Theory of Self- vs. Externally-Regulated LearningTM: Fundamentals, Evidence, and Applicability

First-year students' achievement emotions at university: A cluster analytic approach to understand variability in attendance and attainment

BACKGROUND

Students' initial experiences at university often shape their attendance and attainment. For some students, university is a positive experience, whereas others seemingly struggle and have more negative emotions. Unearthing distinctions in first-year students' emotionality may be valuable in understanding their academic engagement and performance.

AIMS

The study's aim was to identify distinct profiles of students based on their achievement emotions and explore whether these profiles differed in university attendance and attainment. At least three emotional profiles were hypothesized (positive; moderate; negative) with a positive profile expected to display the highest attendance and attainment.

SAMPLE

Participants were 294 first-year undergraduate students from a university in the United Kingdom (Mage = 19.33 years; 127 men; 162 women).

METHODS

Students completed self-report measures of eight achievement emotions for general learning. Attendance and attainment data were collected from official records. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed to profile students on their achievement emotions. Analysis of covariance explored profile differences in attendance and attainment.

RESULTS

Four emotional profiles emerged: positive; moderate; negative; mixed-valence (both positive and negative activating emotions). The positive and mixed-valence groups displayed equally high attendance compared to the moderate and negative groups. The positive group obtained higher academic attainment than the mixed-valence and negative emotion groups, but not the moderate group.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight the diverse emotional experiences of first-year university students and the existence of co-occurring positive and negative activation emotions. This evidence may be of practical worth to educators in understanding variability in students' emotions, attendance and attainment.

Dysexecutive symptomatology in everyday functioning and academic achievement in adolescents

Background

During the educational stage, academic achievement depends on various social, family, and personal factors. Among the latter, executive skills in everyday life play a significant role in dealing with the academic demands of adolescents. Therefore, the aim of this study is to ascertain the effects of executive symptomatology in everyday functioning on academic achievement in adolescents.

Method

The study involved 910 students aged between 13 and 15 years (M = 14.09, SD = 0.68) from both public and private schools in the Community of Madrid. The DEX, BDEFS-CA, and BRIEF-SR questionnaires were utilised to assess executive difficulties, while grades in language, mathematics, and natural sciences were used as a measure of academic achievement.

Results

The data revealed statistically significant differences in working memory, emotional control, materials organisation, and task completion. In relation to language and natural sciences subjects. In the case of mathematics, emotional control and task completion were significant variables.

Conclusion

Our results indicate that certain executive skills that are manifested in everyday life activities can contribute, albeit in a variable way, to academic achievement in the subjects studied. This aspect is relevant insofar as it allows us to develop preventive interventions based on the executive training of these everyday skills.

The big five factors as differential predictors of self-regulation, achievement emotions, coping and health behavior in undergraduate students

BACKGROUND

The aim of this research was to analyze whether the personality factors included in the Big Five model differentially predict the self-regulation and affective states of university students and health.

METHODS

A total of 637 students completed validated self-report questionnaires. Using an ex post facto design, we conducted linear regression and structural prediction analyses.

RESULTS

The findings showed that model factors were differential predictors of both self-regulation and affective states. Self-regulation and affective states, in turn, jointly predict emotional performance while learning and even student health. These results allow us to understand, through a holistic predictive model, the differential predictive relationships of all the factors: conscientiousness and extraversion were predictors regulating positive emotionality and health; the openness to experience factor was non-regulating; nonregulating; and agreeableness and neuroticism were dysregulating, hence precursors of negative emotionality and poorer student health.

CONCLUSIONS

These results are important because they allow us to infer implications for guidance and psychological health at university.

Classic and modern models of self-regulated learning: integrative and componential analysis

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is considered a construct of great heuristic value and has attracted the attention of numerous researchers and inspired influential theoretical models. The objective of the present study was to provide an up-to-date, comparative and integrated description of the theoretical models of SRL used in current empirical research. For this purpose, we conducted a critical review of the scientific literature referring explicitly to any SRL model and we described, compared and integrated the processes and personal and situational dimensions considered in each model. The models have clearly evolved from focusing on cold self-regulation, conscious activity and individual functioning, to emphasising hot self-regulation and considering implicit activity and interindividual functioning. Among empirical research lines based on the most recent models, the following stand out: detailed analysis of SRL during its progress, the manifestation of SRL in diverse instructional formats and the role of affective/motivational self-regulation.

Can the Negative Cognitive Bias Be Predicted by Early Victimization of College Students? The Dual Role of Resilience

Victimization could cause cognitive dysfunction like negative cognitive bias. While there are studies of contemporaneous consequences, there is insufficient research on whether and how early victimization will affect adult negative cognitive bias. This study examined the dual role of resilience (i.e., whether resilience would moderate the relationship between early victimization and negative cognitive bias, and/or whether resilience would mediate the same relationship). A total of 972 college students (40% were males, Mage = 19.25, SD = 1.17, range = 16-25) from three universities in Central China completed a series of anonymous questionnaires on early victimization, resilience, and negative cognitive bias. After controlling for demographic variables, the results indicated that early victimization was positively correlated with negative cognitive bias of college students. Moderation analysis indicated that resilience moderated the relationship between early victimization and negative cognitive bias. Mediation analysis revealed that resilience partially mediated the same relationship. Specifically, the effect of early victimization on negative cognitive bias was stronger for college students with high level of resilience than those with low level of resilience. Meanwhile, early victimization affected negative cognitive bias partially through resilience. The findings elucidate the dual role of resilience in the relationship between early victimization and negative cognitive bias. On the one hand, negative cognitive bias can be reduced by enhancing resilience among victims, on the other hand, the protective role of resilience may be weakened with the increase of victimization, reminding us to pay more attention to victims with high level of resilience.

Eudaimonic Well-Being of Italian Young Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Predictive and Mediating Roles of Fear of Death and Psychological Inflexibility

The literature has widely acknowledged the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of young adults. Despite extensive research, eudaimonic well-being, which focuses on self-knowledge and self-realization, has been scarcely investigated. This cross-sectional study aimed to add knowledge on the eudaimonic well-being of young adults one year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, verifying its potential linkages with fear of death and psychological inflexibility. A total of 317 young Italian adults (18-34 years), recruited through a chain sampling method, completed measures of psychological inflexibility, fear of death, and eudaimonic well-being included in an online survey. The study's hypotheses were tested with multivariate multiple regression and mediational analyses. Results showed that psychological inflexibility was negatively associated with all the dimensions of well-being, while fear of the death of others was associated with autonomy, environmental mastery, and self-acceptance. Furthermore, in the association between fear of death and well-being, the mediation role of psychological inflexibility was verified. These results contribute to the extant literature on the factors associated with eudaimonic well-being, providing clinical insights into the work with young adults within challenging times.

Stable and unstable associations between learning environment factors and study approaches: two consecutive cross-sectional analyses of Norwegian occupational therapy students

Relationships between learning environment variables and students' approaches to studying have been investigated from many points of view over the last decades. However, few studies have explored whether such relationships are stable over time. In the two consecutive cross-sectional analyses performed in this study, Norwegian occupational therapy students' perceptions of their learning environment and their approaches to studying were assessed in the second (162 students) and third (193 students) year of their study program. Aside from sociodemographic information, the students completed the Course Experience Questionnaire and the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students, with the aim of exploring whether associations between learning environment variables and study approaches were stable across time. The data were analyzed with hierarchical linear regression analyses. Relatively stable associations with students' study approaches were found for the learning environment variables of 'generic skills' and 'appropriate workload'. The learning environment variables of 'clear goals and standards' and 'student autonomy' were directly associated with study approaches in both study years, but the nature of the associations shifted during the study period. Thus, knowledge of stability and change in these relationships could assist faculty in promoting a well-functioning learning environment throughout the study program.

Developments in early adolescents' self-regulation: The importance of teachers' supportive vs. undermining behavior

Research has established that the ability to self-regulate is an important factor in adolescents' learning, and cognitive and social functioning. Several theories on self-regulation and classroom studies suggest effects of the social learning environment on students' self-regulation. However, most studies investigating these relations have a cross-sectional correlational design and do not relate to adolescents, resulting in little knowledge about causal directions and adolescents. This study extends existing research by examining effects of a selection of supportive and undermining teacher behavior dimensions on early adolescents' development of self-regulation (self-regulated learning). The teacher behavior dimensions are based on ideas of the self-determination theory in which a distinction is made between dimensions that support vs. thwart three basic psychological needs (need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness) which are assumed to be important for human growth and (psychological) well-functioning. Supporting autonomy, delivering structure, and being involved with the students are assumed to be important for the fulfillment of students' basic psychological needs, while exhibiting controlling instructional behavior, having chaos, uncertainty and inconsistency in the classroom, and rejection and neglect of students, are supposed to be a treat. Questionnaires were used for measuring students' perceptions of their teachers' behavior and their own self-regulation at several points in time during their first year of secondary education. Participants in the study were 566 students belonging to 20 Mathematics/English grade-7 secondary education classes in The Netherlands. Multilevel analyses point to the importance of all three teacher need-supportive dimensions (with highest effects of structure and involvement) and indicated that teachers' need-thwarting behavior negatively affected students' self-regulation. However, when corresponding supportive and thwarting teacher behavior dimensions were included together in the same multilevel model, only the effect of the undermining dimension of controlling teacher behavior remained significant in addition to the corresponding autonomy-support dimension. Findings are in line with existing research and highlight the importance of both teachers' need-supportive and teachers' need-thwarting behavior in daily secondary-education classrooms and contribute to deepen our insight in and understanding of factors (related to external regulation by teachers) leading to positive and negative developments of early adolescents' self-regulation, and, in particular, their self-regulated learning.

Self- vs. External-Regulation Behavior ScaleTM in different psychological contexts: A validation study

The self- vs. external-regulation behavior theory, SR-ER Theory (2021) model has postulated the Self-Regulation /Non or De-Regulation/Dys-regulation (SR-NR-DR) continuum in the person and in their context. The model also generates a behavioral heuristic that allows us to predict and explain the variability of other dependent behavioral variables in a range of scenarios (clinical, educational, health and technology contexts). Consequently, the objective of this study was to validate the different scales prepared on the basis of the theory presented. A total of 469 students voluntarily completed at different times the five questionnaires presented, to give a total of 1,385 completed questionnaires. Using an ex post facto design, descriptive, correlational, confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA), reliability, and concurrent validity analyses were carried out. The scales were analyzed individually and as a whole. The results showed the acceptable structure of scale and consistent levels of reliability. The five levels generated by the SR-NR-DR (personal and contextual) combinatory heuristic that arises from the theoretical model determined significant differences in the levels of the variables analyzed for each psychological context. We discuss the theoretical implications and the implications for the assessment and improvement of the behaviors analyzed in function of the personal and contextual regulation levels evaluated.

Exploring the situational motivation of medical students through clinical medicine level test: a cross-sectional study

China's Clinical Medicine Level Test (CMLT) was designed to evaluate the key factors that affect the learning outcome of medical students prior to entering clinical practice. In this study, we systemically analyzed the performance of a cohort of medical students at Jinan University School of Medicine participating in the recent CMLT. The analytical results of the medical students' written and objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) scores showed that their academic performance was predominantly associated with students' internship allocations, although other demographic characteristics such as sex, age, geographical origin of students, and grade point average (GPA) might be sporadically related to the students' OSCE performance at different OSCE stations. To explore the inherent reasons behind this, a survey was implemented among the medical students who participated in the examination to further interpret the factors influencing the students' learning outcome. The findings of this questionnaire manifested that intrinsic motivation and identified regulation acted as the major motivational profiles for the medical students from three different internship sites, whereas external regulation emerged as the crucial factor to make the students perform well academically in the CMLT. The result of this study suggested that strengthening the quality control of the clinical learning environment and improving medical administration may still be the most effective approaches to ensure the quality of clinical medical education.

A Path Analysis Model of Self- vs. Educational-Context- Regulation as Combined Predictors of Well-Being in Spanish College Students

Previous literature has established the importance of personal and contextual factors in college students' trajectories. Following the Self- vs. External-Regulation Behavior Theory (2021) and the 3P Biggs Model, the present study aimed at analyzing a structural linear model that validates the joint effect of self-regulation, educational context, age, and gender (as personal and contextual presage variables) with other meta-abilities, such as coping strategies, resilience, and positivity (process variables), and specific well-being outcomes, such as flourishing and health (product variables). A sample of 1310 Spanish college students was analyzed, aged 17 to 25, and a cross-sectional study with an ex post facto design was performed. Association and structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using SPSS software (v.26) and AMOS (v.23). Results show that individual and contextual factors have an important role in the acquisition of psychological competencies in young adults. Self-regulation was proven to be an important meta-ability that predicts personal well-being and behavioral health outcomes. Complementarily, educational context was shown to be an external predictor of other skills, such as problem-focused strategies, and positive outcomes such as flourishing and behavioral health. Practical implications and limitations are discussed.

Effects of factors of self-regulation vs. factors of external regulation of learning in self-regulated study

Since the mid-20th century, the study of Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) has aimed to identify the distinctive characteristics that enable individuals to acquire new knowledge and skills under their control. The theory of Internal Self-Regulation vs. External-Regulation in Learning (SRL vs. ERL; 2017) has postulated that a large number of self-regulatory variables are mediated by regulated/non-regulated or dysregulated features of the context. After signing their informed consent, a total of 616 university students completed validated instruments of SRL vs. ERL, behavioral regulation (SRB), regulatory teaching (RT), and metacognitive study control strategies (SRS). Using an ex-post facto design and correlation, regression, structural equation model and mediation analyses, the present research aimed to establish multicausal predictive relationships among the analyzed variables. Results indicated positive predictive effects between the external regulation variables on the self-regulation variables in learning [regulation (SRL)/non-regulation (NRL)/dysregulation (DRL)]; as well as positive predictive effects between SRL on SRB, RT and metacognitive SRS. Additionally, external regulation (ERL) not only predicted but mediated numerous relations among the variables studied. Other findings and important considerations for future research in the field of self-regulation are discussed.

Advances on Self-Regulation Models: A New Research Agenda Through the SR vs ER Behavior Theory in Different Psychology Contexts

The aim of this paper is to demonstrate how Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (1986) influenced the development of several complementary models of the construct of Self-Regulation. Building on the foundation of Self-Determination Theory, SDT (2000), and Zimmerman's Self-Regulation Theory, SR (2001), with their assumptions, contributions, goddesses, and limitations, we come to the Self- vs. External Regulatory Theory, SR-ER (2021). Finally, we integrate recent evidence demonstrating the explanatory adequacy of the SR vs. ER model for different psychological constructions in different settings related to education, health, clinical practice and social work. Complementary, a new theoretical and empirical research agenda is presented, to continue testing the adequacy of SR vs. ER assumptions, and to better understand the behavioral variability of the different constructs studied.

Differential Predictive Effect of Self-Regulation Behavior and the Combination of Self- vs. External Regulation Behavior on Executive Dysfunctions and Emotion Regulation Difficulties, in University Students

The aim of this research was to establish linear relations (association and prediction) and inferential relations between three constructs at different levels of psychological research – executive dysfunction (microanalysis), self-regulation (molecular level), and self- vs. external regulation (molar level), in the prediction of emotion regulation difficulties. We hypothesized that personal and contextual regulatory factors would be negatively related to levels of executive dysfunction and emotion regulation difficulties; by way of complement, non-regulatory and dysregulatory personal, and contextual factors would be positively related to these same difficulties. To establish relationships, we used a retrospective, ex post facto design, where 298 university students voluntarily participated by completing standardized self-reports. Linear and structural correlational, predictive analyses were performed, as well as inferential analyses. Results were consistent and validated the proposed hypotheses, for both association and prediction. The most important result refers to the discriminant value of the five-level combination heuristic for predicting Executive Function and External (contextual) Dys-Regulation. In conclusion: (1) both personal and contextual regulation factors must be analyzed in order to better understand the variation in executive functions and emotion regulation difficulties; (2) it is important to continue connecting the different levels of the constructs referring to self-regulation, given their complementary role in the behavioral analysis of regulation difficulties.

The Proactive-Reactive Resilience as a Mediational Variable Between the Character Strength and the Flourishing in Undergraduate Students

The aim of this research was to delimit the predictive and mediational model of resilience between character strengths to predict flourishing, in a sample of undergraduate students. After signing their informed consent, 642 university students completed three validated scales (i.e., character strengths, resilience, and flourishing). Using an ex post facto design, regression, structural modeling, and mediation analyses were carried out, in order to construct a multi-causal predictive model. Results indicated a consistent predictive direct effect of character strengths on resilience and flourishing and of resilience on flourishing. As hypothesized, resilience also showed a mediating effect on the relationship between character strengths and flourishing. Additionally, results also revealed that the reactive and proactive factors of resilience were explained by different character strengths (e.g., emotional strength/cognitive, interpersonal strengths), reinforcing the idea that the two directions are complementary and necessary. Finally, several implications were established for the practice of positive psychology.

A Mediating Model of Emotional Balance and Procrastination on Academic Performance

Deficit in the management of time continues to be an important difficulty students are faced with. The present work aimed to test the hypothesis that self-regulation is the major predictor of academic performance and that this effect can be mediated both by the student’s emotional regulation and his propensity for procrastination. Participants were 450 university students who were administered MPP and AIP. The procedures involved the administration of instruments and the collection of average exam grades as a measure of academic performance. The effect of a specific component of self-regulation on academic performance, namely action orientation, was significant, while procrastination showed a limiting effect on the performative quality of the student. The model confirmed the mediation role of emotional balance on the effect that action orientation exerts on procrastination, and the mediation of procrastination in the relationship between action orientation and Academic Performance. Results of the study suggest focusing on student support and on prevention of procrastinating behavior through programs that enhance first of all student’s proactive attitude, planning skills, self-monitoring and effective/efficient time management, and secondly, emotional awareness and regulation of emotional response in situations of stress and performance anxiety.

Effect of Personal and Contextual Factors of Regulation on Academic Achievement during Adolescence: The Role of Gender and Age

This investigation aimed to analyze the predictive differential value of personal (self-regulation, self-efficacy, procrastination) and contextual characteristics (parents’ socio-educational level), regarding academic achievement, among Colombian adolescents. A total of 430 students (from 11 to 18 years old) from both genders filled out validated self-reports and informed their academic achievement. We performed an ex-post-facto design, simple regression analyses, structural equations predictions analyses (SEM), and variance analyses (ANOVAs). The results showed that self-regulation is the most potent personal variable predictive of procrastination and achievement, positively associated with self-efficacy; additionally, the parents’ educational level was also a predictor, although to a lesser level. The female group and the elderly group negatively predicted academic achievement, behaving as modulatory variables of the above results.

A Path Analysis Model of Protection and Risk Factors for University Academic Stress: Analysis and Psychoeducational Implications for the COVID-19 Emergency

The aim of this research was to empirically validate hypothesized predictive relationships of protection and risk factors for experiencing academic stress. A synthesis of models-the presage-process-product model; the studying, learning and performing under stress competency model; and self- vs. external-regulatory theory-underlies the investigation and is important for assessment and guidance in stress situations within the university context. Over the course of an academic year, a sample of 564 Spanish university students voluntarily completed validated questionnaires, in an online format, on several psychological variables connected to academic stress. Correlational analysis and the path analysis model, within an ex post facto design, were used to build empirical models of the presage-process-product factors that constitute protection or risk factors in academic stress. Two statistically acceptable models appeared: one with protection factors and another with risk factors in predicting and preventing academic stress at a university. These results support the need for psychology units at university that have a preventive, health and education focus, going beyond the merely clinical. Focus on an individual is insufficient, given that there are also contextual factors that predispose academic stress. Discussion, conclusions, and implications for assessment and intervention in academic stress in university students and teachers, within the present COVID-19 crisis, are offered.

How Has the COVID-19 Crisis Affected the Academic Stress of University Students? The Role of Teachers and Students

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have required substantial adjustments in terms of university teaching-learning processes. The aim of this study was to verify whether there were significant differences between the academic year of 2020 and the two preceding years in factors and symptoms and stress. A total of 642 university students (ages 18-25 years) participated by filling out validated self-reports during the months from March to August 2020. Using an ex post facto design, SEM analyses and simple and multiple ANOVAs were performed. Structural results showed that stress factors from the teaching process had a predictive value for the learning process, emotions, and academic burnout, and being a man was a factor predicting negative emotion. In a similar way, inferential results revealed no significant effect of academic year but did show an effect of gender on stress experiences during the pandemic. Aside from certain specific aspects, there was no significant global effect of the year 2020 on factors and symptoms of stress. The results showed that studying in the year of the COVID-19 outbreak did not have a significant effect on stress triggered by the teaching process. From these results, we draw implications for specific guidance interventions with university teachers and students.

Student dropout at university: a phase-orientated view on quitting studies and changing majors

Student dropout can be conceptualized as a decision-making process, consisting of different phases. Based on previous literature on student dropout, decision-making, and action-phases, we proposed that the process of developing dropout intentions includes the following phases: non-fit perception, thoughts of quitting/changing, deliberation, information search, and a final decision. In the present cross-sectional study, we empirically investigated if the assumed phases can be distinguished from each other, if the phases follow the presumed order, and whether each phase is associated with certain characteristics. Furthermore, we considered a strict separation between quitting studies completely and changing a major. For this purpose, we analyzed data of N = 1005 students (average age of 23.0 years; 53% female; 47% male) from a German University. By using confirmatory factor analyses, we found the supposed factor structure for the different phases concerning both kinds of dropout, quitting studies, and changing majors. In each process, structural equation modelling indicated positive relations between adjoining phases. The factor values correlated to a substantial amount with an assortment of variables associated with student dropout. On a theoretical level, the conception of different phases of student dropout helps to get a better understanding of regulatory processes in the context of student dropout.

Regulation/Non-Regulation/Dys-Regulation of Health Behavior, Psychological Reactance, and Health of University Undergraduate Students

The Self-Regulation vs. External-Regulation Theory (2017) has postulated a continuum of regulation/non-regulation/dys-regulation that is present both in the individual and in the individual’s context. This gives rise to a behavioral heuristic that can predict and explain other health-related variables, such as psychological reactance and student health. On a voluntary basis, 269 university students completed validated questionnaires on variables of regulation, reactance and health. Using an ex post facto design, we performed correlational analysis and structural linear regression to build a structural equations model (SEM) with acceptable statistical values. The results showed various predicted relationships: self-regulation was associated with and positively predicted self-regulated health behavior; external health-regulating contexts were associated with and positively predicted self-regulated health behavior; non-regulatory and dysregulatory contexts negatively predicted self-regulated health behavior and students’ health itself, as well as positively predicting psychological reactance behavior. Implications are established for explaining variability in general and health-related self-regulation, as well as for intervening in these variables in health programs.

Analysis and Psychoeducational Implications of the Behavior Factor During the COVID-19 Emergency

This theoretical analysis seeks to contribute to three objectives within the context of the proposed Frontiers Research Topic: (1) delimit two levels of analysis in the present pandemic situation: medicine-epidemiology and behavioral psychology, still under-addressed. While medicine has its essential role on the biological side, psychology has a comparable role on the behavioral side. (2) Analyze the importance of behavioral-educational factors in the pandemic situation, using a precise theoretical model from educational psychology for this analysis. (3) Propose preventive, psychoeducational intervention strategies based on the previous analyses.

Self-Regulation and Regulatory Teaching as Determinants of Academic Behavioral Confidence and Procrastination in Undergraduate Students

The combination of student Self-Regulation (SR) and the context of Regulatory Teaching (RT), each in varying degree, has recently been demonstrated to have effects on achievement emotions, factors and symptoms of stress, and coping strategies. The aim of the present research study is to verify its possible further effects, on academic behavioral confidence and procrastination. A total of 1193 university students completed validated online questionnaires with regard to specific subjects in their degree program. Using an ex post facto design, multivariate analyses and structural equation modeling (SEM) were carried out in order to test the relationships predicted by the model. SR and RT had a significant joint effect in determining the degree of academic behavioral confidence and of procrastination. Academic behavioral confidence also significantly predicted reasons for procrastinating, and these in turn predicted activities of procrastination. Conclusions are discussed, insisting on the combined weight of the two variables in determining academic behavioral confidence, reasons for procrastinating and activities subject to procrastination, in university students. Implications for guidance and educational support of university students and teachers are analyzed.

The Role of Gender and Age in the Emotional Well-Being Outcomes of Young Adults

Young adults face different stressors in their transition to college. Negative emotions such as stress can emerge from the demands they face. This study aimed at gaining an improved understanding of the role that gender and age play in the well-being of young adults. Coping strategies, resilience, self-regulation, and positivity were selected as indicators of well-being. Descriptive and inferential analysis have been conducted. Results show that well-being varies significantly with age and gender. Gender was predominantly involved in the acquisition of the well-being outcomes, highly predicting problem-focused coping strategies. No interaction effects were found between gender and age. An improved understanding of the developmental factors involved in well-being outcomes will enlighten future interventions aimed at improving young people’s resources to face adversity.

Resilience as a Buffering Variable Between the Big Five Components and Factors and Symptoms of Academic Stress at University

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to establish predictive relationships of the Big Five personality factors (according to their self-regulatory level), together with resilience (proactive and reactive factors), for factors and symptoms of academic stress related to teaching and learning in the University context. A total of 405 female undergraduate students were selected, and completed questionnaires that had been previously validated in Spanish University students (Big Five personality factors, resilience, and academic stress symptoms and factors). A linear, ex-post facto design was used, including linear regression, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and mediational analyses. Specific linear regression showed the expected gradation: that self-regulatory personality factors (conscientiousness, extraversion) were positive linear predictors of proactive resilience, as well as significant negative predictors of stress factors and symptoms of academic stress; while the non-regulatory personality factors (openness to experience, agreeableness) showed little relationship. By contrast, the dysregulatory personality factor (neuroticism) was a negative predictor of proactive resilience, a positive predictor of reactive resilience, and positively predicted academic stress factors in the teaching and learning process, as well as stress symptoms. SEM general analysis showed that personality factors positively predicted resilience, and resilience negatively predicted factors and symptoms of academic stress. Specific mediational model analysis, with each personality factor, confirmed the different mediating relationships that appeared in the linear regression analyses. These results are discussed from the perspective of promoting resilience and healthy personalities in the University context. Implications for addressing academic stress at University are discussed.

Differential Effects of Self- vs. External-Regulation on Learning Approaches, Academic Achievement, and Satisfaction in Undergraduate Students

The aim of this research was to determine the degree to which undergraduate students’ learning approach, academic achievement and satisfaction were determined by the combination of an intrapersonal factor (self-regulation) and a interpersonal factor (contextual or regulatory teaching). The hypothesis proposed that greater combined regulation (internal and external) would be accompanied by more of a deep approach to learning, more satisfaction and higher achievement, while a lower level of combined regulation would determine a surface approach, less satisfaction and lower achievement. Within an ex post facto design by selection, 1036 university students completed validated questionnaires using an online tool. Several multivariate analyses were conducted. Results showed that the combination of self-regulation and external regulation can be ordered as levels along a five-point scale or heuristic. These levels linearly determine type of learning approach, academic achievement and satisfaction. Implications are established for quality and improvement of the teaching and learning process at university.

Effects of Self-Regulation vs. External Regulation on the Factors and Symptoms of Academic Stress in Undergraduate Students

The SRL vs. ERL theory has shown that the combination of levels of student self-regulation and regulation from the teaching context produces linear effects on achievement emotions and coping strategies. However, a similar effect on stress factors and symptoms of university students has not yet been demonstrated. The aim of this study was to test this prediction. It was hypothesized that the level of student self-regulation (low/medium/high), in interaction with the level of external regulation from teaching (low/medium/high), would also produce a linear effect on stress factors and symptoms of university students. A total of 527 undergraduate students completed validated questionnaires about self-regulation, regulatory teaching, stress factors, and symptoms. Using an ex post facto design by selection, ANOVAs and MANOVAs (3 × 3; 5 × 1; 5 × 2) were carried out. The results confirmed that the level of self-regulation and the level of regulatory teaching jointly determined the level of stress factors and symptoms of university students. Once again, a five-level heuristic of possible combinations was configured to jointly determine university students’ level of academic stress. We concluded that the combination of different levels of student regulation and regulation from the teaching process jointly determines university students’ level of academic stress. The implications for university students’ emotional health, stress prevention, and well-being are established.

Effect of Levels of Self-Regulation and Situational Stress on Achievement Emotions in Undergraduate Students: Class, Study and Testing

Achievement emotions constitute one important variable among the many variables of students’ learning. The aim of this research was to analyze the differential effect of university students’ levels of self-regulation (1 = low, 2 = medium and 3 = high), and of their level of perceived stress in three academic situations (1 = class, 2 = study time and 3 = testing), on the type of achievement emotionality they experience (positive and negative emotions). The following hypotheses were established: (1) a higher level of student self-regulation would be accompanied by higher levels of positive emotionality and lower levels of negative emotionality and (2) a higher level of situational stress would predispose higher levels of negative emotionality and lower levels of positive emotionality. A total of 520 university students completed three self-reports with validated inventories. Descriptive, correlational, and structural prediction analyses (SEM) were performed, as well as 3 × 3 ANOVAs, under an ex post facto design by selection. The results showed overall fulfillment of the hypotheses, except for a few specific emotions. Implications for prevention and psychoeducational guidance in the sphere of university education are discussed.

Big Five, Self-Regulation, and Coping Strategies as Predictors of Achievement Emotions in Undergraduate Students

The study focused on the analysis of linear relations between personality, self-regulation, coping strategies and achievement emotions. The main objective was to establish a model of linear, empirical, associative to infer needs and proposals for intervening in emotional health in the different profiles of university students. A total of 642 undergraduate students participated in this research. Evidence of associative relations between personality factors, self-regulation and coping strategies was found. The neuroticism factor had a significant negative associative relationship with Self-Regulation both globally and in its factors; especially important was its negative relation to decision making, and coping strategies focused in emotion. The results of Structural Equation Model showed an acceptable model of relationships, in each emotional context. Results and practical implications are discussed.

Grade-Level Differences in Teacher Feedback and Students' Self-Regulated Learning

This study investigated grade-level differences in teacher feedback, students' self-regulated learning (SRL), and their relationship. Secondary students participated in the study (N = 1,260; 430 10th-, 460 11th-, and 370 12th-graders). Latent factor mean difference analyses suggested that teacher feedback and students' SRL level varied across grades. Comparatively, 10th-grade teachers were perceived to provide verification feedback, scaffolding feedback, and praise most frequently; 12th-grade teachers were perceived to provide directive feedback and criticism most frequently; and 11th-grade teachers were perceived to provide all types of feedback least frequently. Students' SRL generally declined as they aged. Results from three-group structural equation modeling indicated that praise generally exhibited the strongest correlations with SRL regardless of grade level; directive feedback was negatively correlated with 10th graders' SRL but positively correlated with the SRL of 11th and 12th graders; scaffolding and verification feedback were positively correlated with 11th graders' SRL; and criticism had small correlations with SRL, regardless of grade level.

GP registrars teaching medical students- an untapped resource?

BACKGROUND

General practice placements are fundamental to undergraduate medical education but there are difficulties in recruiting teaching practices. Developing "near peer teaching" may help. Health Education England & UCL run a programme in general practice (GP) training schemes with Innovative Training Posts in medical education.

AIM

To evaluate GP innovative training posts in undergraduate medical education.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Focus groups and interviews with GP specialty trainees ("trainees"), medical students & educational stakeholders in London.

METHOD

A qualitative study exploring stakeholders' perspectives of this initiative. Transcribed interviews were analysed thematically.

RESULTS

We interviewed 26 stakeholders. Students valued trainees' generalist expertise and making explicit areas of medicine. Trainees adopted student-centred approaches, addressing students' assessment agendas, in contrast to senior doctors. Trainees also provided career guidance. Trainees expressed benefits to their development; their identity as learners & educators, and clinical knowledge. Teaching & learning for trainees were inter related; as identified by "to teach something well is to understand it well". Educational leaders were supportive but had to champion such initiatives.

CONCLUSION

Near peer teaching in general practice is relatively novel. There are strong educational benefits for learners & teachers clearly influenced by the social context of learning. Positive career roles are modelled by trainees.

Effects of Levels of Self-Regulation and Regulatory Teaching on Strategies for Coping With Academic Stress in Undergraduate Students

The SRL vs. ERL TheoryTM predicts that regulation-related factors in the student and in the context combine to determine the student's levels in emotional variables, stress, and coping strategies. The objective of the present research was to test this prediction in the aspect of coping strategies. Our hypothesis posed that students' level of self-regulation (low-medium-high), in combination with the level of regulation promoted in teaching (low-medium-high), would determine the type of strategies students used to cope with academic stress; the interaction of these levels would focus coping strategies either toward emotions or toward the problem. A total of 944 university students completed validated questionnaires on self-regulation, regulatory teaching, and coping strategies, using an online tool. ANOVAs and MANOVAs (3 × 1; 3 × 3; 5 × 1) were carried out, in a quasi-experimental design by selection. Level of self-regulation and level of regulatory teaching both had a significant effect on the type of coping strategies used. The most important finding was that the combined level of self-regulation and external regulation, on a five-level scale or heuristic, predicted the type of coping strategies that were used. In conclusion, the fact that this combination can predict type of coping strategies used by the student lends empirical support to the initial theory. Implications for the teaching-learning process at university and for students' emotional health are discussed.

Investigating the Relationship Between Resilience, Stress-Coping Strategies, and Learning Approaches to Predict Academic Performance in Undergraduate Medical Students: Protocol for a Proof-of-Concept Study

Background

The evolution of an undergraduate medical student into an adept physician is perpetual, demanding, and stressful. Several studies have indicated medical students have a higher predominance of mental health problems than other student groups of the same age, where medical education acts as a stressor and may lead to unfavorable consequences such as depression, burnout, somatic complaints, decrease in empathy, dismal thoughts about quitting medical school, self harm and suicidal ideation, and poor academic performance. It is imperative to determine the association between important psychoeducational variables and academic performance in the context of medical education to comprehend the response to academic stress.

Objective

The aim of this proof-of-concept study is to determine the relationship between resilience, learning approaches, and stress-coping strategies and how they can collectively predict achievement in undergraduate medical students. The following research questions will be addressed: What is the correlation between the psychoeducational variables resilience, learning approaches, and stress-coping strategies? Can academic performance of undergraduate medical students be predicted through the construction of linear relationships between defined variables employing the principles of empirical modeling?

Methods

Study population will consist of 234 students registered for the MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery) at Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences distributed over 4 cohorts. Newly registered MBBS students will be excluded from the study. Various psychoeducational variables will be assessed using prevalidated questionnaires. For learning approaches assessment, the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students questionnaire will be employed. Resilience and stress-coping strategies will be evaluated using the Wagnild-Young resilience scale and a coping strategies scale derived from Holahan and Moos’s Coping Strategies Scale, respectively. Independent variables (resilience, stress-coping strategies, and learning approaches) will be calculated. Scores will be tested for normality by using the Shapiro-Wilk test. An interitem correlational matrix of the dependent and independent variables to test pairwise correlation will be formed using Pearson bivariate correlation coefficients. Regression models will be used to answer our questions with type II analyses of variance in tests involving multiple predictors. Regression analyses will be checked for homogeneity of variance (Levine test) and normality of residuals and multicollinearity (variance inflation factor). Statistical significance will be set at 5% (alpha=.05). Effect sizes will be estimated with 95% CIs.

Results

Psychoeducational instruments in the form of validated questionnaire have been identified in relation to the objectives. These questionnaires have been formatted for integration into Google forms such that they can be electronically distributed to the consenting participants. We submitted the proposal to MBRU institutional review board (IRB) for which exemption has been awarded (application ID: MBRU-IRB-2019-013). There is no funding in place for this study and no anticipated start date. Total duration of the proposed research is 12 months.

Conclusions

Psychoeducational instruments used in this study will correlate resilience, stress-coping strategies, and learning approaches to academic performance of undergradudate medical students. To the best of our knowledge, no study exploring the multidimensional association of key psychoeducational variables and academic performance in undergraduate medical students has been pursued. Investigated variables, resilience, learning approaches, and stress-coping strategies, are individual traits, however; students’ learning history before they joined MBRU is unknown, so our research will not be able to address this specific aspect.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/14677

Applying the SRL vs. ERL Theory to the Knowledge of Achievement Emotions in Undergraduate University Students

The SRL vs.ERL Theory predicts that a student's own self-regulation and the regulatory nature of the context are factors that jointly determine the student's level of motivational-affective variables. However, this principle has not yet been verified in the case of achievement emotions. The aim of this research was to test this prediction, with the hypothesis that students' level of self-regulation (low-medium-high), in interaction with the regulatory nature of the teaching (low-medium-high), would determine positive or negative emotions as well as the degree of burnout/engagement. A total of 440 university students completed validated questionnaires on self-regulation; regulatory teaching; achievement emotions in class, in study and in testing situations; and on burnout/engagement. Using a quasi-experimental design by selection, ANOVAs and MANOVAs (3 × 3; 5 × 1) were carried out. The results confirmed that the level of self-regulation and the level of external regulation jointly determined university students' level of achievement emotions, as well as their level of burnout/engagement. Based on these results, a five-level progressive scale was configured. We conclude that this scale may be useful and adequate as a heuristic technique or model for understanding and analyzing the type of student-teacher interaction that is taking place in the university classroom, and thereby learn the probability of stressful effects and the students' level of emotional health.

Implications of Unconnected Micro, Molecular, and Molar Level Research in Psychology: The Case of Executive Functions, Self-Regulation, and External Regulation

The proliferation of research production in Psychology as a science has been increasing exponentially. This situation leads to the necessity of organizing the research production into different levels of analysis that make it possible to delimit each research domain. The objective of this analysis is to clearly distinguish the different levels of research: micro-analysis, molecular, and molar. Each level is presented, along with an analysis of its benefits and limitations. Next, this analysis is applied to the topics of Executive Functions, Self-Regulation, and External Regulation. Conclusions, limitations, and implications for future research are offered, with a view toward a better connection of research production across the different levels, and an allusion to ethical considerations.

Characteristics, Structure, and Effects of an On-Line Tool for Improvement in Adolescents' Competency for Interaction With Alcohol: The e-ALADOTM Utility

This research report aims to present the characteristics, structure and effects of a psychoeducational technological innovation (called the e-ALADO Program) for the prevention of alcohol intake in adolescents. Based on the Competency model for interaction with alcohol, this program consists of a total of 24 lessons that promote conceptual, procedural, and attitudinal learning, in ICT format (www.alado.es). The hypothesis of this validation study established that adolescents treated with the program would improve their levels of competence and their interaction behavior with alcohol, depending of their personal level of self-regulation. A total of 148 adolescents from 12 to 16 years of age from three Spanish educational centers with different sociocultural contexts participated. A quasi-experimental methodology with repeated measures and use of inferential analysis was used (ANOVAs and MANOVAs). The results show a main principal effect of the Treatment variable, of the Self-Regulation Level variable, and an interaction effect of Treatment × Self-regulation in the conceptual and attitudinal subcompetence for interaction with alcohol. The results are discussed in the face of new technological developments that allow the evaluation and intervention in the prevention of alcohol intake with adolescents. An important implication of this work is related to the importance of self-regulation as a psychological variable. Also, the suitability of psychoeducational interventions with new technological formats in the prevention of adolescents' alcohol intake as entrepreneurial activity.

Satisfaction With the Self-Assessment of University Students Through e-Coping With Academic Stress Utility TM

The general purpose of this report is: (1) research was to check whether the degree of satisfaction with the self-assessment activity of university students was related to the scores obtained and the degree of different variables, associated with level of Self-Regulation; (2) to present the online utility, e-Coping with Academic Stress TM, as a technological development in Educational Psychology; (3) analyze the possibilities of transfer of this technological innovation. A total of 929 university students, coming from a public university, participated in the use of this online utility. University students can use the tool's online inventories to make self-assessments in the different variables of Studying, Learning and Performing under Stress (SLPS Competency Model). Descriptives, correlational and inferential analyzes (ANOVAs and MANOVAs) were carried out. The results allowed to know the profile of competences of the analyzed university students, in addition to the degree of satisfaction with the self-evaluation. Finally, we communicate possible actions and options available for transfer of this resulting technology, through RD transfer contracts arranged directly or with other universities.

Differential Effect of Level of Self-Regulation and Mindfulness Training on Coping Strategies Used by University Students

The purpose of this research was to verify, in a group of psychology students, whether mindfulness training in conjunction with the individual’s level of self-regulation behavior would produce a change in the use of coping strategies. A total of 38 students participated in this study, with one experimental group and one control group, in a randomized controlled trial. Observation of the experimental group revealed a significant decrease in specific emotion-focused, negative coping strategies (preparing for the worst, resigned acceptance, emotional venting, and isolation), and a significant increase in specific problem-focused, positive coping (positive reappraisal and firmness, self-talk, help for action), in combination with students’ existing low-medium-high level of self-regulation. The importance and usefulness of mindfulness techniques in Higher Education is discussed, in conjunction with differences in university students’ level of self-regulation behavior.

Validation of a Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire Through Multidimensional Modelling

The main objective of the present research is to validate a Self-Regulated Foreign Language Learning Strategy Questionnaire based on previous research, conceptualised in a strategy inventory for language learning and self-regulated language learning. A total of 2223 lower secondary school children participated in the study. After the questionnaire development process, children completed the questionnaire online. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted through structural equation modelling (SEM) to assess our hypothesised six-factor structure model. The results of the CFA validated a five-factor correlated model with metacognitive, cognitive, meta-affective, meta-sociocultural-interactive and sociocultural-interactive factors, while the affective factor was not included. Internal and composite reliability confirmed the consistency of our factors, and convergent validity provided evidence for significant relationships between them. Our results draw attention to the complexity of language learning strategy use, which spans cognitive, affective and sociocultural factors as well as their 'meta' approaches. A more concrete distinction demands further investigation and a more accurate design of the questionnaire in the affective field.

A Linear Empirical Model of Self-Regulation on Flourishing, Health, Procrastination, and Achievement, Among University Students

This research aimed to analyze the linear bivariate correlation and structural relations between self-regulation -as a central construct-, with flow, health, procrastination and academic performance, in an academic context. A total of 363 college students took part, 101 men (27.8%) and 262 women (72.2%). Participants had an average age of 22 years and were between the first and fifth year of studies. They were from five different programs and two universities in Bogotá city (Colombia). A validated ad hoc questionnaire of physical and psychological health was applied along with a battery of tests to measure self-regulation, procrastination, and flourishing. To establish an association relationship, Pearson bivariate correlations were performed using SPSS software (v. 22.0), and structural relationship predictive analysis was performed using an SEM on AMOS software (v. 22.0). Regarding this linear association, it was established that (1) self-regulation has a significant positive association on flourishing and overall health, and a negative effect on procrastination. Regarding the structural relation, it confirmed that (2) self-regulation is a direct and positive predictor of flourishing and health; (3) self-regulation predicts procrastination directly and negatively, and academic performance indirectly and positively; and (4) age and gender have a prediction effect on the analyzed variables. Implications, limitations and future research scope are discussed.

Self-Reported Risk and Delinquent Behavior and Problem Behavioral Intention in Hong Kong Adolescents: The Role of Moral Competence and Spirituality

Based on the six-wave data collected from Grade 7 to Grade 12 students (N = 3,328 at Wave 1), this pioneer study examined the development of problem behaviors (risk and delinquent behavior and problem behavioral intention) and the predictors (moral competence and spirituality) among adolescents in Hong Kong. Individual growth curve models revealed that while risk and delinquent behavior accelerated and then slowed down in the high school years, adolescent problem behavioral intention slightly accelerated over time. After controlling the background socio-demographic factors, moral competence and spirituality were negatively associated with risk and delinquent behavior as well as problem behavioral intention across all waves as predicted. Regarding the rate of change in the outcome measures, while the initial level of spirituality was positively linked to the growth rate of risk and delinquent behavior, the initial level of moral competence was negatively associated with the growth rate of problem behavioral intention. The theoretical and practical implications of the present findings are discussed with reference to the role of moral competence and spirituality in the development of adolescent problem behavior.

The Adolescent's Competency for Interacting with Alcohol as a Determinant of Intake: The Role of Self-Regulation

The competency for interacting with alcohol is a highly useful Educational Psychology model for preventing and for understanding the different behavioral levels of this interaction. Knowledge of facts, concepts and principles about alcohol use, self-regulated behavior, and attitudes toward alcohol are predictive of adequate interaction with alcohol. The objective of this study was to empirically evaluate this postulated relationship. A total of 328 Spanish adolescents participated, between the ages of 12 and 17. All were enrolled in 1st–4th year of compulsory secondary education, in the context of the ALADO Program for prevention of alcohol intake in adolescents. An ex post facto design was used, with inferential analyses and SEM analyses. Results show an interdependence relationship, with significant structural prediction between the behavioral levels defined and the level of alcohol intake, with principles, self-regulating control and attitudes carrying more weight. Analyses are presented, as are implications for psychoeducational intervention using preventive programs based on this competency model.