"No more a child, not yet an adult": studying social cognition in adolescence

The PEERCARE peer led programme for college students: A qualitative evaluation of a "chill-out" harm reduction space

Aims: Harmful patterns of alcohol consumption, such as binge drinking, are prevalent among the student population at universities. Despite the risks of this behaviour, few secondary prevention programmes have been created to meet the specific needs of this population. The PEERCARE programme is a peer-based prevention programme that seeks harm reduction for alcohol overuse in party environments, among other goals. To do so, a "chill-out" space is created by peer educators in party environments to limit the risks associated with alcohol overuse. This study sought to examine peer educators' experience with a chill-out space to identify their specific actions, difficulties and needs, and to consider possibilities for improvement. Methods: Nine engineering students from one French grandes écoles campus trained as peer educators (six men and three women; mean age 21 years) participated. Semi-structured interviews were used for data collection. Results: The thematic analysis showed that the peer educators were highly engaged with this programme in response to alcohol overuse on their campus. The chill-out space was lauded for its non-judgemental and non-moralising nature. In addition, the numerous risk reduction activities that were enacted confirmed the benefits of these spaces during parties. The peer educators' experience was positive, and acting as managers of the chill-out space seemed to answer to a sense of competence recognitiontion. Conclusion: This study confirms the relevance of utilising chill-out spaces during parties and provides preliminary data on the deployment and management of peer-led chill-out space approaches. Expanding the implementation of such spaces to more educational institutions is recommended.

Autistic young people adaptively use gaze to facilitate joint attention during multi-gestural dyadic interactions

LAY ABSTRACT

Autistic people have been said to have 'problems' with joint attention, that is, looking where someone else is looking. Past studies of joint attention have used tasks that require autistic people to continuously look at and respond to eye-gaze cues. But joint attention can also be done using other social cues, like pointing. This study looked at whether autistic and non-autistic young people use another person's eye gaze during joint attention in a task that did not require them to look at their partner's face. In the task, each participant worked together with their partner to find a computer-generated object in virtual reality. Sometimes the participant had to help guide their partner to the object, and other times, they followed their partner's lead. Participants were told to point to guide one another but were not told to use eye gaze. Both autistic and non-autistic participants often looked at their partner's face during joint attention interactions and were faster to respond to their partner's hand-pointing when the partner also looked at the object before pointing. This shows that autistic people can and do use information from another person's eyes, even when they don't have to. It is possible that, by not forcing autistic young people to look at their partner's face and eyes, they were better able to gather information from their partner's face when needed, without being overwhelmed. This shows how important it is to design tasks that provide autistic people with opportunities to show what they can do.

A machine-learning approach to investigating the complexity of theory of mind in individuals with schizophrenia

Individuals with schizophrenia have difficulty attributing mental states to themselves and to others - Theory of Mind (ToM). ToM is a complex, multifaceted theoretical construct comprising first and second order, first and third person, egocentric and allocentric perspective, and cognitive and affective ToM. Most studies addressing ToM deficit in people with schizophrenia consider it an "all-or-nothing" ability and use a classical statistical methodology to test a null hypothesis. With the present study, we investigated ToM in individuals with schizophrenia, considering its complex nature and degrees of impairment. To do this, we used a machine-learning approach to detect patterns in heterogeneous and multivariate data. Our findings highlight the complex nature of ToM deficit in individuals with schizophrenia and reveal the relationship between various different aspects of ToM.

Exposure to pro-tobacco and anti-tobacco media messages and events and smoking behaviour among adolescents in Gambia

BACKGROUND

Despite the widespread prevalence of adolescent smoking in Gambia, a West African country, there is limited research exploring the relationships between exposure to pro-tobacco and anti-tobacco media messages and events and smoking behaviour among young people. This study investigates the interplay of these exposures and smoking behaviour among 11-17-year-old adolescents in Gambia.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis was conducted using the 2017 Gambia Global Youth and Tobacco Survey (GYTS), which included a total of 9,127 respondents. Descriptive and inferential analyses, including proportions, Pearson's chi-squared tests, and multivariable logistic regression models, were employed to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

The final model revealed significant associations between exposure to anti-tobacco media messages and events and smoking behaviour. Adolescents exposed to anti-tobacco media messages had a 29% increased odds of smoking (aOR 1.29,CI = 1.08,1.53) compared to those unexposed, while exposure to anti-tobacco media events showed a 31% increased odds (aOR 1.31,CI = 1.09,1.59) compared to those unexposed. Exposure to pro-tobacco messages, such as witnessing tobacco use on TV (aOR 1.41, CI = 1.17,1.69) and owning objects with tobacco brand logos (aOR 1.49,CI = 1.19,1.86), was associated with higher odds of smoking. Covariates, including sex, age, and exposure to smoking behaviour by significant others, also demonstrated associations with smoking behaviour. Notably, male respondents showed significantly higher odds of smoking (aOR = 4.01,CI = 3.28,4.89) compared to females. Respondents aged 15 years and older had increased odds of smoking (aOR = 1.47,CI = 1.22,1.76) compared to those below 15 years old. Those whose fathers smoke displayed higher odds of smoking (aOR = 1.35, CI = 1.04,1.76) compared to individuals with non-smoking parents. Additionally, those whose closest friends smoke showed remarkably higher odds of smoking (aOR = 2.87,CI = 2.37, 3.48) compared to those without such influence.

CONCLUSION

This study underscores the significant impact of exposure to both anti-tobacco and pro-tobacco media messages and events on smoking behaviour among adolescents in Gambia. However, pro-tobacco messages had a greater influence on smoking prevalence than anti-tobacco messages and events. Understanding these associations is crucial for devising effective public health interventions aimed at reducing tobacco use in this population.

Social leisure time activities as a mediating link between self-reported psychological symptoms in adolescence and psychiatric morbidity by young adulthood: the Northern Finland 1986 Birth Cohort study

Research indicates that adolescent psychological symptoms are associated with subsequent mental health disorders. Studies also show the association of leisure activity with improved current and future mental health. However, research is limited on whether social leisure time activity is a mediating link in the association between psychological symptoms and later psychiatric morbidity. We examined whether adolescence-related social leisure time activity, per se, is a mediating link in the association between adolescent psychological symptoms and later psychiatric morbidity. The study population was based on the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 Study (NFBC 1986; n = 6709; 3227 males). Psychological symptoms at age 15-16 years were measured with the Youth Self Report (YSR) questionnaire. Study participants' psychiatric morbidity by the age of 33 years was assessed using the diagnoses from the nationwide health care registers. Our results showed an association between psychological symptoms and leisure time activities that varied depending on the level of social activity. Leisure time activity was found to be a mediating link between psychological symptoms in adolescence and psychiatric disorders in early adulthood. Adolescence-related leisure time activities, which differed with regard to social interactions, appeared to serve as a mediating link between adolescent psychological symptoms and later onset of psychiatric disorders. Socially active leisure time during adolescence is related to better long-term mental health, while socially inactive leisure time associates with the likelihood of later psychiatric morbidity. To prevent psychiatric disorders, enhancing such leisure time activities in society is highly recommended.

An exploration of how adolescents experience and reason their parents' comments on their weight, shape, and eating

INTRODUCTION

Disordered eating among adolescents is of increasing concern given associated physical and mental health sequelae. Cognitions underlying disordered eating are formed in childhood and adolescence. Parents are a significant presence during this period, so it is critical to understand how they influence their adolescent's eating cognitions and behaviors.

METHODS

Qualitative analysis using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) methodology was employed to consider the lived experiences of 10 Australian adolescents (14-19 years), 60% female, as they engaged with their parents in a range of weight, shape, and eating communications.

RESULTS

Our inductive IPA revealed three key themes representing adolescents' experiences and meaning-making: Parents as Influencers-adolescents acknowledged parents are influencers (objects) within a wider context of community and cultural norms (symbols) and can be protective for peer influence on body image ideals; Expression and Perception-the "what" (weight-talk as an object) and the "how" (objects as independent influences) of gendered parental communication related to health and fitness ideals and illustrated diverse interpretations of both verbal and non-verbal expression; and Fertile Soil and Maturity-the adolescent's characteristics and context influence perceptions of communication, a fear of deviating from norms, and an overarching focus on being "healthy" yet not always knowing what that was. Perception of bidirectional communication also offered valuable insights into potential dangers through family loyalty and in-group permissions.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight implications for the nuanced influence of parental communication and illustrate the pivotal role of parents within the bioecosystem of adolescent development.

Mentalizing in Adolescents and Young Adults with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Associations with Age and Attention Problems

INTRODUCTION

Growing, albeit heterogenous evidence questions whether attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with socio-cognitive impairments, especially beyond childhood. This study focuses on mentalizing - the socio-cognitive ability to attribute and reason in terms of mental states. We aimed to characterize mentalizing performance in terms of correct scores and types of errors in adolescents and young adults with ADHD.

METHODS

Forty-nine adolescents and adults with ADHD and 49 healthy controls matched for age and gender completed a computerized naturalistic mentalizing task, the Movie for Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC). Repeated measures analyses of variance examined the effects of age group and ADHD diagnosis on MASC performance. Additionally, associations between mentalizing scores, the severity of attention problems, and the presence of comorbidity were explored in the ADHD group.

RESULTS

Results showed an increased prevalence of hypomentalizing errors in adolescents with ADHD. Lower mentalizing scores in adolescents with ADHD were correlated with indices of inattentiveness, impulsivity, and vigilance problems. Hypomentalizing errors in adolescents showed to be particularly associated with inattentiveness, after controlling for age and comorbidity. In contrast, adults with ADHD performed similarly to controls and their scores on the mentalizing task were not correlated to attention problems.

CONCLUSION

These findings highlight potential developmental differences in mentalizing abilities in ADHD youths and their association with attentional impairments.

Language skills and interpersonal trust in adolescents with and without mental illness

PURPOSE

The primary aim was to compare adolescents with mental illness and non-clinical adolescents on vocabulary, social problem-solving, trust in parents, attachment and mentalisation. A secondary aim was to investigate whether adolescents' language skills were associated with trust in parents.

METHOD

Seventy-eight adolescents (16-18 years) participated in this cross-sectional quantitative study: a clinical sample (n = 28, M = 16.7 years, 19F) recruited from a mental health service and a non-clinical sample (n = 50, M = 17.0 years, 28F). Standardised language measures and self-report measures of trust in parents; communication quality; attachment; and mentalisation were used. Primary and secondary aims were addressed through independent samples t-tests and Pearson's correlation analyses, respectively.

RESULT

Adolescents experiencing mental illness reported significantly poorer vocabulary, less trust in mother/father, greater attachment anxiety/avoidance, and poorer reflective functioning, than non-clinical adolescents. Expressive vocabulary of clinical (but not non-clinical) adolescents significantly negatively correlated with trust in mother (but not father).

CONCLUSION

Results highlight a role for speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in supporting communication needs of adolescents with mental illness. SLPs should consider trust by: i) understanding adolescents with mental illness may have difficulty trusting them potentially impacting therapeutic engagement; and ii) delivering services in ways that might build trust, such as involving adolescents in treatment planning.

The mindful trajectory: Developmental changes in mentalizing throughout adolescence and young adulthood

BACKGROUND

Mentalizing and psychological mindedness are two key, partially overlapping facets of social cognition. While mentalizing refers to the ability to reflect on one's own mental states and the mental states of others, psychological mindedness describes the ability for self-reflection and the inclination to communicate with others about one's own mental states.

PURPOSE

This study examined the development of mentalizing and psychological mindedness throughout adolescence and into young adulthood, and the interplay between the two with gender and the Big Five Personality Traits.

METHODS

432 adolescents and young adults (ages 14-30) were recruited from two independent schools and two universities. Participants completed a set of self-report measures.

RESULTS

A curvilinear trend in both mentalizing and psychological mindedness indicated a gradual development of these capacities with age, peaking in young adulthood. Across all age groups, females had consistently higher mentalizing scores than males. For females, scores only changed significantly between age bands 17-18 to 20+ (p<0.001), ES (d = 1.07, 95% CI [.1.52-.62]). However, for males, a significant change in scores appeared between two age bands of 14 to 15-16 (p<0.003), ES (d = .45, 95% CI [.82-.07]), and 17-18 to 20+ (p<0.001), ES (d = .6, 95% CI [.1.08-.1]). The change in psychological mindedness scores differed, and females did not have consistently higher scores than males. Females' scores were only significantly higher for ages 14 (p<0.01), ES (d = .43, 95% CI [.82-.04]), and 15-16 (p<0.01), ES (d = .5, 95% CI [.87-.11]). As with the development of mentalizing abilities, female scores in psychological mindedness remained stable from 14 to 18 years of age, with a significant change between age bands 17-18 and 20+ (p<0.01), ES (d = 1.2, 95% CI [1.7-.67]). Contrastingly, for males significant change occurred between 15-16, 17-18 (p<0.01), ES (d = .65, 95% CI [1.1-.18]) and 20+ (p<0.01), ES (d = .84, 95% CI [1.5-.2]). A significant positive association was found between mentalizing and psychological mindedness and the personality traits of Agreeableness, Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness (p<0.0001). Psychological mindedness had a weaker positive correlation with Extraversion and Openness to Experience (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The discussion is focused on the interpretation of the findings in light of social cognition and brain development research.

The Structure of Cognitive Abilities and Associations with Problem Behaviors in Early Adolescence: An Analysis of Baseline Data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study

Using baseline data (n = 9875) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study examining children aged 9 to 10 years, the current analyses included: (1) exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of neurocognitive measures administered during baseline collection, and (2) linear regression analyses on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), controlling for demographic and socioeconomic factors. The neurocognitive tasks measured episodic memory, executive function (EF; attention), language skills, processing speed, working memory, visuospatial ability, and reasoning. The CBCL included composite scores of parent-reported internalizing, externalizing, and stress-related behavior problems. The study reported here serves as an extension of prior research using a principal components analysis (PCA) of the ABCD baseline data. We propose an alternative solution using factor analysis. Analyses revealed a three-factor structure: verbal ability (VA), executive function/processing speed (EF/PS), and working memory/episodic memory (WM/EM). These factors were significantly correlated with the CBCL scores, albeit with small effect sizes. These findings provide a novel three-factor solution to the structure of cognitive abilities measured in the ABCD Study, offering new insights into the association between cognitive function and problem behaviors in early adolescence.

"Som la Pera," a School-Based, Peer-Led Social Marketing Intervention to Engage Spanish Adolescents in a Healthy Lifestyle: A Parallel-Cluster Randomized Controlled Study

Background: Encouraging adolescents to adopt healthy lifestyles can be challenging. The aim of the "Som la Pera" study was to engage adolescents by applying new strategies to increase both their fruit and vegetable consumption and their physical activity (PA), while reducing their sedentary behavior (screen time per day). Methods: In disadvantaged neighborhoods of Reus (Spain), two high schools were randomly assigned to the intervention (n = 169 adolescents, 13- to 16-year old) and two were assigned to the control group (n = 223 adolescents, 13- to 16-year old). The intervention, which lasted 12 months and spanned two academic years (2013-2015), used social marketing (SM) to improve healthy choices. The peer-led strategy involved 5 adolescents, who designed and implemented 10 activities as challenges for their 169 school-aged peers. The control group received no intervention. To assess self-reported lifestyles in both groups, the Health Behavior in School-aged Children survey was used at baseline and end of study. Results: After 12 months, the weekly PA improved in the intervention group vs. the control one (p = 0.047). When male and female groups were examined separately, the improvement in PA remained with a borderline significance only in the male group (p = 0.050). Conclusions: A school-based, peer-led SM intervention designed and implemented by adolescents attending high schools in low-income neighborhoods promoted an increase in PA, particularly in male adolescents 13 to 16 years of age. No effect on fruit or vegetable consumption or screen time was observed. Clinical Trial Registration number: NCT02157402.

Regrouping scalets: Psychometric properties of the theory of mind picture stories task in a schizophrenic sample

Theory of mind is one of the most intensively studied phenomena in the development of schizophrenic symptoms and impairments in social adjustment. Complex theory of mind processing requires both visual and verbal aspects of the social-perceptual and social-cognitive components of mind reading. Reliable assessment methods are considered essential for the proper conduct of research. The current study aims at investigating the psychometric properties of the Theory of Mind Picture Stories Task (ToM PST). Forty-seven patients with schizophrenia were enrolled in the study from three sites. Data from ToM PST were used for computing the consistency, reliability, and internal and construct validity of the test.Our preliminary findings showed less appropriate consistency. Therefore, we attempted to carry out structural changes on the task while preserving its scales and subscales, which measure crucial factors of ToM. The newly structured task has four scales. They show proper consistency (Sequencing: Cronbach's α = 0.70, Theory of a Single Person's Mind: α = 0.74, Switching Between Minds: α = 0.70, Comprehension of Misleading Behaviour: α = 0.67, Total: α = 0.80) with appropriate internal and construct validity, a moderate test-retest reliability over a four-month-course, and a proper inter-rater reliability.

Descriptive Study of Friendship Networks in Adolescents and Their Relationship with Self-Efficacy and Alcohol Consumption Using Social Network Analysis

Alcohol is a widely used legal drug. Self-efficacy takes on great importance in an adolescent's development. Levels of self-efficacy can contribute to the decision-making process of the adolescent. In this phase, a group of friends becomes increasingly important. Alcohol is present in different social aspects. Adolescents use alcohol as a social facilitator or as part of the development of their autonomy. The purpose of this study is to describe and analyze the structure of the friendship network, self-efficacy, and alcohol consumption in adolescents.

METHODS

We used an online platform with validated self-reported questionnaires to collect the data. The sample consisted of 195 adolescents aged between 16 and 18, from different educational centers in Bierzo (Spain).

RESULTS

It was found that 43.6% of the adolescents in our research were high-risk consumers. Significant differences were obtained in terms of self-efficacy and different network metrics. These networks were represented by considering the levels of alcohol consumption. In the friendship network, we observed how the central adolescents presented higher levels of self-efficacy and lower alcohol consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Self-efficacy is established as a predictor of coping and not consuming alcohol and adolescence as a crucial moment to implement prevention strategies. Social Network Analysis is a useful tool that provides an image of the context in which adolescents find themselves.

Perception of Changing Habits among Italian Children and Adolescents during COVID-19 Quarantine: An Epidemiological Study

We used an epidemiological study to explore the perception of change in several psychosocial dimensions during the COVID-19 quarantine. We focused on emotions, use of social network sites (SNSs), family life, important relationships, body functions, and school life. Using snowball recruitment, N = 1047 Italian children, pre-adolescents, and adolescents (M = 13.74 ± 3.59) were selected to complete ad hoc online questionnaires. A differential semantic inventory plot was prepared to analyze the emotional experience of children, pre-adolescents, and adolescents during quarantine compared to the pre-quarantine period. The Kruskal–Wallis test was run to assess gender and age differences in emotions experienced, habitual SNS use, and the experience of attending classes remotely. A post hoc Wilcoxon test was performed to compare such differences. Results showed that most of the sample (93.1%) attended classes using technological devices and reported missing their classmates very much (59.3%). Adolescents experienced more negative emotions (M = 3.69 ± 1.33) than pre-adolescents (M = 4.64 ± 1.32), who experienced negative emotions more than children (M = 5.11 ± 1.24). Females were more prone to experience negative emotions compared to males. Adolescents were also the most prolific SNS users (78.1%), particularly female adolescents. Overall, these finding highlight the necessity of preserving the emotional state and relational well-being of youth in these developmental phases by considering their school and social lives.

Meta-mood knowledge moderates the relationship between neuroticism and depression but not between neuroticism and anxiety in a sample of nonclinical adolescents

Research shows a strong link between neuroticism and internalizing psychopathology, such as depression and anxiety. However, it is unclear to what extent meta-mood knowledge (i.e., attention to emotion and emotional clarity) plays a role as a moderator in this relationship. To investigate this, we collected data on meta-mood knowledge, personality traits, depression, and anxiety in a sample of adolescents (N = 244; 53.7% girls) aged 12 to 18 years (M = 14.6, SD = 1.7) from Catalonia, Spain. Regarding the relationship between neuroticism and depression, results showed that emotional clarity buffered this relationship. Although attention to emotion did not, the joint moderating effect of attention to emotion and emotional clarity was significant. The results on the four different combinations of attention to emotion and emotional clarity showed that the relationship between neuroticism and depression was strongest for high attention and low clarity, less strong for low attention and low clarity, and even lower for high attention and high clarity. And importantly, these similar patterns of association disappeared at low attention and high clarity. In contrast to the relationship between neuroticism and depression, we found no statistically significant moderating effects for the relationship between neuroticism and anxiety. Based on these results, we argue the importance of examining individual differences in emotion-based cognition and understanding when the benefits of emotional clarity are associated with fewer disadvantages of excessive attention. These results provide preliminary evidence that the combination of low attention and high clarity may be an adaptive version of emotional self-awareness in relation to neuroticism and depression.

Efficacy of metacognitive training on symptom severity, neurocognition and social cognition in patients with schizophrenia: A single-blind randomized controlled trial

Over the past decades, a number of complementary treatments for schizophrenia have emerged. One of these is metacognitive training (MCT), which combines the principles of cognitive‐behavioral therapies, cognitive remediation, and psychoeducation into a hybrid approach placing emphasis on increasing metacognitive awareness. The aim of our study was to investigate the efficacy of MCT on symptom severity, and neurocognitive and social cognitive functioning in schizophrenia; also, attention was paid to the assessment of subjective acceptability. Forty‐six patients diagnosed with schizophrenia were included in our single‐blind randomized controlled trial, who were assigned to the intervention or control group. The intervention group was provided standard MCT, while the control group received treatment as usual. We assessed symptom severity and cognitive functions before and after the training, as well as after a 6‐month follow‐up period. Compared to the control group, the intervention group showed improvement in overall symptom severity, and positive and disorganized symptoms. Training participans showed further improvement at the follow‐up assessment. Regarding neurocognitive functions, improvement in visuospatial functions was observed between pre‐ and post‐intervention assessments compared to the control group. Patients showed excellent adherence, and evaluated the training as useful and interesting. In line with the results of previous studies, our results demonstrate the efficacy of MCT on symptom severity in schizophrenia. Improvements in cognitive functions that are closely related to the onset and prevalence of symptoms of schizophrenia were also found.

Theory of Mind and Peer Attachment in Adolescence

A growing body of research on theory of mind (ToM) highlights its significance for childhood social outcomes. Extending the developmental scope of this work, the current study investigated links between advanced ToM abilities and peer attachment in adolescence. Polish adolescents (16 to 18 years old; N = 302; 57.6% girls) completed two advanced ToM measures and reported on their peer attachment. With the effects of age and language controlled, girls scored higher than boys for both advanced ToM and peer attachment. However, the association between these measures was only significant in boys. These results are discussed in terms of theory and research on gender-specific approaches to social cognitive development in adolescence.

Youth anti-racism action: Contributions of youth perceptions of school racial messages and critical consciousness

The current study examined whether youth perceptions of school racial messages that acknowledged the reality of racism (critical consciousness [CC] messages) or denied racism (color-blind messages) predicted youth anti-racism action through interpersonal and communal/political means. We further tested whether youths' critical reflection of perceived inequality and anger toward social injustice-psychological aspects of CC development-mediated relations between school messages and youth actions. These questions were explored using structural equation modeling with 372 racially/ethnically diverse adolescents (M_age  = 17.00; standard deviation = 1.29; female = 51.0%). Results indicated that youth perceptions of CC messages predicted their involvement in both interpersonal and communal/political anti-racism action. Youths' anger toward social injustice mediated links between school racial messages and anti-racism action, albeit in unique ways. These findings underscore the power of schools in prompting youth anti-racism action. Implications of the importance of partnerships between schools and youth community organizing groups to stimulate youth anti-racism action were discussed.

Relationships of Child-, Parents-, and Environment-Associated Determinants with Diet Quality, Physical Activity, and Smoking Habits among Indonesian Urban Adolescents

BACKGROUND

The trend of unhealthy lifestyles is increasing among adolescents and has been associated with the rising burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). However, specific determinants of unhealthy lifestyles among adolescents in low- and middle-income countries remain limited.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationships of child-, parents-, and environment-associated determinants with diet quality, physical activity, and smoking habits among low-socioeconomic urban adolescents.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study involving 238 adolescents aged 11 to 17 years was conducted in Jakarta, Indonesia. Adolescents and their parents were interviewed to assess the determinants of healthy lifestyles that included diet quality, physical activity, and smoking habits. Diet and physical activity were quantified using the Diet Quality Index for Adolescents (DQI-A) and Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C), respectively. Multiple regression was used to determine the β coefficients and odds ratios predictive of healthy lifestyles.

RESULTS

Mean scores of DQI-A and PAQ-C were considered low (33.5% ± 8.9% and 2.1 ± 0.5, respectively). Overall, 17.6% of adolescents were smokers, with 88% of these being males. Predictors of diet quality were child- (age, gender) and environment-associated (house size, access to a computer) determinants with β coefficients of -6.52 to 3.26. The PAQ-C score was associated with child- (female) and environment-associated (living area) determinants with β coefficients of -0.45 and 0.14, respectively. Younger adolescents and females were protective factors for smoking. Parents-associated determinants were not associated with any lifestyle indicators.

CONCLUSIONS

Child- and environment-associated determinants were predictors of healthy lifestyles among adolescents. Thus, personal empowerment and environment transformation are needed to facilitate a healthy lifestyle and reduce the burden of NCDs among adolescents.

Children with hearing impairment and early cochlear implant: A pragmatic assessment

Extensive research has demonstrated the benefits of cochlear implants (CI) in contributing to improve the linguistic skills of children with hearing impairment; however, few studies have focused on the development of pragmatic ability and its relationship with age of implantation. Pragmatics is the ability to use language in different contexts and its development has crucial implications, e.g., social inclusion and professional attainments. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive assessment of pragmatic ability using the Language Pragmatic Abilities (APL Medea), a battery composed by five different tasks: Comprehension of Metaphors, Implicit meaning, Comics, Situations and Colors Game (a perspective taking task). Eighteen children with early CI, belonging to 3 different age groups (6; 11-7; 11, 8; 0-8; 11 and 9; 0-9; 11 years-old), and twenty-four children with typical development (Control Group) participated to the study. We also investigated how the precocity of CI, i.e., age of first implantation, may affect the pragmatic development. Globally, children with CI obtained lower scores in the APL Medea battery than typically hearing children. However, focusing on the Medea tasks separately, children with CIs differed from their hearing peers only in Comics and Colors Game tasks. Finally, age of implantation was a moderate but significant predictor of pragmatic performance.

Social cognition in adolescent females with borderline personality traits

OBJECTIVES

Social cognitive impairment is considered to be a psychopathological cornerstone in adolescent females with borderline personality disorder. The aim is to compare the social cognitive performance in adolescent females with borderline personality traits and healthy adolescent females, and to assess the social cognitive performance in relation to the severity of borderline personality features.

DESIGN

A case-control study was conducted on 30 adolescent females who fulfilled the diagnostic criteria of DSM-IV of borderline personality traits, compared to 30 matched healthy volunteer adolescent females.

METHODS

Borderline Personality Questionnaire (BPQ) was used to rate borderline personality features. Reading the Mind in the Eyes test (RMET) and Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC) were applied to assess social cognitive abilities.

RESULTS

The scores of RMET and some domains of MASC showed a highly significant difference between the patient and control groups. Scores of RMET and some domains of MASC showed significant correlation with impulsiveness, emptiness, relationship patterns, and quasi-psychotic states subscales of BPQ.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescent females with borderline personality traits had lower social cognitive performance compared to healthy adolescent females. The intensity of this social cognitive deficit was evident to be related to impulsivity, emptiness, pattern of relationships, and quasi-psychotic states.

"Influence of diet on mood and social cognition: a pilot study"

Recently, a relationship has been observed between nutrition and social cognition. In this aspect, several dietary patterns, or even some probiotics, have been reported as social cognition modulators. However, to date, no studies have reported the effects of specific nutrients. Our aim was to evaluate the relationship between dietary macronutrients and the processing of social and affective information. Participants were undergraduates from the University of Extremadura (Badajoz, Spain) aged 21.3 ± 2.9 years., with a BMI of 22.8 ± 3.9 (kg m-2). The students' social cognition and diet were analysed through questionnaires and a dietary record. The diets were analysed with DIAL v.1.18® software (Alce Ingeniería®). The participants filled out the WHO-5 well-being index, Beck's anxiety inventory, Beck's depression inventory, ruminative response scale (RSS), Leiden index of depression sensitivity (LEIDS-r), empathy quotient (EQ), and interpersonal reactivity index (IRI). To analyse the data, nutrients were grouped through principal component analysis (PCA) into lipids, carbohydrates and proteins. Additionally, we assayed if these principal components were associated with psychological questionnaire scores using multiple linear regression analyses. The dietary pattern differed from the traditional Mediterranean diet due to high intake of proteins and saturated fatty acids. Regarding social cognition and macronutrients, we found a positive association between lipids, specifically cholesterol, and the Perspective-Taking Scale (an IRI component). Carbohydrates influenced the RSS, indicating that complex carbohydrates may be a risk factor for depression. Moreover, the brooding factor, a component of the RRS, was negatively affected by dietary carbohydrates and proteins, specifically by fiber and aspartate. Diet may influence several variables related to social cognition and mood. Particularly, a low-cholesterol diet rich in fiber, complex carbohydrates, and aspartate apparently provides benefits, improving the processing of social and affective information and psychic well-being.

Exploring mentalization, trust, communication quality, and alienation in adolescents

INTRODUCTION

A growing body of evidence has demonstrated the importance of mentalization for adolescents' psychosocial functioning; however, further research is needed to understand links between mentalization and other socio-cognitive factors. The aim of this quantitative, cross-sectional study was to investigate the relationship between a teen's capacity to mentalize and three attachment-related factors: parent-teen trust, parent-teen communication, and parent-teen alienation.

METHODS

In an online survey, 82 (mainly) Australian adolescents (57 female; 23 male; 2 non-binary; mean age 17.09 years) completed: i) The Children's Eyes Test, which measured mentalization; and ii) The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment-45, which measured trust, communication quality, and alienation.

RESULTS

In teens' relationships with both mothers and fathers, trust and communication quality were significantly positively correlated (p = .001) when controlling for age and gender. Both were significantly negatively correlated with alienation (p = .001) with control variables included. Capacity to mentalize did not correlate with trust, communication quality, or alienation in relationships with either mothers or fathers (p ≤ .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Possible reasons are proposed for why no relationship was found between mentalization and trust, communication quality, or alienation. Implications for future research are discussed.

Rapid facial mimicry responses are preserved in youth with first presentation borderline personality disorder

BACKGROUND

Empathy is a complex and multifaceted construct comprising cognitive and affective components. Abnormal empathic responses are implicated in borderline personality disorder (BPD). Specifically, unconscious motor mimicry (a primitive component of affective empathy evident from infancy) is theorized to be heightened and to contribute to the heightened emotional contagion often seen in people with BPD. Yet, no study has directly tested whether abnormally heightened unconscious motor mimicry is associated with BPD features or whether this is present early in the course of BPD.

METHODS

In the present study, facial electromyography was used to assess the rapid facial mimicry responses (a form of unconscious motor mimetic responding) of 32 outpatient youths (aged 15-25 years) with early stage BPD features and 47 demographically matched healthy control participants (HC).

RESULTS

The results showed no group differences in rapid facial mimetic responses to either positive (happy) or negative (angry) facial emotions.

LIMITATIONS

Co-occurring psychopathology and the potential impact of state affect on rapid facial mimicry were considered and discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that there is no evidence for abnormally heightened rapid motor mimicry in youth early in the course of BPD, suggesting that rapid facial mimicry is preserved in this group. It is thus unlikely that abnormally heightened unconscious simulation contributes to heightened emotional contagion in youth with first presentation BPD. Future research should explore alternative mechanisms for this phenomenon and also whether abnormalities in motor mimetic responses are evident in later stages of the disorder.

Investigating real-time social interaction in pairs of adolescents with the Perceptual Crossing Experiment

The study of real-time social interaction provides ecologically valid insight into social behavior. The objective of the current research is to experimentally assess real-time social contingency detection in an adolescent population, using a shortened version of the Perceptual Crossing Experiment (PCE). Pairs of 148 adolescents aged between 12 and 19 were instructed to find each other in a virtual environment interspersed with other objects by interacting with each other using tactile feedback only. Across six rounds, participants demonstrated increasing accuracy in social contingency detection, which was associated with increasing subjective experience of the mutual interaction. Subjective experience was highest in rounds when both participants were simultaneously accurate in detecting each other's presence. The six-round version yielded comparable social contingency detection outcome measures to a ten-round version of the task. The shortened six-round version of the PCE has therefore enabled us to extend the previous findings on social contingency detection in adults to an adolescent population, enabling implementation in prospective research designs to assess the development of social contingency detection over time.

Longitudinal Relationships Between Reflective Functioning, Empathy, and Externalizing Behaviors During Adolescence and Young Adulthood

Reflective functioning (RF) refers to the understanding of one's own and others' behaviors in terms of mental states, whereas empathy entails the abilities to understand (cognitive empathy) and to share (affective empathy) the emotions of others. Low RF and low empathy have been previously related to externalizing behaviors, such as aggression and rule breaking. However, few longitudinal studies have simultaneously examined the relationships between these variables during adolescence. The aim of the present study is to investigate the longitudinal effects of both RF and empathy on potential changes in externalizing behaviors over time, in a group of 103 adolescents and young adults from the general population assessed repeatedly up to four times. We conducted multilevel analysis in order to examine the effects of RF and empathy on the initial levels and the trajectories of externalizing behaviors over time, while accounting for other variables previously associated with externalizing behaviors, such as age, gender, internalizing problems, and cognitive abilities. The results suggest that the ability to reflect on behaviors in terms of mental states predicted a sharper decrease in externalizing behaviors over time. Moreover, externalizing behaviors at the first assessment were associated with RF impairments and low affective empathy. Age, gender, cognitive abilities, and cognitive empathy were not associated with externalizing behaviors. We discuss how our results, based on a typically developing population, might inform primary or indicated prevention strategies for externalizing behaviors by focusing on socio-cognitive processes such as RF and affective empathy.

Theory of mind development from adolescence to adulthood: Testing the two-component model

The ability to infer mental and affective states of others is crucial for social functioning. This ability, denoted as Theory of Mind (ToM), develops rapidly during childhood, yet results on its development across adolescence and into young adulthood are rare. In the present study, we tested the two-component model, measuring age-related changes in social-perceptual and social-cognitive ToM in a sample of 267 participants between 11 and 25 years of age. Additionally, we measured language, reasoning, and inhibitory control as major covariates. Participants inferred mental states from non-verbal cues in a social-perceptual task (Eye Test) and from stories with faux pas in a social-cognitive task (Faux Pas Test). Results showed substantial improvement across adolescence in both ToM measures and in the covariates. Analysis with linear mixed models (LMM) revealed specific age-related growth for the social-perceptual component, while the age-related increase of the social-cognitive component fully aligned with the increase of the covariates. These results support the distinction between ToM components and indicate that adolescence is a crucial period for developing social-perceptual ToM abilities. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? To date, much research has been dedicated to Theory of Mind (ToM) development in early and middle childhood. However, only a few studies have examined development of ToM in adolescence. Studies so far suggest age-related differences in ToM between adolescents and young adults. What this study adds The study offers several methodological advantages including a large sample size with a continuous distribution of age (age 11-25) and the use of a comprehensive test battery to assess ToM and covariates (language, executive functions, reasoning). The results provide evidence for asymmetries in the development of two ToM components (social-perceptual and social-cognitive; the two-component account) across the studied age range: the social perceptual component showed specific development, while the age-related increase of the social-cognitive component fully aligned with increase of the covariates. Adolescence is a crucial period for developing social-perceptual ToM abilities.

Social cognition

Social cognition refers to a complex set of mental abilities underlying social stimulus perception, processing, interpretation, and response. Together, these abilities support the development of adequate social competence and adaptation. Social cognition has a protracted development through infancy to adulthood. Given the preponderance of social dysfunctions across neurologic conditions, social cognition is now recognized as a core domain of functioning that warrants clinical attention. This chapter provides an overview of the construct of social cognition, defines some of the most clinically significant sociocognitive abilities (face processing, facial expression processing, joint attention, theory of mind, empathy, and moral processing), and introduces the neural networks and frameworks associated with these abilities. Broad principles for understanding the development of social cognition are presented, and a summary of normative developmental milestones of clinically relevant sociocognitive abilities is proposed. General guidelines for sound social cognition assessment in children and adolescents are summarized.

Environmental factors and daily functioning levels among adolescents with executive function deficits

Introduction

This study examines parents’ perceptions of environmental factors in home, school and community settings on daily functioning of adolescents with executive function deficits. The aim was to map environmental supports and barriers and identify factors that predict functioning.

Method

Parents of 81 adolescents (10–14 years) completed the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Participation and Environment Measure for Children and Youth (PEM-CY) part B and Child Evaluation Checklist (CHECK). We used the BRIEF scores to form a group of adolescents with executive function deficits ( n = 41) and a matched group with typical development ( n = 40). Correlation and discriminate analyses compared environmental factors across groups (PEM-CY) and identified those that predict daily functioning (CHECK).

Results

Compared to parents of adolescents with typical development, parents of adolescents with executive function deficits reported significantly more environmental barriers than supports (PEM-CY). School and community social demands of activity predicted the adolescents’ current daily functioning (CHECK).

Conclusion

Cognitive and social demands of activities appear to be common factors that limit functioning of adolescents with executive function deficits in home, school and community environments. The PEM-CY part B can promote awareness of the main support and barrier factors and help focus goals for efficient intervention programmes for these adolescents.

Theory of mind and suicide ideation and attempt in adolescent inpatients

BACKGROUND

Suicide ideation and attempt are alarmingly prevalent in adolescents, and even more so for youth in psychiatric settings. Interpersonal factors have been emphasized as important in the etiology and maintenance of suicide ideation and attempt in adolescents. Evaluating social cognitive deficits offers important insight into processes underlying interpersonal problems associated with suicide ideation and attempt; however little social-cognitive research has been conducted in this area. The aim of the current study was to explore the relation of theory of mind (ToM) impairments and suicide ideation and attempt among adolescent inpatients.

METHODS

A sample of 391 adolescent inpatients completed measures on ToM, suicidal ideation and attempt, clinical symptoms and sociodemographics.

RESULTS

Binary logistic regression analyses revealed significant relations between excessive ToM (hypermentalizing) and two suicide outcome variables (suicide ideation in the past four weeks, suicide attempt in the past year), while covarying for sociodemographics and multiple clinical symptom scales.

CONCLUSIONS

Excessive ToM, or over-attributing the mental/emotional states of others, appears to share a salient relation to recent suicidal thoughts and behavior in adolescent inpatients. Current findings may indicate that interventions incorporating social cognitive components (e.g., Mentalization Based Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy) may be of promise to treating youth with suicidal thoughts and behaviors and excessive ToM.

LIMITATIONS

The current study uses cross-sectional data and discrepancies exist in time periods assessed by primary measures.

Roles of age, gender and psychological difficulties in adolescent mentalizing

INTRODUCTION

Adolescence is a critical period for the development of mentalizing - the imaginative capacity to understand one's own and others' behaviour in terms of underlying mental states. Yet, factors and mechanisms underlying individual differences in adolescent mentalizing remain poorly understood. This exploratory study examined whether and how a) age and gender and b) psychological difficulties correlate with mentalizing performance in adolescents from the general population.

METHODS

89 adolescents from Geneva, Switzerland (54 females, age 12-17 years) completed a computerized task of mentalizing and a self-report measure of psychopathology.

RESULTS

Mentalizing performance improved with age. Males showed lower scores on the mentalizing task and made more hypermentalizing errors than females. The main findings revealed a negative association between mentalizing performance and self-reported attention problems. Post-hoc analyses further demonstrated that self-reported attentional difficulties were particularly associated with weaker scores on items requiring mentalizing about intentions, while self-reported withdrawal/depression symptoms were particularly associated with weaker scores on items requiring mentalizing about emotions and thoughts.

CONCLUSION

The present study highlights a negative association between attentional difficulties and mentalizing performance in community adolescents. Moreover, it provides preliminary evidence suggesting that age, gender and psychological difficulties can be distinctively associated with patterns of correct and incorrect mentalizing in community adolescents. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Mindreading abilities and borderline personality disorder: A comprehensive assessment using the Theory of Mind Assessment Scale

Numerous studies have examined mindreading in borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, the empirical data obtained to date have not facilitated the development of a clear clinical profile of mindreading impairment in BPD due to a lack of consistency or incongruence across studies. One possible explanation for these inconsistencies and divergences in the current literature may lie in the multidimensional character of the mindreading construct; moreover, the heterogeneity of the experimental measures used to assess individuals with BPD mindreading skills may also need to be taken into account. The aim of the present study is to investigate mindreading skills and impairments in patients with BPD through direct comparison of a wide range of mindreading dimensions using a comprehensive semistructured interview, the Theory of Mind Assessment Scale (Th.o.m.a.s.) (Bosco et al., 2009). Our results show that the performance of patients with BPD differs from that of healthy controls only in certain specific dimensions of mindreading. The difficulties encountered by the patients with BPD typically emerge when mindreading tasks require them to disentangle their own subjective mindreading from that of another person, in other words, when they were required to assume an allocentric perspective.

Factor Analysis of EMA-Scale on Adolescent Adjustment From a Developmental Perspective: A Short Form

Many published instruments for assessing adolescent adjustment can be implemented in the school context. However, most of them fail to include a comprehensive and positive theoretical perspective of adolescent development and, even when they do, priority is often given to the clinical perspective, or problems with ecological validity and cost-effectiveness emerge. The Magallanes Adaptation Scale is a 90-item Likert-instrument designed for Spanish-speaking adolescents in order to screen several adjustment areas from a holistic and positive perspective of development. Although some evidence of its psychometric robustness has been tested, no confirmatory analysis of its structure has been published. This paper analyzes the items and the factor structure (exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis, using the split-half method) of the scales. Participants were 948 Spanish adolescents (49.84% girls) aged between 11 and 17 and stratified sampled. Thirty-six items were removed from the item analysis. The results of the exploratory factor analysis revealed five factors, excluding mother's adaptation. Several models were tested during the confirmatory factor analyses, with a 24-item second-order four-factor solution being found to have the best adjustment indicators. The short version proposed in this paper can constitute a helpful tool with screening purposes to help school teachers to assess students' overall development beyond mere academic performance, although further validity research is needed.

The Mediating Role of Conceptions of Learning in the Relationship Between Metacognitive Skills/Strategies and Academic Outcomes Among Middle-School Students

This study investigated the mediating role of conceptions of learning in the relationship between metacognitive skills/strategies and academic outcomes among middle-school students. The self-report “Learning Conceptions Questionnaire” (LCQ) and “Metacognitive questionnaire on the method of study” (QMS—in Italian) were administered to 136 middle-school students and their academic outcomes were collected. Correlation analyses revealed that within metacognitive skills/strategies only self-assessment was positively correlated with academic outcomes. Mediation analysis indicated that a conception of learning as internal attribution of success and failure was significantly involved as mediator in the relationship between metacognitive skills/strategies and academic outcomes. This study permitted to advance our knowledge about the relationship between metacognitive skills/strategies and academic outcomes and it has opened the way to practical implications.

Longitudinal Examination of Everyday Executive Functioning in Children With ASD: Relations With Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Functioning Over Time

Executive functioning (EF) deficits are well-documented in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), yet little is known about the longitudinal trajectory of "everyday" EF and links to social, emotional and behavioral outcomes in ASD. This study examined the profile of everyday EF utilizing parent-reported measures over 2 years, and explored whether prior estimates of EF were related to later co-morbid psychopathology and social functioning in 39 children with ASD and 34 typically developing (TD) children (ages 7-14 years). According to parent reports, children with ASD had impaired scores of EF in all domains at both time points, and showed no significant improvement across 2 years, compared to controls. Regression analyses showed that prior estimates of behavior regulation difficulties at time 1 uniquely predicted later emotional (i.e., symptoms of anxiety/depression) and behavioral (i.e., oppositionality/aggressiveness) problems in children with ASD 2 years later. Furthermore, an improvement of metacognitive skills predicted a reduction of social difficulties over 2 years in ASD. These results imply that EF may be a potential target of intervention for preventing and reducing co-morbid psychopathology and promoting social competence in youth with ASD. Furthermore, the findings that EF related to behavior is more critical for later emotional and behavioral functioning, whereas EF related to cognition is more critical for social functioning, indicates that it may be beneficial to tailor treatment. Future studies investigating the effectiveness of EF-based interventions in improving the cognitive, psychological and social outcomes in ASD are of high priority.

The Structure of Speed of Processing Across Cultures

We examined whether a general processing factor emerges when using response times for cognitive processing tasks and whether such a factor is valid across three different cultural groups (Chinese, Canadian, and Greek). Three hundred twenty university students from Canada (n = 115), China (n = 110), and Cyprus (n = 95) were assessed on an adaptation of the Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System (D-N CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997). Three alternative models were contrasted: a distinct abilities processing speed model (Model 1) that is dictated by the latent four cognitive factors of planning, attention, simultaneous and successive (PASS) processing, a unitary ability processing speed model (Model 2) that is dictated by the response time nature of all measures, and a bifactor model (Model 3) which included the latent scores of Models 1 and 2 and served as the full model. Results of structural equation modeling showed that (a) the model representing processing speed as a collection of four cognitive processes rather than a unitary processing speed factor was the most parsimonious, and (b) the loadings of the obtained factors were invariant across the three cultural groups. These findings enhance our understanding of the nature of speed of processing across diverse cultures and suggest that even when cognitive processes (i.e., PASS) are operationalized with response time measures, the processing component dominates speed.

Theory of Mind Development in School-Aged Left-Behind Children in Rural China

The current study aimed to investigate differences in theory of mind between left-behind children and non-left-behind children in rural China and to examine the potential protective role of general reasoning ability in left-behind children's theory of mind. Participants included 213 children aged 7.10-13.67 years (111 boys and 102 girls, M = 10.51 years, SD = 1.33), 101 of whom were left behind in rural areas by one or both migrating parents for at least 6 months. The Strange Stories task, a second-order false belief task, and a faux pas task were used to measure children's theory of mind, and Sessions B and C in Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices were used to test children's general reasoning ability. The results showed that left-behind children scored lower on both the faux pas task and Strange Stories task. Additionally, on second-order false belief understanding, left-behind boys performed worse than non-left-behind boys, while left-behind girls scored higher than non-left behind girls. Moreover, children's general reasoning ability moderated the relationship between parental migrant status and children's faux pas understanding: For children with high levels of general reasoning ability, left-behind children performed similarly to non-left-behind children, while for children with low levels of general reasoning ability, left-behind children scored lower than non-left-behind children, indicating that general reasoning ability buffered the negative effect of being left behind on children's theory of mind development. The implications of these findings for training directed at left-behind children are discussed.

A life put on hold: adolescents' experiences of having an eating disorder in relation to social contexts outside the family

BACKGROUND

As suffering from an eating disorder often entails restrictions on a person's everyday life, one can imagine that it is an important aspect of recovery to help young people learn to balance stressful demands and expectations in areas like the school environment and spare-time activities that include different forms of interpersonal relationships.

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to investigate how adolescents with experience from a restrictive eating disorder describe their illness and their time in treatment in relation to social contexts outside the family.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This qualitative study is based on narratives of 15 adolescents with experience from outpatient treatment for eating disorders with a predominately restrictive symptomatology, recruited in collaboration with four specialized eating-disorder units. Data were explored through inductive thematic analysis.

RESULTS

The adolescents' descriptions of their illness in relation to their social contexts outside the family follow a clear timeline that includes narratives about when and how the problem arose, time in treatment, and the process that led to recovery. Three main themes were found: 1) the problems emerging in everyday life (outside the family); 2) a life put on hold and 3) creating a new life context.

CONCLUSION

Young people with eating disorders need to learn how to balance demands and stressful situations in life, and to grasp the confusion that often preceded their illness. How recovery progresses, and how the young people experience their life contexts after recovery, depends largely on the magnitude and quality of peer support and on how school and sports activities affect and are affected by the eating disorder.

Do executive function and theory of mind predict pragmatic abilities following traumatic brain injury? An analysis of sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts

Quality of life and social integration are strongly influenced by the ability to communicate and previous research has shown that pragmatic ability can be specifically impaired in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI). In addition, TBI usually results in damage to the frontotemporal lobes with a consequent impairment of cognitive functions, i.e., attention, memory, executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). The role of the underlying cognitive deficits in determining the communicative-pragmatic difficulties of an individual with TBI is not yet completely clear. This study examined the relationship between the ability to understand and produce various kinds of communicative acts, (i.e., sincere, deceitful and ironic) and the above-mentioned cognitive and ToM abilities following TBI. Thirty-five individuals with TBI and thirty-five healthy controls were given tasks assessing their ability to comprehend and produce sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts belonging to the linguistic and extralinguistic scales of the Assessment Battery for Communication (ABaCo), together with a series of EF and ToM tasks. The results showed that, when compared to healthy individuals, participants with TBI performed poorly overall in the comprehension and production of all the pragmatic phenomena investigated, (i.e., sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts), and they also exhibited impaired performance at the level of all the cognitive functions examined. Individuals with TBI also showed a decreasing trend in performance in dealing with sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts, on both the comprehension and production subscales of the linguistic and extralinguistic scales. Furthermore, a hierarchical regression analysis revealed that - in patients with TBI but not in the controls - EF had a significant effect on the comprehension of linguistic and extralinguistic irony only, while the percentage of explained variance increased with the inclusion of theory of mind. Indeed, ToM had a significant role in determining patients' performance in the extralinguistic production of sincere and deceitful communicative acts, linguistic and extralinguistic comprehension of deceit and the linguistic production of irony. However, with regard to the performance of patients with TBI in the various pragmatic tasks investigated, (i.e., sincere, deceitful and ironic communicative acts), EF was able to explain the pattern of patients' scores in the linguistic and extralinguistic comprehension but not in production ability. Furthermore, ToM seemed not to be able to explain the decreasing trend in the performance of patients in managing the various kinds of communicative acts investigated.

Cooperative Team Learning and the Development of Social Skills in Higher Education: The Variables Involved

The cooperative methodology provides an opportunity for university students to develop interpersonal, social, and teamwork competences which can be decisive in their professional and social success. The research described here examines the influence of cooperative learning on the social skills necessary for teamwork. Furthermore, it analyses whether the continued use of this type of learning, the type of group, the basic social skills for teamwork, or the academic level of the students, influence their efficacy. To do so, we have designed a research project of a quasi-experimental kind with a pre-test, a post-test, and a control group, in which 346 university undergraduate students studying degrees in Infant and Primary Education completed self-report surveys about behavior patterns in social skills concerning self-assertion and the reception and imparting of information in teamwork situations. The results show that cooperative learning in university classrooms is effective as a method for developing the social skills necessary for teamwork, as well as the relevance of the control over the number of students in a group, the basic social skills, or the academic level of the students, as relevant factors related with efficacy; where continuity over time in the use of the cooperative methodology is what marks the greatest differences in the development of the social skills necessary for teamwork. It is important to stress that when students are asked to work autonomously in teams, with the aim of favoring the development of social skills, they should be given adequate structures that can guarantee the minimum conditions of participation, so as to allow a proper development of the said social skills.

Why Pragmatics and Theory of Mind Do Not (Completely) Overlap

Aim of the paper is to discuss the extent to which pragmatics, i.e., the ability to use language and other expressive means to convey meaning in a specific interactional context, overlaps with Theory of Mind (ToM), i.e., the ability to ascribe mental states to oneself and the others. We present empirical data available in the current literature concerning the relation between these two faculties, with specific reference to the developmental and clinical domains. Part of the literature we take into account appears to show that ToM does correlate with pragmatic ability; however, other studies appear to show that pragmatic ability alone cannot explain the empirical differences of performance across different kinds of pragmatic tasks, and therefore that another, at least partially different faculty is required to account for human communication. We argue that to conceive pragmatics as a sort of subcomponent of ToM, and thus to conflate or reduce the notion of pragmatics into the (wider) notion of ToM, is not theoretically correct and a possible cause of methodological confusion in the relevant empirical research. It thus turns out to be necessary that the two faculties be investigated with separate theories as well as different experimental tasks.

The Effect of Parental Involvement and Socioeconomic Status on Junior School Students' Academic Achievement and School Behavior in China

A survey was conducted on 19,487 Chinese junior school students to elucidate the moderating role of socioeconomic status (SES) in the relationship between parental involvement (i.e., home-based involvement and academic socialization) and junior school students’ performance in school (i.e., academic achievement and school behavior). The data includes 10,042 males and 9,445 females (mean age = 14.52, SD = 1.24). It was taken from the 2013–2014 Chinese Educational Panel Survey (CEPS), that was administrated by the National Survey Research Center at Renmin University of China. The results demonstrate that SES negatively moderates both the relationship between academic socialization and academic achievement, and the relationship between home-based involvement and school behavior. Findings imply that parental involvement activities are highly beneficial for junior school students in families with low SES. Academic socialization is generally associated with academic success, whereas home-based involvement closely relates to school behavior. Future home-based interventions can be developed to promote parental involvement activities in low-SES families. The results also showed important implications for the development of family education in China.

Cognitive abilities and theory of mind in explaining communicative-pragmatic disorders in patients with schizophrenia

Patients with schizophrenia usually show an impairment in their communicative-pragmatic performance; they also have difficulties in cognitive functioning and Theory of Mind (ToM). In the literature it has been proposed that ToM and cognitive deficits have a role in explaining the communicative-pragmatic difficulties of patients with schizophrenia. However, the exact interplay of these functions is still not completely clear. The present research investigates the relationship between communicative-pragmatic, ToM and cognitive impairments (i.e. general intelligence, selective attention, speed processing and EF -working memory, inhibition and flexibility-) in a sample of 26 individuals with schizophrenia and matched controls. The linguistic and extralinguistic scales of the Assessment Battery of Communication (ABaCo), and a series of ToM and cognitive tasks were administered to patients and healthy controls. The results showed that individuals with schizophrenia performed less well than controls in all the tasks investigated. However, a hierarchical regression analysis showed that only ToM, and not cognitive functions, seems to be a predictive variable of patients' performance. Finally, a Fisher's exact test showed that there was not a stable significant relationship between ToM or EF and pragmatic impairment.

Neurological soft signs, but not theory of mind and emotion recognition deficit distinguished children with ADHD from healthy control

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with social cognition impairment, executive dysfunction and motor abnormalities, consisting in the persistence of neurological soft signs (NSS). Theory of mind (ToM) and emotion recognition (ER) deficit of children with ADHD have been interpreted as a consequence of their executive dysfunction, particularly inhibitory control deficit. To our knowledge, there are not studies that evaluate the possible correlation between the ToM and ER deficit and NSS in the population with ADHD, while this association has been studied in other psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate ToM and ER and NSS in a sample of 23 drug-naïve children with ADHD and a sample of 20 healthy children and the possible correlation between social cognition dysfunction and NSS in ADHD. Our findings suggest that ToM and ER dysfunction is not a constant feature in the population with ADHD, while NSS confirmed as a markers of atypical neurodevelopment and predictors of the severity of functional impairment in children with ADHD.

A School-Based, Peer-Led, Social Marketing Intervention To Engage Spanish Adolescents in a Healthy Lifestyle ("We Are Cool"-Som la Pera Study): A Parallel-Cluster Randomized Controlled Study

BACKGROUND

Encouraging adolescents to adopt healthy lifestyles can be challenging. The aim of the "Som la Pera" study was to engage adolescents by applying new strategies to increase both their fruit and vegetable consumption and their physical activity (PA) while reducing their sedentary behavior.

METHODS

In disadvantaged neighborhoods of Reus (Spain), two high schools were randomly assigned to the intervention (n = 170 adolescents 13- to 16-year-olds) and two were assigned to the control group (n = 223 adolescents 13- to 16-year-olds). The intervention, which lasted 12 months and spanned 2 academic years (2013-2015), used social marketing (SM) to improve healthy choices. The peer-led strategy involved 5 adolescents who designed and implemented 10 activities as challenges for their 165 school-aged peers. The control group received no intervention. To assess self-reported lifestyles in both groups, the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children Survey was used at baseline and end of study.

RESULTS

After 12 months, intervention adolescents showed an increase of 28.9% in ≥1 fruit/day (p < 0.01) and of 18.5% in ≥6 hours/week of PA (p < 0.01) compared with controls. Additionally, intervention group males had an increase of 28.8% in ≥1 vegetable/day (p < 0.01) and of 15.6% in ≤2 hours/day of sedentary activity (p = 0.01) compared with controls.

CONCLUSIONS

A school-based, peer-led, SM intervention developed by adolescents attending high schools in low-income neighborhoods effectively improved the healthy choices of their school-aged peers, leading to increased fruit consumption and PA in adolescents of both genders. Furthermore, adolescent males were more sensitive to improvements in healthy choices, showing increased vegetable consumption and decreased sedentary behavior.

Role of Two Types of Syntactic Embedding in Belief Attribution in Adults with or without Asperger Syndrome

The role of syntax in belief attribution (BA) is not completely understood in healthy adults and understudied in adults with autism spectrum disorder. Embedded syntax could be useful either for the development of Theory of Mind (ToM) (Emergence account) or more generally over the lifespan (Reasoning account). Two hypotheses have been explored, one suggesting that embedding itself (Relatives and Complement sentences and Metarepresentation account) is important for ToM and another one considering that the embedding of a false proposition into a true one (Complement sentences and Misrepresentation account) is important. The goals of this study were to evaluate (1) the role of syntax in ToM (Emergence vs. Reasoning account), (2) the type of syntax implied in ToM (Metarepresentation vs. Misrepresentation account), and (3) the verbally mediated strategies which compensate for ToM deficits in adults with Asperger Syndrome (AS). Fifty NeuroTypical (NT) adults and 22 adults with AS were involved in a forced-choice task including ±ToM tasks (BA and a control task, physical causation, PC) under four Interference conditions (silence, syllable repetition, relative sentences repetition, and complement sentences repetition). The non-significant ±ToM × Interference interaction effect in the NT group did not support the Reasoning account and thus suggests that syntax is useful only for ToM development (i.e., Emergence account). Results also indicated that repeating complement clauses put NT participants in a dual task whereas repeating relative clauses did not, suggesting that repeating relatives is easier for NT than repeating complements. This could be an argument in favor of the Misrepresentation account. However, this result should be interpreted with caution because our results did not support the Reasoning account. Moreover, AS participants (but not NT participants) were more disrupted by ±ToM tasks when asked to repeat complement sentences compared to relative clause sentences. This result is in favor of the Misrepresentation account and indirectly suggests verbally mediated strategies for ToM in AS. To summarize, our results are in favor of the Emergence account in NT and of Reasoning and Misrepresentation accounts in adults with AS. Overall, this suggests that adults with AS use complement syntax to compensate for ToM deficits.

Keeping secrets from friends: Exploring the effects of friendship quality, loneliness and self-esteem on secrecy

The tendency to keep secrets in adolescents has been studied in particular in their relationships with their parents and associated with psychosocial disadvantages. The current study focused on peer relationships and investigated the effects of friendship quality, loneliness in a multidimensional perspective, and self-esteem on secrecy from friends. Italian adolescents (N = 457; 47% male; 100% white) aged between 13 and 19 years (M = 16.11; SD = 1.53) reported their secrecy from friends, peer and parent-related loneliness, aversion and affinity for aloneness, their self-esteem and the quality of their relationships with their friends. The results showed that peer-related loneliness, affinity for aloneness and self-esteem in particular affect keeping secrets from friends, independent of the participant's gender. Moreover, peer-related loneliness and affinity for aloneness mediated the relationship between self-esteem and secrecy. The data were discussed in the light of adolescence developmental tasks.