Regeneration Medicine

Graphene, fullerenes, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and carbon dots are just a few of the carbon-based nanomaterials that have gained enormous popularity in a variety of scientific disciplines and industrial uses. As a two-dimensional material in the creation of therapeutic delivery systems for many illnesses, nanosized graphene oxide (NGO) is now garnering a large amount of attention among these materials. In addition to other benefits, NGO functions as a drug nanocarrier with remarkable biocompatibility, high pharmaceutical loading capacity, controlled drug release capability, biological imaging efficiency, multifunctional nanoplatform properties, and the power to increase the therapeutic efficacy of loaded agents. Thus, NGO is a perfect nanoplatform for the development of drug delivery systems (DDSs) to both detect and treat a variety of ailments. This review article's main focus is on investigating surface functionality, drug-loading methods, and drug release patterns designed particularly for smart delivery systems. The paper also examines the relevance of using NGOs to build DDSs and considers prospective uses in the treatment of diseases including cancer, infection by bacteria, and bone regeneration medicine. These factors cover the use of naturally occurring medicinal substances produced from plant-based sources.

A Covalent Organic Framework Derived N-doped Carbon Nanozyme as the All-rounder for Targeted Catalytic Therapy and NIR-II Photothermal Therapy of Cancer

Nanomaterials with intrinsic enzyme-like activities (nanozymes) have gained significant attention in cancer catalytic therapy; however, developing metal-free nanozymes with multivariant enzyme-like activity as the "all-rounder" for cancer therapy remains challenging. Herein, a covalent organic framework (COF) derived carbon-based nanozyme is rationally devised to achieve synergistic catalytic therapy and second near-infrared (NIR-II) photothermal therapy of cancer. The developed nanozyme possesses multivariant enzyme-like activities, including oxidase (OXD)-like, catalase (CAT)-like, and peroxidase (POD)-like catalytic activities, which enables the nanozyme to produce adequate reactive oxygen species (ROS) for cancer cell killing. Furthermore, the nanozyme showed excellent photothermal converting activity that could kill cancer cells upon NIR-II laser irradiation, owing to the strong NIR-II absorption capacity of carbon-based materials. It is also worth noting that the nanozyme exhibited cytotoxicity specifically in tumor tissue profiting from the discrepant H2O2 level between tumor and normal tissue and the spatiotemporal controllability of laser irradiation. This work may inspire further development of intelligent nanozymes in biological applications across broad therapeutic and biomedical fields.

Carbon nanomaterials for designing next-generation membranes and their emerging applications

Carbon nanomaterials have enormous applications in various fields, such as adsorption, membrane separation, catalysis, electronics, capacitors, batteries, and medical sciences. Owing to their exceptional properties, such as large specific surface area, carrier mobility, flexibility, electrical conductivity, and optical pellucidity, the family of carbon nanomaterials is considered as one of the most studied group of materials to date. They are abundantly used in membrane science for multiple applications, such as the separation of organics, enantiomeric separation, gas separation, biomolecule separation, heavy metal separation, and wastewater treatment. This study provides an overview of the significant studies on carbon nanomaterial-based membranes and their emerging applications in our membrane research journey. The types of carbon nanomaterials, their utilization in membrane-based separations, and the mechanism involved are summarized in this study. Techniques for the fabrication of different nanocomposite membranes are also highlighted. Lastly, we have provided an overview of the existing issues and future scopes of carbon nanomaterial-based membranes for technological perspectives.

Fabricating a low-temperature synthesized graphene-cellulose acetate-sodium alginate scaffold for the generation of ovarian cancer spheriod and its drug assessment

3D cell culture can mimic tumor pathophysiology, which reflects cellular morphology and heterogeneity, strongly influencing gene expression, cell behavior, and intracellular signaling. It supports cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction, cell attachment, and proliferation, resulting in rapid and reliable drug screening models. We have generated an ovarian cancer spheroid in interconnected porous scaffolds. The scaffold is fabricated using low-temperature synthesized graphene, cellulose acetate, and sodium alginate. Graphene nanosheets enhance cell proliferation and aggregation, which aids in the formation of cancer spheroids. The spheroids are assessed after day 7 and 14 for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), expression of the hypoxia inducing factor (HIF-1⍺) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Production of ROS was observed due to the aggregated tumor mass, and enhanced production of HIF-1⍺ and VEGF results from a lack of oxygen and nutrition. Furthermore, the efficacy of anticancer drug doxorubicin at varying concentrations is assessed on ovarian cancer spheroids by studying the expression of caspase-3/7 at day 7 and 14. The current findings imply that the graphene-cellulose-alginate (GCA) scaffold generates a reliable ovarian cancer spheroid model to test the efficacy of the anticancer drug.

In vitro and in vivo toxicity of carbon dots with different chemical compositions

Carbon dots (CDs) are easy-obtained nanoparticles with wide range of biological activity; however, their toxicity after prolonged exposure is poorly investigated. So, in vitro and in vivo toxicity of CDs with the surfaces enriched with hydroxylated hydrocarbon chains and methylene groups (CD_GE), carboxyl and phenol groups accompanied with nitrogen (CD_3011), trifluoromethyl (CDF19) or toluidine and aniline groups (CDN19) were aimed to be discovered. CDs' in vitro toxicity was assessed on A549 cells (real-time cell analysis of impedance, fluorescence microscopy) after 24 h of incubation, and we observed no changes in cell viability and morphology. CDs' in vivo toxicity was assessed on C57Bl6 mice after multiple dosages (5 mg/kg subcutaneously) for 14 days. Lethality (up to 50%) was observed in CDN19 and CD_3011 groups on different days of dosing, accompanied by toxicity signs in case of CD_3011. There were no changes in serum biochemical parameters except Urea (increased in CDF19 and CD_3011 groups), nor substantial kidney, liver, and spleen injuries. The most impactful for all organs were also CD_3011 and CDF19, causing renal tubule injury and liver blood supply violation. Thus, CDs with a surface enriched with oxygen- and nitrogen-containing functional groups might be toxic after multiple everyday dosing, without, however, significant damages of internal organs in survived animals.

Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Photothermal Therapy in Cancer Treatment

Graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNMs), specifically graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), have shown great potential in cancer therapy owing to their physicochemical properties. As GO and rGO strongly absorb light in the near-infrared (NIR) region, they are useful in photothermal therapy (PTT) for cancer treatment. However, despite the structural similarities of GO and rGO, they exhibit different influences on anticancer treatment due to their different photothermal capacities. In this review, various characterization techniques used to compare the structural features of GO and rGO are first outlined. Then, a comprehensive summary and discussion of the applicability of GBNMs in the context of PTT for diverse cancer types are presented. This discussion includes the integration of PTT with secondary therapeutic strategies, with a particular focus on the photothermal capacity achieved through near-infrared irradiation parameters and the modifications implemented. Furthermore, a dedicated section is devoted to studies on hybrid magnetic-GBNMs. Finally, the challenges and prospects associated with the utilization of GBNM in PTT, with a primary emphasis on the potential for clinical translation, are addressed.

Effect of sp3/sp2 carbon ratio and hydrodynamic size on the biodistribution kinetics of nanodiamonds in mice via intravenous injection

BACKGROUND

Nanodiamonds (NDs) have gained a rapidly growing interest in biomedical applications; however, little is known regarding their biokinetics owing to difficulties in measurements and limited synthesis/purification technologies. In this study, we investigated the distribution kinetics of detonation-synthesized NDs in mice via intravenous injection to evaluate the parameters that determine the behavior of the particles. We prepared two distinctive NDs that controlled the sp3/sp2 carbon ratio and particle size by coating them with serum proteins. The four control samples were intravenously injected into mice, and tissue distribution and clearance were evaluated at 30 min and 1, 7, and 28 days post-injection.

RESULTS

The sp3/sp2 carbon ratio showed no correlation with the organ distribution of the NDs. However, hydrodynamic size showed an excellent correlation with organ distribution levels: a negative correlation in the liver and positive correlations in the spleen and lungs. Furthermore, the deposition levels of NDs in the lung suggest that particles smaller than 300 nm could avoid lung deposition. Finally, a similar organ distribution pattern was observed in mice injected with carbon black nanoparticles controlled hydrodynamic size.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the tissue distribution of NDs is modulated not by the sp3/sp2 carbon ratio but by the hydrodynamic size, which can provide helpful information for targeting the tissue of NDs. Furthermore, the organ distribution pattern of the NDs may not be specific to NDs but also can apply to other nanoparticles, such as carbon black.

Optimisation of GraPhage13 macro-dispersibility via understanding the pH-dependent ionisation during self-assembly: towards the manufacture of graphene-based nanodevices

GraPhage13 aerogels (GPAs) are micro-porous structures generated through the self-assembly of graphene oxide (GO) and M13 bacteriophage. As GPA fabrication involves the aggregation of GO and M13 in aqueous solution, we aim to understand its dispersibility across a wide pH range. Herein, a novel technique has been developed to relate the ionisation of functional groups to the surface charge, offering insights into the conditions required for GPA fabrication and the mechanism behind its self-assembly. The aggregation of GO and M13 was observed between pH 2-6 and exhibited dependence on the surface charge of the resulting aggregate with the M13 bacteriophage identified as the primary factor contributing to this, whilst originating from the ionisation of its functional groups. In contrast, GO exhibited a lesser impact on the surface charge due to the deprotonation of its carboxylic, enolic and phenolic functional groups at pH 6 and above, which falls outside the required pH range for aggregation. These results enhance our understanding of the GPA self-assembly mechanism, the conditions required for their fabrication and the optimal processability, laying the foundation towards its broad range of applications and the subsequent manufacture of graphene-based nanodevices.

Yb-Gd Codoped Hydroxyapatite as a Potential Contrast Agent for Tumor-Targeted Biomedical Applications

Recently, various nanomaterials based on hydroxyapatite (HAp) have been developed for bioimaging applications. In particular, HAp doped with rare-earth elements has attracted significant attention, owing to its enhanced bioactivity and imaging properties. In this study, the wet precipitation method was used to synthesize HAp codoped with Yb and Gd. The synthesized Ybx-Gdx-HAp nanoparticles (NPs) were characterized via various techniques to analyze the crystal phase, functional groups, thermal characteristics, and particularly, the larger surface area. The IR783 fluorescence dye and a folic acid (FA) receptor were conjugated with the synthesized Ybx-Gdx-HAp NPs to develop an effective imaging contrast agent. The developed FA/IR783/Yb-Gd-HAp nanomaterial exhibited improved contrast, sensitivity, and tumor-specific properties, as demonstrated by using the customized LUX 4.0 fluorescence imaging system. An in vitro cytotoxicity study was performed to verify the biocompatibility of the synthesized NPs using MTT assay and fluorescence staining. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) was also applied to determine the photosensitizer properties of the synthesized Ybx-Gdx-HAp NPs. Further, reactive oxygen species generation was confirmed by Prussian blue decay and a 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin diacetate study. Moreover, MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells were used to evaluate the efficiency of Ybx-Gdx-HAp NP-supported PDT.

The Use of Crystalline Carbon-Based Nanomaterials (CBNs) in Various Biomedical Applications

This review study aims to present, in a condensed manner, the significance of the use of crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials in biomedical applications. Crystalline carbon-based nanomaterials, encompassing graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, and graphene quantum dots, have emerged as promising materials for the development of medical devices in various biomedical applications. These materials possess inorganic semiconducting attributes combined with organic π-π stacking features, allowing them to efficiently interact with biomolecules and present enhanced light responses. By harnessing these unique properties, carbon-based nanomaterials offer promising opportunities for future advancements in biomedicine. Recent studies have focused on the development of these nanomaterials for targeted drug delivery, cancer treatment, and biosensors. The conjugation and modification of carbon-based nanomaterials have led to significant advancements in a plethora of therapies and have addressed limitations in preclinical biomedical applications. Furthermore, the wide-ranging therapeutic advantages of carbon nanotubes have been thoroughly examined in the context of biomedical applications.

Recent advances in nanoparticle applications in respiratory disorders: a review

Various nanoparticles are used in the discovery of new nanomedicine to overcome the shortages of conventional drugs. Therefore, this article presents a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the effects of nanoparticle-based drugs in the treatment of respiratory disorders, including both basic and clinical studies. Databases, including PubMed, Web of Knowledge, and Scopus, were searched until the end of August 2022 regarding the effect of nanoparticles on respiratory diseases. As a new tool, nanomedicine offered promising applications for the treatment of pulmonary diseases. The basic composition and intrinsic characteristics of nanomaterials showed their effectiveness in treating pulmonary diseases. The efficiency of different nanomedicines has been demonstrated in experimental animal models of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary fibrosis (PF), lung cancer, lung infection, and other lung disorders, confirming their function in the improvement of respiratory disorders. Various types of nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, polymeric nanomaterials, liposomes, quantum dots, and metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, have demonstrated therapeutic effects on respiratory disorders, which may lead to new possible remedies for various respiratory illnesses that could increase drug efficacy and decrease side effects.

Photonic Lithotripsy: Near-Infrared Laser Activated Nanomaterials for Kidney Stone Comminution

Near-infrared activated nanomaterials have been reported for biomedical applications ranging from photothermal tumor destruction to biofilm eradication and energy-gated drug delivery. However, the focus so far has been on soft tissues, and little is known about energy delivery to hard tissues, which have thousand-fold higher mechanical strength. We present photonic lithotripsy with carbon and gold nanomaterials for fragmenting human kidney stones. The efficacy of stone comminution is dependent on the size and photonic properties of the nanomaterials. Surface restructuring and decomposition of calcium oxalate to calcium carbonate support the contribution of photothermal energy to stone failure. Photonic lithotripsy has several advantages over current laser lithotripsy, including low operating power, noncontact laser operation (distances of at least 10 mm), and ability to break all common stones. Our observations can inspire the development of rapid, minimally invasive techniques for kidney stone treatment and extrapolate to other hard tissues such as enamel and bone.

The Exploitation of Lysosomes in Cancer Therapy with Graphene-Based Nanomaterials

Graphene-based nanomaterials (GNMs), including graphene, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and graphene quantum dots, may have direct anticancer activity or be used as nanocarriers for antitumor drugs. GNMs usually enter tumor cells by endocytosis and can accumulate in lysosomes. This accumulation prevents drugs bound to GNMs from reaching their targets, suppressing their anticancer effects. A number of chemical modifications are made to GNMs to facilitate the separation of anticancer drugs from GNMs at low lysosomal pH and to enable the lysosomal escape of drugs. Lysosomal escape may be associated with oxidative stress, permeabilization of the unstable membrane of cancer cell lysosomes, release of lysosomal enzymes into the cytoplasm, and cell death. GNMs can prevent or stimulate tumor cell death by inducing protective autophagy or suppressing autolysosomal degradation, respectively. Furthermore, because GNMs prevent bound fluorescent agents from emitting light, their separation in lysosomes may enable tumor cell identification and therapy monitoring. In this review, we explain how the characteristics of the lysosomal microenvironment and the unique features of tumor cell lysosomes can be exploited for GNM-based cancer therapy.

The Beneficial Role of Photobiomodulation in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Photobiomodulation (PBM), also known as Low-level Laser Therapy (LLLT), involves the use of light from a laser or light-emitting diode (LED) in the treatment of various disorders and it has recently gained increasing interest. Progressive neuronal loss with attendant consequences such as cognitive and/or motor decline characterize neurodegenerative diseases. The available therapeutic drugs have only been able to provide symptomatic relief and may also present with some side effects, thus precluding their use in treatment. Recently, there has been an exponential increase in interest and attention in the use of PBM as a therapy in various neurodegenerative diseases in animal studies. Because of the financial and social burden of neurodegenerative diseases on the sufferers and the need for the discovery of potential therapeutic inventions in their management, it is pertinent to examine the beneficial effects of PBM and the various cellular mechanisms by which it modulates neural activity. Here, we highlight the various ways by which PBM may possess beneficial effects on neural activity and has been reported in various neurodegenerative conditions (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, TBI, stroke) with the hope that it may serve as an alternative therapy in the management of neurodegenerative diseases because of the biological side effects associated with drugs currently used in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

High-efficiency upconversion process in cobalt and neodymium doped graphene QDs for biomedical applications

Multiphoton absorbing upconversion nanoparticles are emerging as bioimaging materials but are limited by the low quantum yield of their visible fluorescence. This article contains colloids of graphene quantum dots (GQDs), Neodymium, and Cobalt doped Graphene Quantum dots (Co-GQDs and Nd-GQDs) surrounded by carboxylic acids are synthesized which especially are suitable for bio applications; in this way, carboxylic acid groups exchanged by Amoxicillin as an antibiotic with bactericidal activity. The XRD diffraction method, TEM microscope, UV-Vis, and photoluminescence spectroscopies characterize the synthesized materials. The synthesized Quantum dots (QDs) exhibit upconversion properties and their emission is centered at 480 nm, but a red shift was observed with the increase of the excitation wavelength. In the emission spectra of synthesized QDs that can be related to the defect levels introduced by passivation of the QDs in the structure, the results show that with the interaction of the surface QDs with more carboxylic groups, the redshift is not observed. As the results indicate an increase in the intensity of upconversion emission is recorded for Co-GQDs and Nd-GQDs. The absolute quantum efficiency (QY) for Co-GQDs and Nd-GQDs were determined to be 41% and 100% more than GQDs respectively. DFT calculations indicate a strong bond between graphene and cobalt and Neodymium atoms. In doped materials, there are trap levels between the band gap of the GQDs which are responsible for increasing the intensity of the upconversion phenomenon.

Recent advances in nanomedicine preparative methods and their therapeutic potential for colorectal cancer: a critical review

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prevalent malignancy that affects a large percentage of the global population. The conventional treatments for CRC have a number of limitations. Nanoparticles have emerged as a promising cancer treatment method due to their ability to directly target cancer cells and regulate drug release, thereby enhancing therapeutic efficacy and minimizing side effects. This compilation examines the use of nanoparticles as drug delivery systems for CRC treatment. Different nanomaterials can be used to administer anticancer drugs, including polymeric nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, liposomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles. In addition, we discuss recent developments in nanoparticle preparation techniques, such as solvent evaporation, salting-out, ion gelation, and nanoprecipitation. These methods have demonstrated high efficacy in penetrating epithelial cells, a prerequisite for effective drug delivery. This article focuses on the various targeting mechanisms utilized by CRC-targeted nanoparticles and their recent advancements in this field. In addition, the review offers descriptive information regarding numerous nano-preparative procedures for colorectal cancer treatments. We also discuss the outlook for innovative therapeutic techniques in the management of CRC, including the potential application of nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery. The review concludes with a discussion of current nanotechnology patents and clinical studies used to target and diagnose CRC. The results of this investigation suggest that nanoparticles have great potential as a method of drug delivery for the treatment of colorectal cancer.

Advances in Structural Modifications and Properties of Graphene Quantum Dots for Biomedical Applications

Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) are carbon-based, zero-dimensional nanomaterials and unique due to their astonishing optical, electronic, chemical, and biological properties. Chemical, photochemical, and biochemical properties of GQDs are intensely being explored for bioimaging, biosensing, and drug delivery. The synthesis of GQDs by top-down and bottom-up approaches, their chemical functionalization, bandgap engineering, and biomedical applications are reviewed here. Current challenges and future perspectives of GQDs are also presented.

Rapid Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of pH-Sensitive Carbon-Based Nanoparticles for the Controlled Release of Doxorubicin to Cancer Cells

Carbon-based nanoparticles (CNPs) are a new type of interesting nanomaterials applied in various pharmaceutical fields due to their outstanding biocompatible properties. Novel pH-sensitive CNPs were rapidly synthesized within 1 min by microwave-assisted technique for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery into five cancer cell lines, including breast cancer (BT-474 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines), colon cancer (HCT and HT29 cell lines), and cervical cancer (HeLa cell lines). CNPs and DOX-loaded CNPs (CNPs-DOX) had nano-size of 11.66 ± 2.32 nm and 43.24 ± 13.25 nm, respectively. DOX could be self-assembled with CNPs in phosphate buffer solution at pH 7.4 through electrostatic interaction, exhibiting high loading efficiency at 85.82%. The release of DOX from CNPs-DOX at pH 5.0, often observed in the tumor, was nearly two times greater than the release at physiological condition pH 7.4. Furthermore, the anticancer activity of CNPs-DOX was significantly enhanced compared to free DOX in five cancer cell lines. CNPs-DOX could induce cell death through apoptosis induction in MDA-MB-231 cells. The findings revealed that CNPs-DOX exhibited a promising pH-sensitive nano-system as a drug delivery carrier for cancer treatment.

Toxicity and Biotransformation of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials in Marine Microalgae Heterosigma akashiwo

This work is related to the environmental toxicology risk assessment and evaluation of the possible transformation of carbon-based nanomaterials (CNMs) after contact with marine microalgae. The materials used in the study represent common and widely applied multi-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs), fullerene (C₆₀), graphene (Gr), and graphene oxide (GrO). The toxicity was evaluated as growth rate inhibition, esterase activity, membrane potential, and reactive oxygen species generation changes. The measurement was performed with flow cytometry after 3, 24, 96 h, and 7 days. The biotransformation of nanomaterials was evaluated after 7 days of microalgae cultivation with CNMs by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. The calculated toxic level (EC₅₀ in mg/L, 96 h) of used CNMs reduced in the following order: CNTs (18.98) > GrO (76.77) > Gr (159.40) > C₆₀ (414.0). Oxidative stress and membrane depolarization were the main toxic action of CNTs and GrO. At the same time, Gr and C₆₀ decreased the toxic action with time and had no negative impact on microalgae after 7 days of exposure even at the concentration of 125 mg/L. Moreover, C₆₀ and Gr after 7 days of contact with microalgae cells obtained structural deformations.

Constitutive Modeling of Mechanical Behaviors of Carbon-Based CNTs and GSs, and Their Sensing Applications as Nanomechanical Resonators: A Review

Carbon-based nanomaterials, including carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene sheets (GSs), have garnered considerable research attention owing to their unique mechanical, physical, and chemical properties compared with traditional materials. Nanosensors are sensing devices with sensing elements made of nanomaterials or nanostructures. CNT- and GS-based nanomaterials have been proved to be very sensitive nanosensing elements, being used to detect tiny mass and force. In this study, we review the developments in the analytical modeling of mechanical behavior of CNTs and GSs, and their potential applications as next-generation nanosensing elements. Subsequently, we discuss the contributions of various simulation studies on theoretical models, calculation methods, and mechanical performance analyses. In particular, this review intends to provide a theoretical framework for a comprehensive understanding of the mechanical properties and potential applications of CNTs/GSs nanomaterials as demonstrated by modeling and simulation methods. According to analytical modeling, nonlocal continuum mechanics pose small-scale structural effects in nanomaterials. Thus, we overviewed a few representative studies on the mechanical behavior of nanomaterials to inspire the future development of nanomaterial-based sensors or devices. In summary, nanomaterials, such as CNTs and GSs, can be effectively utilized for ultrahigh-sensitivity measurements at a nanolevel resolution compared to traditional materials.

Human and environmental impacts of nanoparticles: a scoping review of the current literature

Use of nanoparticles have established benefits in a wide range of applications, however, the effects of exposure to nanoparticles on health and the environmental risks associated with the production and use of nanoparticles are less well-established. The present study addresses this gap in knowledge by examining, through a scoping review of the current literature, the effects of nanoparticles on human health and the environment. We searched relevant databases including Medline, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, CINAHL, Embase, and SAGE journals, as well as Google, Google Scholar, and grey literature from June 2021 to July 2021. After removing duplicate articles, the title and abstracts of 1495 articles were first screened followed by the full-texts of 249 studies, and this resulted in the inclusion of 117 studies in the presented review.In this contribution we conclude that while nanoparticles offer distinct benefits in a range of applications, they pose significant threats to humans and the environment. Using several biological models and biomarkers, the included studies revealed the toxic effects of nanoparticles (mainly zinc oxide, silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, silver, and carbon nanotubes) to include cell death, production of oxidative stress, DNA damage, apoptosis, and induction of inflammatory responses. Most of the included studies (65.81%) investigated inorganic-based nanoparticles. In terms of biomarkers, most studies (76.9%) used immortalised cell lines, whiles 18.8% used primary cells as the biomarker for assessing human health effect of nanoparticles. Biomarkers that were used for assessing environmental impact of nanoparticles included soil samples and soybean seeds, zebrafish larvae, fish, and Daphnia magna neonates.From the studies included in this work the United States recorded the highest number of publications (n = 30, 25.64%), followed by China, India, and Saudi Arabia recording the same number of publications (n = 8 each), with 95.75% of the studies published from the year 2009. The majority of the included studies (93.16%) assessed impact of nanoparticles on human health, and 95.7% used experimental study design. This shows a clear gap exists in examining the impact of nanoparticles on the environment.

Nanomaterial-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications: A Review on Graphene, Carbon Nanotubes and Nanocellulose

Nanoscale biomaterials have garnered immense interest in the scientific community in the recent decade. This review specifically focuses on the application of three nanomaterials, i.e., graphene and its derivatives (graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide), carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and nanocellulose (cellulose nanocrystals or CNCs and cellulose nanofibers or CNFs), in regenerating different types of tissues, including skin, cartilage, nerve, muscle and bone. Their excellent inherent (and tunable) physical, chemical, mechanical, electrical, thermal and optical properties make them suitable for a wide range of biomedical applications, including but not limited to diagnostics, therapeutics, biosensing, bioimaging, drug and gene delivery, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. A state-of-the-art literature review of composite tissue scaffolds fabricated using these nanomaterials is provided, including the unique physicochemical properties and mechanisms that induce cell adhesion, growth, and differentiation into specific tissues. In addition, in vitro and in vivo cytotoxic effects and biodegradation behavior of these nanomaterials are presented. We also discuss challenges and gaps that still exist and need to be addressed in future research before clinical translation of these promising nanomaterials can be realized in a safe, efficacious, and economical manner.