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Nogueira M, Ferreira Golbert DC, Menezes R, Nóbrega de Almeida R, Galvão-Coelho NL, Siroky AN, Lima TZ, Maia H, Leão KE, Leão RN. Serotonergic psychedelic 5-MeO-DMT alters plasticity-related gene expression and generates anxiolytic effects in stressed mice. Mol Psychiatry 2024:10.1038/s41380-024-02655-w. [PMID: 38969716 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-024-02655-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024]
Abstract
Serotonergic psychedelics have potential therapeutic effects in treating anxiety and mood disorders, often after a single dose, and are suggested to have plasticity-inducing action. However, a comprehensive mechanism of action is still lacking. Here, we investigated how a single dose of the short-acting 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) acts on gene expression from microdissected brain regions (anterior cingulate cortex - ACC; basolateral amygdala - BLA; ventral hippocampus CA1 region - vCA1 and dentate gyrus-DG) of naive and stressed mice. Specifically, we compared gene expression of Arc, Zif268, BDNF, CREB, mTORC1, NR2A, TRIP8b, and NFkB in mice injected with 5-MeO-DMT or saline at different time points (1 h, 5 h, or 5 days prior). 5-MeO-DMT altered mRNA expression of immediate early genes Arc and ZiF268 in the ACC, BLA, and vCA1, while NR2A expression was decreased after 5 h in the vCA1. We also found a long-term increase in TRIP8b, a gene related to the modulation of neuronal activity, in the vCA1 after 5 days. Behaviorally, 5-MeO-DMT treated mice showed mixed anxiolytic and anxiogenic effects in the elevated plus maze and open field test 24 h or 5 days after treatment. However, pre-treated mice subjected to acute stress showed both lower corticosterone levels and robust anxiolytic effects of 5-MeO-DMT administration. Together, our findings provide insights into the molecular actions of 5-MeO-DMT in the brain related to anxiolytic effects of behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margareth Nogueira
- Neurodynamics Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
- Hearing and Neuronal Activity Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Daiane C Ferreira Golbert
- Neurodynamics Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
- Sleep, Dreams and Memory Laboratory, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Richardson Menezes
- Automation and Robotics Laboratory, School of Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Raíssa Nóbrega de Almeida
- Laboratory of Hormone Measurement, Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Nicole L Galvão-Coelho
- Laboratory of Hormone Measurement, Department of Physiology and Behavior, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Andressa N Siroky
- Department of Statistics, Exact and Earth Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Thiago Z Lima
- Hearing and Neuronal Activity Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
- Department of Statistics, Exact and Earth Sciences Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Helton Maia
- Automation and Robotics Laboratory, School of Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Katarina E Leão
- Hearing and Neuronal Activity Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.
| | - Richardson N Leão
- Neurodynamics Lab, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
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Thomas KL, Jesse R, Mehtani NJ, Mitchell JM, Anderson BT. Commentary: Evidence-Informed Recommendation to Achieve Approximate Parity in the Allowed Number of Doses for Common Psychedelics. J Psychoactive Drugs 2024; 56:206-210. [PMID: 37061961 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2201244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, policymakers have proposed and implemented regulatory changes promoting the deprioritization, decriminalization, or state-level legalization of one or more psychedelic substances, usually referencing data from clinical trials as reasons to support liberalizing drug control policies. As psychedelic policies continue to be drafted, personal possession limits may be considered for inclusion in those regulations. If "allowable amount" limits are to be written into law to set personal possession limits, then such amounts should be more consistently related to psychedelic doses found to be safe and efficacious in clinical trials, existing data on moderate-high doses commonly used in various naturalistic settings, and the few studies that estimate psychedelic dose equivalence based on the intensity of subjective effects. In this commentary, we provide an evidence-informed table of typical moderate-high doses for seven commonly used psychedelic substances. These estimates of comparable moderate-high doses can be used to inform "allowable amount" values for psychedelic substances. When such limits are written into legislation, the adoption of evidence-informed comparable limits akin to those presented here would be an important first step toward ensuring greater parity and consistency in drug policy, relative to limits that have little or no scientific basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelan L Thomas
- College of Pharmacy, Touro University California, Vallejo, CA, USA
| | - Robert Jesse
- Council on Spiritual Practices, Occidental, CA, USA
| | - Nicky J Mehtani
- School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer M Mitchell
- School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Center for the Science of Psychedelics, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Brian T Anderson
- School of Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Jayakodiarachchi N, Maurer MA, Schultz DC, Dodd CJ, Thompson Gray A, Cho HP, Boutaud O, Jones CK, Lindsley CW, Bender AM. Evaluation of the Indazole Analogs of 5-MeO-DMT and Related Tryptamines as Serotonin Receptor 2 Agonists. ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:302-309. [PMID: 38352850 PMCID: PMC10860182 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Herein, we report the synthesis and characterization of a novel set of substituted indazole-ethanamines and indazole-tetrahydropyridines as potent serotonin receptor subtype 2 (5-HT2) agonists. Specifically, we examine the 5-HT2 pharmacology of the direct indazole analogs of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and related serotonergic tryptamines, and highlight the need for rigorous characterization of 5-HT2 subtype selectivity for these analogs, particularly for the 5-HT2B receptor subtype. Within this series, the potent analog VU6067416 (19d) was optimized to have suitable preclinical pharmacokinetic properties for in vivo dosing, although potent 5-HT2B agonist activity precluded further characterization for this series. Additionally, in silico docking studies suggest that the high potency of 19d may be a consequence of a halogen-bonding interaction with Phe2345.38 in the 5-HT2A orthosteric pocket.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navoda Jayakodiarachchi
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Mallory A. Maurer
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Daniel C. Schultz
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Cayden J. Dodd
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Analisa Thompson Gray
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Hyekyung P. Cho
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Olivier Boutaud
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Carrie K. Jones
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Craig W. Lindsley
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Aaron M. Bender
- Warren Center for Neuroscience Drug
Discovery and Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
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Hovmand OR, Poulsen ED, Arnfred S. Assessment of the acute subjective psychedelic experience: A review of patient-reported outcome measures in clinical research on classical psychedelics. J Psychopharmacol 2024; 38:19-32. [PMID: 37969069 PMCID: PMC10851631 DOI: 10.1177/02698811231200019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The classical psychedelics psilocybin, peyote, ayahuasca/ N, N-dimethyltryptamine, and lysergic acid diethylamide can temporarily produce altered states of consciousness, characterized by changes in sensory perception, thought, mood, and the sense of self-reality and meaning. It is important to have reliable instruments for quantifying these altered states in trials, due to a plausible link between the acute subjective experience and treatment outcome. METHODS We conducted a review of outcome measures applied in research on classical psychedelics to assess one or more dimensions of the acute subjective psychedelic experience. Three relevant databases were searched electronically. Two reviewers independently conducted article selection and data extraction regarding the instruments, dimensions, geography, population, and psychedelic substance investigated in the included studies. We identified the five most utilized instruments for the most recent 6 years, as well as the five most utilized instruments for each psychedelic. RESULTS We included 93 papers, which reported on 93 unique trials and utilized 17 different rating scales. Of these, the most utilized were the Five-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire, visual analog or Likert scales specially developed for the trials, the Hallucinogen Rating Scale, the States of Consciousness Questionnaire, and the Abnormer Psychischer Zustand. DISCUSSION Considerable variability was found in the instruments utilized in clinical trials on classical psychedelics. We advise and encourage the development of a core outcome set for psychedelic research to enable altered state comparisons across compounds, participants, and settings. We further advise that instruments be designed to assess the "setting" of a psychedelic experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Rumle Hovmand
- Psychiatric Research Unit, Region Zealand Mental Health Service, Slagelse, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Psychiatry South, Region Zealand Mental Health Service, Vordingborg, Denmark
| | - Emil Deleuran Poulsen
- Psychiatric Centre Copenhagen, University Hospital of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sidse Arnfred
- Psychiatric Research Unit, Region Zealand Mental Health Service, Slagelse, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Robison R, Brendle M, Moore C, Cross H, Helm L, Darling S, Thayer S, Thielking P, Shannon S. Ketamine-Assisted Group Psychotherapy for Frontline Healthcare Workers with COVID-19-Related Burnout and PTSD: A Case Series of Effectiveness/Safety for 10 Participants. J Psychoactive Drugs 2024; 56:23-32. [PMID: 36862829 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2186285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
This study reports on 10 frontline healthcare workers, employed during the COVID-19 pandemic and experiencing symptoms of burnout and PTSD, treated with group ketamine-assisted psychotherapy (KAP) in a private outpatient clinic setting. Participants attended 6 sessions once weekly. These included 1 preparation session, 3 ketamine sessions (2 sublingual, 1 intramuscular), 2 integration sessions. Measures of PTSD (PCL-5), depression (PHQ-9), and anxiety (GAD-7) were administered at baseline and post-treatment. During ketamine sessions, the Emotional Breakthrough Inventory (EBI) and the 30-item Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ-30) were recorded. Participant feedback was gathered 1-month post-treatment. We observed improvements in participants' average PCL-5 (59% reduction), PHQ-9 (58% reduction), and GAD-7 (36% reduction) scores from pre- to post-treatment. At post-treatment, 100% of participants screened negative for PTSD, 90% had minimal/mild depression or clinically significant improvement, and 60% had minimal/mild anxiety or clinically significant improvement. MEQ and EBI scores had large variations among participants at each ketamine session. Ketamine was well tolerated, and no significant adverse events were reported. Participant feedback corroborated findings of improvements observed in mental health symptoms. We found immediate improvements treating 10 frontline healthcare workers experiencing burnout, PTSD, depression, and anxiety using weekly group KAP and integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reid Robison
- Numinus Wellness, Draper, UT, USA
- University of Utah School of Medicine, SL, UT, USA
| | - Madeline Brendle
- Numinus Wellness, Draper, UT, USA
- Department of Pharmacotherapy, University of Utah College of Pharmacy, SLC, UT, USA
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Ragnhildstveit A, Khan R, Seli P, Bass LC, August RJ, Kaiyo M, Barr N, Jackson LK, Gaffrey MS, Barsuglia JP, Averill LA. 5-MeO-DMT for post-traumatic stress disorder: a real-world longitudinal case study. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1271152. [PMID: 38076677 PMCID: PMC10710141 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1271152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic therapy is, arguably, the next frontier in psychiatry. It offers a radical alternative to longstanding, mainstays of treatment, while exciting a paradigm shift in translational science and drug discovery. There is particular interest in 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT)-a serotonergic psychedelic-as a novel, fast-acting therapeutic. Yet, few studies have directly examined 5-MeO-DMT for trauma- or stress-related psychopathology, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Herein, we present the first longitudinal case study on 5-MeO-DMT for chronic refractory PTSD, in a 23-year-old female. A single dose of vaporized bufotoxin of the Sonoran Desert Toad (Incilius alvarius), containing an estimated 10-15 mg of 5-MeO-DMT, led to clinically significant improvements in PTSD, with next-day effects. This was accompanied by marked reductions in hopelessness and related suicide risk. Improvements, across all constructs, were sustained at 1-, 3-, 6-, and 12-months follow-up, as monitored by a supporting clinician. The subject further endorsed a complete mystical experience, hypothesized to underly 5-MeO-DMT's therapeutic activity. No drug-related, serious adverse events occurred. Together, results showed that 5-MeO-DMT was generally tolerable, safe to administer, and effective for PTSD; however, this was not without risk. The subject reported acute nausea, overwhelming subjective effects, and late onset of night terrors. Further research is warranted to replicate and extend these findings, which are inherently limited, non-generalizable, and rely on methods not clinically accepted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anya Ragnhildstveit
- Integrated Research Literacy Group, Draper, UT, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ryan Khan
- Integrated Research Literacy Group, Draper, UT, United States
| | - Paul Seli
- Integrated Research Literacy Group, Draper, UT, United States
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Lisa Claire Bass
- Integrated Research Literacy Group, Draper, UT, United States
- Neuroscience Interdepartmental Program, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - River Jude August
- Integrated Research Literacy Group, Draper, UT, United States
- Department of Family and Consumer Studies, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Miriam Kaiyo
- Integrated Research Literacy Group, Draper, UT, United States
- Department of Family and Consumer Studies, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Nathaniel Barr
- School of Humanities and Creativity, Sheridan College, Oakville, ON, Canada
| | | | - Michael Santo Gaffrey
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Psychology and Developmental Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
- Children’s Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | | | - Lynnette Astrid Averill
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- Michael E. DeBakey Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Houston, TX, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
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Žuljević MF, Mijatović A, Marušić SL, Kudrjavets G, Buljan I, Hren D. Mystical and Affective Aspects of Psychedelic Use in a Naturalistic Setting: A Linguistic Analysis of Online Experience Reports. J Psychoactive Drugs 2023:1-13. [PMID: 37921118 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2274382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Analyzing online retrospective experience reports of psychedelic use can provide valuable insight into their acute subjective effects. Such reports are unexplored in relation to mystical states, which are thought to be a therapeutic mechanism within psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. We created a set of words that, when encountered in an experience report, indicate the occurrence of mystical elements within the experience. We used the Shroomery.org website to retrieve 7317 publicly available retrospective psychedelic experience reports of psychedelic use, primarily of psilocybin, and have a designated experience intensity level self-assessed by the text authors during submission of the report. We counted the mystical language words using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) software and additionally performed sentiment analysis of all reports. We found that the occurrence of mystical language grew with increased self-reported experience intensity. We also found that negative sentiment increased, and positive sentiment decreased as self-reported psychedelic experience intensity increased. These two findings raise the question of whether mystical experiences can co-exist with challenging elements within the psychedelic experience, a consideration for future qualitative studies. We present a new mystical language dictionary measure for further use and expansion, with some suggestions on how it can be used in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Franka Žuljević
- Department of Medical Humanities, School of Medicine, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Antonija Mijatović
- Department of Research in Biomedicine and Health, School of Medicine, Split, Croatia
| | | | - Gunnar Kudrjavets
- Bernoulli Institute for Mathematics, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ivan Buljan
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Darko Hren
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Split, Split, Croatia
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Herrmann Z, Earleywine M, De Leo J, Slabaugh S, Kenny T, Rush AJ. Scoping Review of Experiential Measures from Psychedelic Research and Clinical Trials. J Psychoactive Drugs 2023; 55:501-517. [PMID: 36127639 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2022.2125467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Subjective responses to psychoactive drugs have served as intriguing windows into consciousness as well as useful predictors. Subjective reactions to psychedelic molecules are particularly interesting given how they covary with subsequent improvements associated with psychedelic-assisted treatments. Although links between subjective reactions and decreases in treatment-resistant clinical depression, end-of-life anxiety, and maladaptive consumption of alcohol and nicotine appear in the empirical literature, the measurement of these subjective responses has proven difficult. Several scales developed over many decades show reasonable internal consistency. Studies suggest that many have a replicable factor structure and other good psychometric properties, but samples are often small and self-selected. We review the psychometric properties of some of the most widely used scales and detail their links to improvement in response to psychedelic-assisted treatments. Generally, assessments of mystical experiences or oceanic boundlessness correlate with improvements. Challenging subjective experiences, psychological insight, and emotional breakthroughs also show considerable promise, though replication would strengthen conclusions. We suggest a collaborative approach where investigators can focus on key responses to ensure that the field will eventually have data from many participants who report their subjective reactions to psychedelic molecules in a therapeutic setting. This may aid in predicting improvement amongst targeted conditions and wellbeing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Herrmann
- Department of Psychiatry, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA
- New Hampshire Hospital, Concord, NH, USA
| | | | - Joseph De Leo
- Center for Compassionate Care, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sarah Slabaugh
- Department of Psychiatry, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
| | - Timothy Kenny
- Library & Knowledge Services, Maine Medical Center, Portland, ME, USA
| | - A John Rush
- Emeritus, Duke - National University of Singapore (Nus); Adjunct Professor of Psychiatry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
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Jefferson SJ, Gregg I, Dibbs M, Liao C, Wu H, Davoudian PA, Woodburn SC, Wehrle PH, Sprouse JS, Sherwood AM, Kaye AP, Pittenger C, Kwan AC. 5-MeO-DMT modifies innate behaviors and promotes structural neural plasticity in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2023; 48:1257-1266. [PMID: 37015972 PMCID: PMC10354037 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01572-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023]
Abstract
Serotonergic psychedelics are gaining increasing interest as potential therapeutics for a range of mental illnesses. Compounds with short-lived subjective effects may be clinically useful because dosing time would be reduced, which may improve patient access. One short-acting psychedelic is 5-MeO-DMT, which has been associated with improvement in depression and anxiety symptoms in early phase clinical studies. However, relatively little is known about the behavioral and neural mechanisms of 5-MeO-DMT, particularly the durability of its long-term effects. Here we characterized the effects of 5-MeO-DMT on innate behaviors and dendritic architecture in mice. We showed that 5-MeO-DMT induces a dose-dependent increase in head-twitch response that is shorter in duration than that induced by psilocybin at all doses tested. 5-MeO-DMT also substantially suppresses social ultrasonic vocalizations produced during mating behavior. 5-MeO-DMT produces long-lasting increases in dendritic spine density in the mouse medial frontal cortex that are driven by an elevated rate of spine formation. However, unlike psilocybin, 5-MeO-DMT did not affect the size of dendritic spines. These data provide insights into the behavioral and neural consequences underlying the action of 5-MeO-DMT and highlight similarities and differences with those of psilocybin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Jefferson
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Ian Gregg
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Mark Dibbs
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Clara Liao
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Hao Wu
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Pasha A Davoudian
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Samuel C Woodburn
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Patrick H Wehrle
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | | | | | - Alfred P Kaye
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
- VA National Center for PTSD Clinical Neuroscience Division, West Haven, CT, 06516, USA
| | - Christopher Pittenger
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
- Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Alex C Kwan
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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Michael P, Luke D, Robinson O. This is your brain on death: a comparative analysis of a near-death experience and subsequent 5-Methoxy-DMT experience. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1083361. [PMID: 37457069 PMCID: PMC10345338 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1083361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Much research has focused on the modeling of the near-death experience (NDE) by classical and atypical psychedelics; however, to date, no study has reported on the relationship between the NDE and the experience induced by the highly potent, endogenous psychedelic drug 5-Methoxy-DMT (5MeO-DMT). This article presents a case study of an individual who is popularly documented to have had a profound near-death experience while in a coma caused by bacterial meningoencephalitis. Additionally, the individual also subsequently underwent an experience with 5MeO-DMT. Methods A semi-structured interview was conducted with the subject concerning his experiences with both the NDE and 5MeO-DMT. A basic thematic analysis was performed on both the original text describing the NDE as well as the interview itself, which mainly focused on the subject's experience with 5MeO-DMT. This analysis was organized to identify both the similar and different emergent themes between the two states, with a particular emphasis on the subject's perceptions of the similarities and differences between the experiences. Results There is a very high level of comparability between the original NDE and psychedelic experiences in general, including shared characteristics such as entering other worlds, meeting menacing or benevolent entities, experiencing synesthesia, perinatal regression, and lucid dreamlike properties. Much comparability was also identified with the 5MeO-DMT experience, in particular the major mystical experiential domains, such as ego dissolution, but especially transcendence of time and space. However, there were also a few unique themes (life review, the deceased, and the threshold) that emerged in the NDE that were not present in the 5MeO-DMT experience or other psychedelic experience studies, suggesting that these themes may be more unique to the NDE. Discussion Despite such similarities, the participant asserted that his NDE and psychedelic experiences were not similar enough to be attributed to endogenous psychedelics. In this study, we discussed several mechanisms that could potentially account for the NDE, including lucid dreams and perinatal regression. However, the study also explored the possibility that the unique etiology of the participant's NDE, bacterial meningoencephalitis affecting the neocortex, may have triggered similar downstream neural activity as that initiated by psychedelic agents through pyramidal neuronal activation. This hypothesis is presented with appropriate caveats and acknowledged as speculative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Michael
- Centre for Mental Health, School of Human Sciences, Old Royal Naval College, University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Luke
- Centre for Mental Health, School of Human Sciences, Old Royal Naval College, University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Psychedelic Research, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Robinson
- Centre for Mental Health, School of Human Sciences, Old Royal Naval College, University of Greenwich, London, United Kingdom
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11
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Reckweg JT, van Leeuwen CJ, Henquet C, van Amelsvoort T, Theunissen EL, Mason NL, Paci R, Terwey TH, Ramaekers JG. A phase 1/2 trial to assess safety and efficacy of a vaporized 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine formulation (GH001) in patients with treatment-resistant depression. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1133414. [PMID: 37409159 PMCID: PMC10319409 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1133414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Treatment-resistant depression (TRD) is a substantial public health burden, but current treatments have limited effectiveness. The aim was to investigate the safety and potential antidepressant effects of the serotonergic psychedelic drug 5-MeO-DMT in a vaporized formulation (GH001) in adult patients with TRD. Methods The Phase 1 part (n = 8) of the trial investigated two single dose levels of GH001 (12 mg, 18 mg) with a primary endpoint of safety, and the Phase 2 part (n = 8) investigated an individualized dosing regimen (IDR) with up to three increasing doses of GH001 (6 mg, 12 mg, and 18 mg) within a single day, with a primary endpoint of efficacy, as assessed by the proportion of patients in remission (MADRS ≤ 10) on day 7. Results Administration of GH001 via inhalation was well tolerated. The proportion of patients in remission (MADRS ≤ 10) at day 7 was 2/4 (50%) and 1/4 (25%) in the 12 mg and 18 mg groups of Phase 1, respectively, and 7/8 (87.5%) in the IDR group of Phase 2, meeting its primary endpoint (p < 0.0001). All remissions were observed from day 1, with 6/10 remissions observed from 2 h. The mean MADRS change from baseline to day 7 was -21.0 (-65%) and - 12.5 (-40%) for the 12 and 18 mg groups, respectively, and - 24.4 (-76%) for the IDR. Conclusion Administration of GH001 to a cohort of 16 patients with TRD was well tolerated and provided potent and ultra-rapid antidepressant effects. Individualized dosing with up to three doses of GH001 on a single day was superior to single dose administration.Clinical Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier NCT04698603.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes T. Reckweg
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Cees J. van Leeuwen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Cécile Henquet
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Therese van Amelsvoort
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Eef L. Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Natasha L. Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Riccardo Paci
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | | | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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12
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Franco Corso SJ, O'Malley K, Subaiya S, Mayall D, Dakwar E. The role of non-ordinary states of consciousness occasioned by mind-body practices in mental health illness. J Affect Disord 2023; 335:166-176. [PMID: 37150220 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research with hallucinogens suggests that non-ordinary states of consciousness (NOSCs), particularly mystical-type experiences, predict improvements in various affective disorders and substance use disorders (SUDs). Little is known, however, about the therapeutic potential of NOSCs induced by mind-body practices such as meditation, yoga and breathwork. METHODS We conducted a literature review in online databases (PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar) and preprint databases (SSRN, bioRxiv) to identify studies of NOSCs induced by mind-body practices and their effects in affective disorders and SUDs. RESULTS A wide variety of mind-body practices involving physical movement (i.e., shamanic drumming, yoga) and hyper-focused immersive mental experiences (i.e., meditation, breathwork) have been reported in the literature. Preliminary evidence, mostly from qualitative studies and open label studies, suggest that mind-body practices produce NOSCs. Such experiences have been associated with short-term reduced levels of anxiety and depression, increased motivation to quit addictive behaviors, and enhanced self-awareness and spiritual well-being. LIMITATIONS Findings are limited by the scarcity of literature in this field. Further rigorous and methodologically sound empirical research is needed, including comparative studies of NOSCs occasioned by different methods. CONCLUSIONS Mind-body practices may represent a promising approach for treating mental health disorders. The NOSCs induced by such practices may lead to beneficial shifts in perceptions, values, beliefs, and behaviors. Given the challenges with hallucinogen-based therapies, mind-body practices may represent a more accessible and acceptable way of eliciting potentially helpful NOSCs in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia J Franco Corso
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Vangelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, United States of America; Division on Substance Use, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY, United States of America.
| | - Kate O'Malley
- Division on Substance Use, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Saleena Subaiya
- Division on Substance Use, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Danielle Mayall
- Division on Substance Use, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Elias Dakwar
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Vangelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, United States of America; Division on Substance Use, New York State Psychiatric Institute and Department of Psychiatry, New York, NY, United States of America
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13
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The Altered States Database: Psychometric data from a systematic literature review. Sci Data 2022; 9:720. [PMID: 36418335 PMCID: PMC9684144 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01822-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we present the development of the Altered States Database (ASDB), an open-science project based on a systematic literature review. The ASDB contains psychometric questionnaire data on subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness (ASC) induced by pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods. The systematic review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Scientific journal articles were identified through PubMed and Web of Science. We included studies that examined ASC using the following validated questionnaires: Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (APZ, 5D-ASC, 11-ASC), Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI), Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS), or Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30). The systematic review resulted in the inclusion of a total of 165 journal articles, whereof questionnaire data was extracted and is now available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) website (https://osf.io/8mbru) and on the ASDB website (http://alteredstatesdb.org), where questionnaire data can be easily retrieved and visualized. This data allows the calculation of comparable psychometric values of ASC experiences and of dose-response relationships of substances inducing ASC. Measurement(s) | Psychometric questionnaire data | Technology Type(s) | Systematic literature review (PRISMA) | Sample Characteristic - Organism | Human |
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14
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Dourron HM, Strauss C, Hendricks PS. Self-Entropic Broadening Theory: Toward a New Understanding of Self and Behavior Change Informed by Psychedelics and Psychosis. Pharmacol Rev 2022; 74:982-1027. [DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.121.000514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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15
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Group VR experiences can produce ego attenuation and connectedness comparable to psychedelics. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8995. [PMID: 35637199 PMCID: PMC9149675 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-12637-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractWith a growing body of research highlighting the therapeutic potential of experiential phenomenology which diminishes egoic identity and increases one’s sense of connectedness, there is significant interest in how to elicit such ‘self-transcendent experiences’ (STEs) in laboratory contexts. Psychedelic drugs (YDs) have proven particularly effective in this respect, producing subjective phenomenology which reliably elicits intense STEs. With virtual reality (VR) emerging as a powerful tool for constructing new perceptual environments, we describe a VR framework called ‘Isness-distributed’ (Isness-D) which harnesses the unique affordances of distributed multi-person VR to blur conventional self-other boundaries. Within Isness-D, groups of participants co-habit a shared virtual space, collectively experiencing their bodies as luminous energetic essences with diffuse spatial boundaries. It enables moments of ‘energetic coalescence’, a new class of embodied intersubjective experience where bodies can fluidly merge, enabling participants to include multiple others within their self-representation. To evaluate Isness-D, we adopted a citizen science approach, coordinating an international network of Isness-D 'nodes'. We analyzed the results (N = 58) using 4 different self-report scales previously applied to analyze subjective YD phenomenology (the inclusion of community in self scale, ego-dissolution inventory, communitas scale, and the MEQ30 mystical experience questionnaire). Despite the complexities associated with a distributed experiment like this, the Isness-D scores on all 4 scales were statistically indistinguishable from recently published YD studies, demonstrating that distributed VR can be used to design intersubjective STEs where people dissolve their sense of self in the connection to others.
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16
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Gandy S. Predictors and potentiators of psychedelic-occasioned mystical experiences. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2022.00198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Mystical experiences are often described as being among the most profound and meaningful events of a person’s life. Their occurrence, while a normal but uncommon phenomenon, is reliably occasioned by psychedelic substances under the appropriate conditions, although care is needed around the context of usage to help ensure safe and beneficial experiences. The occurrence of mystical experiences in psychedelic sessions is a key mediator of the sustained psychological benefits reported in both healthy and clinical populations. Certain factors including set and setting, drug dosage, trait absorption, drug type, intention and states of surrender and acceptance all predict or influence the occurrence of mystical experiences. Various additional factors may further contribute to the occurrence and intensity of mystical experiences and enhance their long-term benefits, including music, meditation and spiritual practices and nature-based settings. This review examines these factors and considers how they might be optimised to increase the chances of a mystical experience occurring, while also considering factors that are negatively associated with mystical experiences with suggestions on how these might be mitigated where applicable. Finally, potential future research avenues for furthering our knowledge of psychedelic mystical experiences and how their benefits might be enhanced is suggested. Maximising the potential for the occurrence of mystical experiences is an important aspect of the beneficial application of psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Gandy
- Synthesis Institute, Zandvoort, Netherlands
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17
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Abstract
BACKGROUND 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) is a naturally occurring, short-acting psychedelic tryptamine, produced by a variety of plant and animal species. Plants containing 5-MeO-DMT have been used throughout history for ritual and spiritual purposes. The aim of this article is to review the available literature about 5-MeO-DMT and inform subsequent clinical development. METHODS We searched PubMed database for articles about 5-MeO-DMT. Search results were cross-checked against earlier reviews and reference lists were hand searched. Findings were synthesised using a narrative synthesis approach. This review covers the pharmacology, chemistry and metabolism of 5-MeO-DMT, as well epidemiological studies, and reported adverse and beneficial effects. RESULTS 5-MeO-DMT is serotonergic agonist, with highest affinity for 5-HT1A receptors. It was studied in a variety of animal models, but clinical studies with humans are lacking. Epidemiological studies indicate that, like other psychedelics, 5-MeO-DMT induces profound alterations in consciousness (including mystical experiences), with potential beneficial long-term effects on mental health and well-being. CONCLUSION 5-MeO-DMT is a potentially useful addition to the psychedelic pharmacopoeia because of its short duration of action, relative lack of visual effects and putatively higher rates of ego-dissolution and mystical experiences. We conclude that further clinical exploration is warranted, using similar precautions as with other classic psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna O Ermakova
- Beckley Psytech, Beckley, UK,Psychedelic Trials Group, Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK,Anna O Ermakova, Psychedelic Trials Group, Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, 16 De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF, UK.
| | | | - James Rucker
- Psychedelic Trials Group, Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Matthew W Johnson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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18
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Reckweg JT, Uthaug MV, Szabo A, Davis AK, Lancelotta R, Mason NL, Ramaekers JG. The clinical pharmacology and potential therapeutic applications of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT). J Neurochem 2022; 162:128-146. [PMID: 35149998 PMCID: PMC9314805 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
5‐methoxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine (5‐MeO‐DMT) is a naturally occurring tryptamine that primarily acts as an agonist at the 5‐HT1A and 5‐HT2A receptors, whereby affinity for the 5‐HT1A subtype is highest. Subjective effects following 5‐MeO‐DMT administration include distortions in auditory and time perception, amplification of emotional states, and feelings of ego dissolution that usually are short‐lasting, depending on the route of administration. Individual dose escalation of 5‐MeO‐DMT reliably induces a “peak” experience, a state thought to be a core predictor of the therapeutic efficacy of psychedelics. Observational studies and surveys have suggested that single exposure to 5‐MeO‐DMT can cause rapid and sustained reductions in symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. 5‐MeO‐DMT also stimulates neuroendocrine function, immunoregulation, and anti‐inflammatory processes, which may contribute to changes in mental health outcomes. To date, only one clinical trial has been published on 5‐MeO‐DMT, demonstrating the safety of vaporized dosing up to 18 mg. Importantly, the rapid onset and short duration of the 5‐MeO‐DMT experience may render it more suitable for individual dose‐finding strategies compared with longer‐acting psychedelics. A range of biotech companies has shown an interest in the development of 5‐MeO‐DMT formulations for a range of medical indications, most notably depression. Commercial development will therefore be the most important resource for bringing 5‐MeO‐DMT to the clinic. However, fundamental research will also be needed to increase understanding of the neurophysiological and neural mechanisms that contribute to the potential clinical effects of 5‐MeO‐DMT and its sustainability and dissemination over time. Such studies are less likely to be conducted as part of drug development programs and are more likely to rely on independent, academic initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Reckweg
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dept of Neuropsychology and psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | - M V Uthaug
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dept of Neuropsychology and psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | - A Szabo
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research (NORMENT), Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, and Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - A K Davis
- Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - R Lancelotta
- Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - N L Mason
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dept of Neuropsychology and psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | - J G Ramaekers
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dept of Neuropsychology and psychopharmacology, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
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19
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Ortiz Bernal AM, Raison CL, Lancelotta RL, Davis AK. Reactivations after 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine use in naturalistic settings: An initial exploratory analysis of the phenomenon's predictors and its emotional valence. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:1049643. [PMID: 36523876 PMCID: PMC9745201 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1049643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The psychedelic 5-MeO-DMT has shown clinical potential due to its short duration and ability to induce mystical experiences. However, a phenomenon known as "reactivations" (similar to "flashbacks") is a poorly understood and frequently reported phenomenon which appears associated with 5-MeO-DMT use and warranted further investigation. AIMS This study examined whether differences in age, gender, education, lifetime use, use location, and preparation strategies predict reactivations (primary outcome). Additionally, we explored how reactivations were perceived by survey respondents and whether demographic data predicted emotional valence (secondary outcome) of reported reactivations. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study used secondary quantitative data from a survey assessing epidemiological and behavioral associations of 5-MeO-DMT use in non-clinical settings (N = 513). Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, t-tests, and logistic regressions were utilized to explore aims. RESULTS Being female, older at the time of first 5-MeO-DMT dose, having higher educational attainment, and dosing in a structured group setting were associated with increased odds of reporting a reactivation event. Higher mystical experience scores, greater personal wellbeing and having had a non-dual awareness experience that was not substance-induced were associated with higher likelihood of reporting a neutral or positive emotional valence of a reactivation event. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that reactivation phenomena, in this particular sample may most often represent a neutral or positive byproduct of the acute 5-MeO-DMT experience. More information is needed to best identify individuals most likely to experience a reactivation as a negative event to prevent such potential challenging outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana María Ortiz Bernal
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, School of Human Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Charles L Raison
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, School of Human Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Rafael L Lancelotta
- Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
| | - Alan K Davis
- Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States.,Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
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20
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Reckweg J, Mason NL, van Leeuwen C, Toennes SW, Terwey TH, Ramaekers JG. A Phase 1, Dose-Ranging Study to Assess Safety and Psychoactive Effects of a Vaporized 5-Methoxy-N, N-Dimethyltryptamine Formulation (GH001) in Healthy Volunteers. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:760671. [PMID: 34912222 PMCID: PMC8667866 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.760671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
5-Methoxy-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) is a tryptamine with ultra-rapid onset and short duration of psychedelic effects. Prospective studies for other tryptamines have suggested beneficial effects on mental health outcomes. In preparation for a study in patients with depression, the present study GH001-HV-101 aimed to assess the impact of four different dose levels of a novel vaporized 5-MeO-DMT formulation (GH001) administered via inhalation as single doses of 2 (N = 4), 6 (N = 6), 12 (N = 4) and 18 mg (N = 4), and in an individualized dose escalation regimen (N = 4) on the safety, tolerability, and the dose-related psychoactive effects in healthy volunteers (N = 22). The psychedelic experience was assessed with a novel Peak Experience Scale (PES), the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ), the Ego Dissolution Inventory (EDI), the Challenging Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), and the 5-Dimensional Altered States of Consciousness Questionnaire (5D-ASC). Further aims were to assess the impact of 5-MeO-DMT on cognitive functioning, mood, and well-being. Higher doses of 5-MeO-DMT produced significant increments in the intensity of the psychedelic experience ratings as compared to the lowest 2 mg dose on all questionnaires, except the CEQ. Prominent effects were observed following single doses of 6, 12, and 18 mg on PES and MEQ ratings, while maximal effects on PES, MEQ, EDI, and 5D-ASC ratings were observed following individualized dose escalation of 5-MeO-DMT. Measures of cognition, mood, and well-being were not affected by 5-MeO-DMT. Vital signs at 1 and 3 h after administration were not affected and adverse events were generally mild and resolved spontaneously. Individualized dose escalation of 5-MeO-DMT may be preferable over single dose administration for clinical applications that aim to maximize the experience to elicit a strong therapeutic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Reckweg
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Natasha L Mason
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Cees van Leeuwen
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Stefan W Toennes
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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21
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Schwelm HM, Zimmermann N, Scholl T, Penner J, Autret A, Auwärter V, Neukamm MA. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Tryptamines in the Poison of Incilius alvarius (Amphibia: Bufonidae). J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:540-548. [PMID: 33851996 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Rising numbers of psychoactive tryptamine derivatives have become available on the drug market over the last decade, making these naturally occurring or synthetically manufactured compounds highly relevant for forensic analysis. One of these compounds is 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), a constituent of the dried poison of Incilius alvarius (Colorado River toad) which has a history of ritual and/or recreational use. Still, comprehensive and validated qualitative as well as quantitative analytical data on the psychoactive components of this poison are scarce. In this study samples of the poison of Incilius alvarius were collected from live toads in the Sonoran Desert, Arizona (USA) and analyzed with a set of complementary methods. Acetone/water (70/30, v/v) proved to be the solvent of choice for the extraction of tryptamine derivatives. Trace compounds were enriched and overload with 5-MeO-DMT was prevented by chromatographic separation of 5-MeO-DMT prior to qualitative analysis. The method for quantification was validated. Applying attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to samples of the poison, 5-MeO-DMT was identified as the main tryptamine by comparison to the reference spectrum. The combined evaluation of analytical data gained from gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight high resolution MS (HPLC-qToF-HRMS), and HPLC-MS/MS confirmed the presence of 5-MeO-DMT, 5-MeO-N-methyltryptamine, 5-MeO-tryptamine, 5-MeO-tryptophol, 2-(5-methoxy-1H-indol-3-yl)-acetic-acid (5-MIAA), 5-HO-N-methyltryptamine, bufotenin, DMT, and tryptophan. For the first time, 5-MeO-tryptamine and two positional isomers of indole-substituted HO-MeO-DMT were detected in the poison of Incilius alvarius. The tryptamine present in the highest concentrations was 5-MeO-DMT (mean ± standard deviation: 410,000 ± 30,000 µg/g). Mean concentrations of 5-MeO-tryptamine (490 ± 260 µg/g), 5-HO-N-methyltryptamine (270 ± 120 µg/g), bufotenin (2,800 ± 1,900 µg/g), and DMT (250 ± 80 µg/g), showed a relatively high variability between individual samples. The comprehensive analytical reference data of Incilius alvarius poison presented here might prove useful for forensic chemists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes M Schwelm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Hermann Staudinger Graduate School, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Zimmermann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Johannes Penner
- Chair of Wildlife Ecology and Wildlife Management, Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Freiburg, Germany.,Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
| | - Amy Autret
- Tucson Police Department, Crime Laboratory/Toxicology, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Merja A Neukamm
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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22
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Aday JS, Davis AK, Mitzkovitz CM, Bloesch EK, Davoli CC. Predicting Reactions to Psychedelic Drugs: A Systematic Review of States and Traits Related to Acute Drug Effects. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:424-435. [PMID: 33860172 PMCID: PMC8033773 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Psychedelic drugs are increasingly being incorporated into therapeutic contexts for the purposes of promoting mental health. However, they can also induce adverse reactions in some individuals, and it is difficult to predict before treatment who is likely to experience positive or adverse acute effects. Although consideration of setting and dosage as well as excluding individuals with psychotic predispositions has thus far led to a high degree of safety, it is imperative that researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of how to predict individual reactions. To this end, the current systematic review coalesced the results of 14 studies that included baseline states or traits predictive of the acute effects of psychedelics. Individuals high in the traits of absorption, openness, and acceptance as well as a state of surrender were more likely to have positive and mystical-type experiences, whereas those low in openness and surrender or in preoccupied, apprehensive, or confused psychological states were more likely to experience acute adverse reactions. Participant sex was not a robust predictor of drug effects, but 5-HT2AR binding potential, executive network node diversity, and rACC volume may be potential baseline biomarkers related to acute reactions. Finally, increased age and experience with psychedelics were individual differences related to generally less intense effects, indicating that users may become slightly less sensitive to the effects of the drugs after repeated usage. Although future well-powered, placebo-controlled trials directly comparing the relative importance of these predictors is needed, this review synthesizes the field's current understanding of how to predict acute reactions to psychedelic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob S. Aday
- Department
of Psychology, Central Michigan University, 1200 South Franklin Street, Mount Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Alan K. Davis
- College
of Social Work, The Ohio State University, 1947 College Road, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
- Center
for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United
States
| | - Cayla M. Mitzkovitz
- Department
of Psychology, Central Michigan University, 1200 South Franklin Street, Mount Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Emily K. Bloesch
- Department
of Psychology, Central Michigan University, 1200 South Franklin Street, Mount Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Christopher C. Davoli
- Department
of Psychology, Central Michigan University, 1200 South Franklin Street, Mount Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
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23
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Davis AK, Barrett FS, So S, Gukasyan N, Swift TC, Griffiths RR. Development of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire among a sample of people who have consumed psilocybin or LSD. J Psychopharmacol 2021; 35:437-446. [PMID: 33427007 PMCID: PMC8056708 DOI: 10.1177/0269881120967878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several measures have been developed to examine acute psychedelic effects (e.g. mystical-type and challenging experiences), but no measure assesses acute psychologically insightful experiences that may occur during psychedelic experiences. AIM The purpose of this study was to develop and examine the psychometric properties of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire. METHOD A cross-sectional survey study among psilocybin and LSD users. Respondents (n=1661; Mage=22.9, standard deviation=8.5; Caucasian/White=83%; non-Hispanic=91%; men=72%; United States resident=66%) completed an Internet-based survey. RESULTS The Psychological Insight Questionnaire consists of 23 items with two subscales: (a) Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and (b) Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights. Construct validity of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire was supported by strong correlations of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights subscales) scores with the insight subscale of the Session Impacts Scale, and weak-to-moderate correlations with the Mystical Experiences and Challenging Experiences Questionnaires. Furthermore, Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights subscales) scores were moderately-to-strongly correlated with retrospectively reported increases in psychological flexibility, and well-being/life satisfaction that were attributed to a memorable psychedelic experience. Lastly, incremental validity was established showing that the Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights subscale) scores predict unique variance in changes in psychological flexibility, and Psychological Insight Questionnaire (and Avoidance and Maladaptive Patterns Insights and Goals and Adaptive Patterns Insights subscales) scores predict changes in well-being and life satisfaction, beyond measures of acute mystical-type and challenging effects. CONCLUSIONS The Psychological Insight Questionnaire has the potential to extend the understanding of the acute and enduring effects of psychedelics. Further longitudinal research is necessary to determine the long-term predictive validity of the Psychological Insight Questionnaire and to examine the role of psychological insight in predicting therapeutic outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan K Davis
- College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA
- Center for Psychedelic and Conscioussness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Frederick S Barrett
- Center for Psychedelic and Conscioussness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Sara So
- Center for Psychedelic and Conscioussness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Natalie Gukasyan
- Center for Psychedelic and Conscioussness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Thomas C Swift
- Center for Psychedelic and Conscioussness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
- RiverStyx Foundation, Kirkland, USA
| | - Roland R Griffiths
- Center for Psychedelic and Conscioussness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Psilocybin is the psychoactive component in Psilocybe mushrooms ('magic mushrooms'). Whether and how the quality of the psilocybin-induced experience might mediate beneficial health outcomes is currently under investigation, for example, in therapeutic applications. However, to date, no meta-analysis has investigated the dose-dependency of subjective experiences across available studies. AIM Establishing dose-response relationships of the subjective experiences induced by psilocybin in healthy study participants and a comparison of patient groups. METHOD We applied a linear meta-regression approach, based on the robust variance estimation framework, to obtain linear dose-response relationship estimates on questionnaire ratings after oral psilocybin administration. Data were obtained from the Altered States Database, which contains data extracted from MEDLINE-listed journal articles that used standardized and validated questionnaires: the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale, the Mystical Experience Questionnaire and the Hallucinogen Rating Scale. RESULTS Psilocybin dose positively correlated with ratings on most factors and scales, mainly those referring to perceptual alterations and positively experienced ego dissolution. Measures referring to challenging experiences exhibited small effects and were barely modulated by dose. CONCLUSION Psilocybin intensified almost all characteristics of altered states of consciousness assessed with the given questionnaires. Because subjective experiences are not only determined by dose, but also by individual and environmental factors, the results may only apply to controlled laboratory experiments and not to recreational use. This paper may serve as a general literature citation for the use of psilocybin in experimental and clinical research, to compare expected and observed subjective experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Hirschfeld
- Psychotropic Substances Research Group, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Timo T Schmidt
- Psychotropic Substances Research Group, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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25
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Rhythmic Chanting and Mystical States across Traditions. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11010101. [PMID: 33451163 PMCID: PMC7828722 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Chanting is a form of rhythmic, repetitive vocalization practiced in a wide range of cultures. It is used in spiritual practice to strengthen community, heal illness, and overcome psychological and emotional difficulties. In many traditions, chanting is used to induce mystical states, an altered state of consciousness characterised by a profound sense of peace. Despite the global prevalence of chanting, its psychological effects are poorly understood. This investigation examined the psychological and contextual factors associated with mystical states during chanting. Data were analyzed from 464 participants across 33 countries who regularly engaged in chanting. Results showed that 60% of participants experienced mystical states during chanting. Absorption, altruism, and religiosity were higher among people who reported mystical states while chanting compared to those who did not report mystical states. There was no difference in mystical experience scores between vocal, silent, group or individual chanting and no difference in the prevalence of mystical states across chanting traditions. However, an analysis of subscales suggested that mystical experiences were especially characterised by positive mood and feelings of ineffability. The research sheds new light on factors that impact upon chanting experiences. A framework for understanding mystical states during chanting is proposed.
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Sherwood AM, Claveau R, Lancelotta R, Kaylo KW, Lenoch K. Synthesis and Characterization of 5-MeO-DMT Succinate for Clinical Use. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:32067-32075. [PMID: 33344861 PMCID: PMC7745443 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.0c05099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
To support clinical use, a multigram-scale process has been developed to provide 5-MeO-DMT, a psychedelic natural product found in the parotid gland secretions of the toad, Incilius alvarius. Several synthetic routes were initially explored, and the selected process featured an optimized Fischer indole reaction to 5-MeO-DMT freebase in high-yield, from which the 1:1 succinate salt was produced to provide 136 g of crystalline active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) with 99.86% peak area by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and a net yield of 49%. The report provides in-process monitoring, validated analytical methods, impurity formation and removal, and solid-state characterization of the API essential for subsequent clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Romain Claveau
- Almac
Sciences, 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, United Kingdom
| | - Rafael Lancelotta
- Habituating
to Wholeness, 6500 W
13th Avenue, Lakewood, Colorado 80214, United States
| | - Kristi W. Kaylo
- Usona
Institute, 2800 Woods
Hollow Road, Madison, Wisconsin 53711, United States
| | - Kelsey Lenoch
- Usona
Institute, 2800 Woods
Hollow Road, Madison, Wisconsin 53711, United States
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27
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Schmidt TT, Reiche S, Hage CLC, Bermpohl F, Majić T. Acute and subacute psychoactive effects of Kambô, the secretion of the Amazonian Giant Maki Frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor): retrospective reports. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21544. [PMID: 33298999 PMCID: PMC7725827 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78527-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Kambô, the secretion of the Amazonian Giant Leaf Frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) contains a plethora of bioactive peptides and was originally used by indigenous communities from the Amazon basin as medicine for improving hunting capacities. In the last 20 years, Kambô has spread to Western urban healing circles. To date it is still controversial whether the acute effects of Kambô include alterations of consciousness similar to known psychoactive substance like serotonergic psychedelics. Here we retrospectively assessed psychological effects of Kambô in a sample of anonymous users (n = 22, mean age: 39 years, ± 8.5; 45.5% female), administering standardized questionnaires for the assessment of altered states of consciousness (ASC), including the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale, the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI), the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ), the Challenging Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) for acute effects and the Persisting Effects Questionnaire (PEQ) and a scale assessing connectedness for subacute effects. The intensity of retrospectively reported acute psychological effects remained on a mild to moderate level, with no psychedelic-type distortions of perception or thinking. Conversely, persisting effects were predominantly described as positive and pleasant, revealing high scores on measures of personal and spiritual significance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Torsten Schmidt
- Department of Education and Psychology, Neurocomputation and Neuroimaging Unit (NNU), Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Research Group Psychotropic Substances, Psychiatric University Clinic at Hospital St. Hedwig, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Simon Reiche
- Research Group Psychotropic Substances, Psychiatric University Clinic at Hospital St. Hedwig, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Caroline L C Hage
- Research Group Psychotropic Substances, Psychiatric University Clinic at Hospital St. Hedwig, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Felix Bermpohl
- Berlin Institute of Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Campus Charité Mitte, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tomislav Majić
- Research Group Psychotropic Substances, Psychiatric University Clinic at Hospital St. Hedwig, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany. .,Berlin Institute of Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Campus Charité Mitte, Berlin, Germany.
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Lancelotta RL, Davis AK. Use of Benefit Enhancement Strategies among 5-Methoxy-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) Users: Associations with Mystical, Challenging, and Enduring Effects. J Psychoactive Drugs 2020; 52:273-281. [PMID: 32148190 PMCID: PMC7415524 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1737763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
5-Methoxy-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) is a potent, fast-acting psychedelic. Anecdotal reports from 5-MeO-DMT users suggest that they employ a variety of benefit enhancement (BE) strategies aimed to increase positive effects and decrease any potential challenging effects of the substance, but no empirical study has investigated this claim. We examined the prevalence of BE strategy use using secondary data from a survey of 5-MeO-DMT users (n = 515; Mage = 35.4, SD = 11.7; Male = 79%; White/Caucasian = 86%). Results indicated that BE strategy use was common in this sample. As a secondary aim, we assessed whether the use of BE strategies was associated with acute subjective (i.e., mystical-type, challenging) and persisting effects of 5-MeO-DMT among a subset of respondents who reported using 5-MeO-DMT once in their lifetime (n = 116). Results showed that the use of several BE strategies were associated with significantly more intense mystical-type effects and enduring beliefs about the personal meaning and spiritual significance of their experience, and some BE strategies were associated with less intense or challenging experiences. Data suggests that BE strategies are commonly used, and that the use of BE strategies may be associated with increases in positive mystical-type and enduring effects. The causal influence of BE strategies on acute/persisting effects of 5-MeO-DMT should be examined in longitudinal research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael L. Lancelotta
- School of Counseling, Leadership, Advocacy, and Design, University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Ave. Dept. 3374 Laramie, WY 82071 USA
- Innate Path Psychotherapy Clinic, 1445 Holland St, Lakewood, CO 80215 USA
| | - Alan K. Davis
- College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, 1947 N. College Rd, Columbus, OH 43210 USA
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, 5510 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
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Uthaug MV, Lancelotta R, Ortiz Bernal AM, Davis AK, Ramaekers JG. A comparison of reactivation experiences following vaporization and intramuscular injection (IM) of synthetic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) in a naturalistic setting. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2020. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2020.00123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundPrevious research suggests a therapeutic potential of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT). However, online anecdotal reports have described a phenomenon following cessation of the acute effects of 5-MeO-DMT use which has been termed reactivation (i.e., re-experiencing [“flashback”]). To date, no research has investigated whether different routes of administration may confer different reactivation rates, effects and experiences.AimsWe aimed to assess whether intramuscular injection (IM) and vaporization of 5-MeO-DMT conferred different reactivation rates, changes in satisfaction with life as well as ratings of the experience with ego dissolution and the mystical.MethodsUsing internet-based advertisements, 27 respondents (Mage = 32. SE = 1.43; males = 18; North America = 19) completed an online-based survey.ResultsOf the 14 participants in the IM group, 3 (21%) reported reactivations; in contrast, of the 13 participants in the vaporization group, 9 (69%) reported reactivations. Redosing (more than 1 dose) occurred more frequently in the vaporization group (N = 8) (1–6 times with 3–35 mg of 5-MeO-DMT), relative to the IM group (N = 2) (1–5 times with 5–10 mg of 5-MeO-DMT). All participants in the IM group experienced release of physical tension, compared to 8 participants in the vaporization group. Participants in the IM group reported longer time of onset of acute effects (between 1 and 3 [N = 6] and 4–6 min [N = 6]), relative to the vaporization group where the majority (N = 11) reported a rapid onset of 1–50 s.ConclusionFindings suggest that compared to vaporization, the IM route of administering 5-MeO-DMT is associated with lower and less doses, lower frequencies of reporting reactivation, a higher frequency of physical tension release, and a slower onset of acute effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malin V. Uthaug
- 1Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
| | | | - A. M. Ortiz Bernal
- 3School of Human Ecology, Human Development and Family Studies, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - A. K. Davis
- 4College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 43210, OH, USA
- 5Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 21224, MD, USA
| | - Johannes G. Ramaekers
- 1Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands
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30
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Uthaug MV, Lancelotta R, Szabo A, Davis AK, Riba J, Ramaekers JG. Prospective examination of synthetic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine inhalation: effects on salivary IL-6, cortisol levels, affect, and non-judgment. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:773-785. [PMID: 31822925 PMCID: PMC7036074 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05414-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine is a psychotropic substance found in various plant and animal species and is synthetically produced. 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine is used in naturalistic settings for spiritual exploration, recreation, or to address negative affect and mood problems. However, scientific knowledge on the effects of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans is scarce. OBJECTIVES The first objective was to assess the effects of inhalation of vaporized synthetic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine on neuroendocrine markers. The second objective was to assess effects of the substance on affect and mindfulness. In addition, we assessed whether ratings of subjective measures were associated with changes in stress biomarkers (i.e., cortisol) and immune response (i.e., IL-6, CRP, IL-1β), as well as the acute psychedelic experience. METHODS Assessments (baseline, immediately post-session, and 7-day follow-up) were made in 11 participants. Salivary samples were collected at baseline and post-session and analyzed by high-sensitivity enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine significantly increased cortisol levels and decreased IL-6 concentrations in saliva immediately post-session. These changes were not correlated to ratings of mental health or the psychedelic experience. Relative to baseline, ratings of non-judgment significantly increased, and ratings of depression decreased immediately post-session and at follow-up. Ratings of anxiety and stress decreased from baseline to 7-day follow-up. Participant ratings of the psychedelic experience correlated negatively with ratings of affect and positively with ratings of non-judgment. CONCLUSION Inhalation of vaporized synthetic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine produced significant changes in inflammatory markers, improved affect, and non-judgment in volunteers. Future research should examine the effect of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamineamine with healthy volunteers in a controlled laboratory setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malin V Uthaug
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, 6229 ER, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Attila Szabo
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Norway; Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Alan K Davis
- College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
- Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Jordi Riba
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, 6229 ER, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, 6229 ER, The Netherlands.
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Davis AK, Averill LA, Sepeda ND, Barsuglia JP, Amoroso T. Psychedelic Treatment for Trauma-Related Psychological and Cognitive Impairment Among US Special Operations Forces Veterans. CHRONIC STRESS (THOUSAND OAKS, CALIF.) 2020; 4:2470547020939564. [PMID: 32704581 PMCID: PMC7359647 DOI: 10.1177/2470547020939564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans are at increased risk for a variety of mental health problems and cognitive impairment associated with military service. Current treatments are lacking in effectiveness and adherence. Therefore, this study examined psychedelic treatment with ibogaine and 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine for trauma-related psychological and cognitive impairment among U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans. METHOD We conducted a survey of Veterans who completed a specific psychedelic clinical program in Mexico between 2017 and 2019. Questions probed retrospective reports of mental health and cognitive functioning during the 30 days before and 30 days after treatment. A total of 65 people completed treatment during this time frame and were eligible for contact. Of these, 51 (78%) completed the survey and were included in data analyses (mean age = 40; male = 96%; married = 55%; Caucasian/White = 92%; Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom Service = 96%). RESULTS Results indicated significant and very large reductions in retrospective report of suicidal ideation (p < .001; d = -1.9), cognitive impairment (p < .001; d = -2.8), and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (p < .001; d = -3.6), depression (p < .001; d = -3.7), and anxiety (p < .001; d = -3.1). Results also showed a significant and large increase in retrospective report of psychological flexibility (p < .001; d = 2.9) from before-to-after the psychedelic treatment. Increases in the retrospective report of psychological flexibility were strongly associated with retrospective report of reductions in cognitive impairment, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety (rs range -0.61 to -0.75; p < .001). Additionally, most participants rated the psychedelic experiences as one of the top five personally meaningful (84%), spiritually significant (88%), and psychologically insightful (86%) experiences of their lives.Limitations: Several limitations should be considered including the retrospective, self-report, survey design of the study, and the lack of randomization and blinding, thus making these finding preliminary. CONCLUSION U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans may have unique treatment needs because of the sequela of problems associated with repeated trauma exposure and the nature of the exposure. Psychedelic-assisted therapy with these under-researched psychedelics may hold unique promise for this population. However, controlled studies are needed to determine whether this treatment is efficacious in relieving mental health and cognitive impairment among U.S. Special Operations Forces Veterans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan K. Davis
- College of Social Work, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Lynnette A. Averill
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Clinical Neurosciences Division, National Center for PTSD, West Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nathan D. Sepeda
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Timothy Amoroso
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Clinical Neurosciences Division, National Center for PTSD, West Haven, CT, USA
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Gandy S. Psychedelics and potential benefits in “healthy normals”: A review of the literature. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
We are in the midst of a psychedelic research renaissance. With research examining the efficacy of psychedelics as a treatment for a range of mental health indications still in its early stages, there is an increasing body of research to show that careful use of psychedelics can yield a variety of benefits in “healthy normals” and so lead to “the betterment of well people.” Psychedelics have been found to modulate neuroplasticity, and usage in a supportive setting can result in enduring increases in traits such as well-being, life satisfaction, life meaning, mindfulness, and a variety of measures associated with prosocial behaviors and healthy psychological functioning. The effect of psychedelic experience on measures of personality trait openness and is potential implications is examined, and the potential role of awe as a mediator of the benefits of the psychedelic experience is discussed. Special attention is given to the capacity of psychedelics to increase measures of nature relatedness in an enduring sense, which is being correlated with a broad range of measures of psychological well-being as well as a key predictor of pro-environmental awareness and behavior. The effects of particular classical psychedelic compounds on healthy people are discussed, with special attention given to the mystical-type experiences occasioned by high doses of psychedelics, which appear to be an important mediator of long-term benefits and psychotherapeutic gains. Research looking at the potential benefits of psychedelic microdosing is discussed. Potential future research avenues are explored, focusing on the potential development of psychedelics as agents of ecotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Gandy
- 1 Independent Researcher, Leicestershire, UK
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Beckstead R, Blankenagel B, Noconi C, Winkelman M. The entheogenic origins of Mormonism: A working hypothesis. JOURNAL OF PSYCHEDELIC STUDIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1556/2054.2019.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Historical documents relating to early Mormonism suggest that Joseph Smith (1805–1844) employed entheogen-infused sacraments to fulfill his promise that every Mormon convert would experience visions of God and spiritual ecstasies. Early Mormon scriptures and Smith’s teachings contain descriptions consistent with using entheogenic material. Compiled descriptions of Joseph Smith’s earliest visions and early Mormon convert visions reveal the internal symptomology and outward bodily manifestations consistent with using an anticholinergic entheogen. Due to embarrassing symptomology associated with these manifestations, Smith sought for psychoactives with fewer associated outward manifestations. The visionary period of early Mormonism fueled by entheogens played a significant role in the spectacular rise of this American-born religion. The death of Joseph Smith marked the end of visionary Mormonism and the failure or refusal of his successor to utilize entheogens as a part of religious worship. The implications of an entheogenic origin of Mormonism may contribute to the broader discussion of the major world religions with evidence of entheogen use at their foundation and illustrate the value of entheogens in religious experience.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Michael Winkelman
- 4 Retired, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
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Tang SW, Tang WH. Opportunities in Novel Psychotropic Drug Design from Natural Compounds. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2019; 22:601-607. [PMID: 31353393 PMCID: PMC6754733 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyz042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple initiatives at the national and international level support natural drug discovery. Psychiatrists and patients are not well informed about natural psychotropics in general. Existing antidepressant and antipsychotic drugs were developed from atropine, a natural product. Subsequent drug developments were largely based on extension and modification of earlier molecular scaffolds. This limits their mechanisms of action to similar neuropathways. Natural psychotropic substances, particularly those with hallucinogenic and psychedelic properties and different chemical structures, may serve as new paths to novel psychotropic drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siu Wa Tang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Irvine, California; North Campus Psychiatry Trailer, Irvine, California,Institute of Brain Medicine, Hong Kong,Correspondence: Siu Wa Tang, MB, PhD, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Irvine, CA; North Campus Psychiatry Trailer, Zot 1681 Irvine, CA 92697-1681 ()
| | - Wayne H Tang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, Irvine, California; North Campus Psychiatry Trailer, Irvine, California
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A single inhalation of vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) in a naturalistic setting is related to sustained enhancement of satisfaction with life, mindfulness-related capacities, and a decrement of psychopathological symptoms. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:2653-2666. [PMID: 30982127 PMCID: PMC6695371 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05236-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (hereinafter referred to as 5-MeO-DMT) is a psychedelic substance found in the secretion from the parotoid glands of the Bufo alvarius toad. Inhalation of vapor from toad secretion containing 5-MeO-DMT has become popular in naturalistic settings as a treatment of mental health problems or as a means for spiritual exploration. However, knowledge of the effects of 5-MeO-DMT in humans is limited. AIMS The first objective of this study was to assess sub-acute and long-term effects of inhaling vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-MeO-DMT on affect and cognition. The second objective was to assess whether any changes were associated with the psychedelic experience. METHODS Assessments at baseline, within 24 h and 4 weeks following intake, were made in 42 individuals who inhaled vapor from dried toad secretion at several European locations. RESULTS Relative to baseline, ratings of satisfaction with life and convergent thinking significantly increased right after intake and were maintained at follow-up 4 weeks later. Ratings of mindfulness also increased over time and reached statistical significance at 4 weeks. Ratings of depression, anxiety, and stress decreased after the session, and reached significance at 4 weeks. Participants that experienced high levels of ego dissolution or oceanic boundlessness during the session displayed higher ratings of satisfaction with life and lower ratings of depression and stress. CONCLUSION A single inhalation of vapor from dried toad secretion containing 5-MeO-DMT produces sub-acute and long-term changes in affect and cognition in volunteers. These results warrant exploratory research into therapeutic applications of 5-MeO-DMT.
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