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Nagy NA, Hafkamp FMJ, Sparrius R, Bas R, Lozano Vigario F, van Capel TMM, van Ree R, Geijtenbeek TBH, Slütter B, Tas SW, de Jong EC. Retinoic acid-loaded liposomes induce human mucosal CD103 + dendritic cells that inhibit Th17 cells and drive regulatory T-cell development in vitro. Eur J Immunol 2024; 54:e2350839. [PMID: 38430190 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202350839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
The active vitamin A metabolite, all-trans-retinoic acid (RA), primes precursor dendritic cells (DCs) into a mucosal phenotype with tolerogenic properties characterized by the expression of integrin CD103. CD103+ DCs can counteract pathogenic Th1 and Th17 in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or celiac disease (CD). Tolerogenic manipulation of DCs using nanoparticles carrying tolerogenic adjuvants and disease-specific antigens is a valuable treatment strategy to induce antigen-specific mucosal tolerance in vivo. Here, we investigated the effects of RA-loaded liposomes on human DC phenotype and function, including DC-driven T-cell development, both during the generation of monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) as well as by priming immature moDCs. RA liposomes drove CD103+ DC differentiation as well as ALDH1A2 expression in DCs. Neutrophil-dependent Th17 cell development was reduced by RA-liposome-differentiated and RA-liposome-primed DCs. Moreover, RA liposome treatment shifted T-cell development toward a Th2 cell profile. Importantly, RA liposomes induced the development of IL-10-producing and FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) of various Treg subsets, including ICOS+ Tregs, that were potent inhibitors of bystander memory T-cell proliferation. Taken together, RA-loaded liposomes could be a novel treatment avenue for IBD or CD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémi Anna Nagy
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Florianne M J Hafkamp
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rinske Sparrius
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Rico Bas
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fernando Lozano Vigario
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Toni M M van Capel
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald van Ree
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Teunis B H Geijtenbeek
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Bram Slütter
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sander W Tas
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Rheumatology and Immunology Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Esther C de Jong
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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2
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Deyhimfar R, Izady M, Shoghi M, Kazazi MH, Ghazvini ZF, Nazari H, Fekrirad Z, Arefian E. The clinical impact of mRNA therapeutics in the treatment of cancers, infections, genetic disorders, and autoimmune diseases. Heliyon 2024; 10:e26971. [PMID: 38486748 PMCID: PMC10937594 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
mRNA-based therapeutics have revolutionized medicine and the pharmaceutical industry. The recent progress in the optimization and formulation of mRNAs has led to the development of a new therapeutic platform with a broad range of applications. With a growing body of evidence supporting the use of mRNA-based drugs for precision medicine and personalized treatments, including cancer immunotherapy, genetic disorders, and autoimmune diseases, this emerging technology offers a rapidly expanding category of therapeutic options. Furthermore, the development and deployment of mRNA vaccines have facilitated a prompt and flexible response to medical emergencies, exemplified by the COVID-19 outbreak. The establishment of stable and safe mRNA molecules carried by efficient delivery systems is now available through recent advances in molecular biology and nanotechnology. This review aims to elucidate the advancements in the clinical applications of mRNAs for addressing significant health-related challenges such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, genetic disorders, and infections and provide insights into the efficacy and safety of mRNA therapeutics in recent clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roham Deyhimfar
- Department of Stem Cells Technology and Tissue Regeneration, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- Urology Research Center, Sina Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehrnaz Izady
- Department of Stem Cells Technology and Tissue Regeneration, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mohammad Hossein Kazazi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Zahra Fakhraei Ghazvini
- Department of Animal Biology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hojjatollah Nazari
- School of Biomedical Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Zahra Fekrirad
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Sciences, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ehsan Arefian
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- Pediatric Cell and Gene Therapy Research Center, Gene, Cell & Tissue Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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3
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Jiménez-Cortegana C, Palomares F, Alba G, Santa-María C, de la Cruz-Merino L, Sánchez-Margalet V, López-Enríquez S. Dendritic cells: the yin and yang in disease progression. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1321051. [PMID: 38239364 PMCID: PMC10794555 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1321051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen presenting cells that link innate and adaptive immunity. DCs have been historically considered as the most effective and potent cell population to capture, process and present antigens to activate naïve T cells and originate favorable immune responses in many diseases, such as cancer. However, in the last decades, it has been observed that DCs not only promote beneficial responses, but also drive the initiation and progression of some pathologies, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In line with those notions, different therapeutic approaches have been tested to enhance or impair the concentration and role of the different DC subsets. The blockade of inhibitory pathways to promote DCs or DC-based vaccines have been successfully assessed in cancer, whereas the targeting of DCs to inhibit their functionality has proved to be favorable in IBD. In this review, we (a) described the general role of DCs, (b) explained the DC subsets and their role in immunogenicity, (c) analyzed the role of DCs in cancer and therapeutic approaches to promote immunogenic DCs and (d) analyzed the role of DCs in IBD and therapeutic approaches to reduced DC-induced inflammation. Therefore, we aimed to highlight the "yin-yang" role of DCs to improve the understand of this type of cells in disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Jiménez-Cortegana
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Francisca Palomares
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Gonzalo Alba
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Consuelo Santa-María
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Luis de la Cruz-Merino
- Clinical Oncology Dept. Medicine Department, University of Seville, Virgen Macarena University Hospital, Seville, Spain
| | - Victor Sánchez-Margalet
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
| | - Soledad López-Enríquez
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
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4
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Aljassabi A, Zieneldien T, Kim J, Regmi D, Cao C. Alzheimer's Disease Immunotherapy: Current Strategies and Future Prospects. J Alzheimers Dis 2024; 98:755-772. [PMID: 38489183 DOI: 10.3233/jad-231163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an extremely complex and heterogeneous pathology influenced by many factors contributing to its onset and progression, including aging, amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques, tau fibril accumulation, inflammation, etc. Despite promising advances in drug development, there is no cure for AD. Although there have been substantial advancements in understanding the pathogenesis of AD, there have been over 200 unsuccessful clinical trials in the past decade. In recent years, immunotherapies have been at the forefront of these efforts. Immunotherapy alludes to the immunological field that strives to identify disease treatments via the enhancement, suppression, or induction of immune responses. Interestingly, immunotherapy in AD is a relatively new approach for non-infectious disease. At present, antibody therapy (passive immunotherapy) that targets anti-Aβ aimed to prevent the fibrillization of Aβ peptides and disrupt pre-existing fibrils is a predominant AD immunotherapy due to the continuous failure of active immunotherapy for AD. The most rational and safe strategies will be those targeting the toxic molecule without triggering an abnormal immune response, offering therapeutic advantages, thus making clinical trial design more efficient. This review offers a concise overview of immunotherapeutic strategies, including active and passive immunotherapy for AD. Our review encompasses approved methods and those presently under investigation in clinical trials, while elucidating the recent challenges, complications, successes, and potential treatments. Thus, immunotherapies targeting Aβ throughout the disease progression using a mutant oligomer-Aβ stimulated dendritic cell vaccine may offer a promising therapy in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Aljassabi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Taneja College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Tarek Zieneldien
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Taneja College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Janice Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Taneja College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Deepika Regmi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Taneja College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Chuanhai Cao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Taneja College of Pharmacy, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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5
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Zhang T, Aipire A, Li Y, Guo C, Li J. Antigen cross-presentation in dendric cells: From bench to bedside. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 168:115758. [PMID: 37866002 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Cross-presentation (XPT) is an adaptation of the cellular process in which dendritic cells (DCs) present exogenous antigens on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules for recognition of the cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) and natural killer (NK) cells, resulting in immunity or tolerance. Recent advances in DCs have broadened our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of XPT and strengthened their application in tumor immunotherapy. In this review, we summarized the known mechanisms of XPT, including the receptor-mediated internalization of exogenous antigens, endosome escape, engagement of the other XPT-related proteins, and adjuvants, which significantly enhance the XPT capacity of DCs. Consequently, various strategies to enhance XPT can be adopted and optimized to improve outcomes of DC-based therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Zhang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Adila Aipire
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Yijie Li
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Changying Guo
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China.
| | - Jinyao Li
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China.
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6
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Wijfjes Z, van Dalen FJ, Le Gall CM, Verdoes M. Controlling Antigen Fate in Therapeutic Cancer Vaccines by Targeting Dendritic Cell Receptors. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:4826-4847. [PMID: 37721387 PMCID: PMC10548474 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.3c00330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) orchestrate immune responses and are therefore of interest for the targeted delivery of therapeutic vaccines. Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional APCs that excel in presentation of exogenous antigens toward CD4+ T helper cells, as well as cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. DCs are highly heterogeneous and can be divided into subpopulations that differ in abundance, function, and phenotype, such as differential expression of endocytic receptor molecules. It is firmly established that targeting antigens to DC receptors enhances the efficacy of therapeutic vaccines. While most studies emphasize the importance of targeting a specific DC subset, we argue that the differential intracellular routing downstream of the targeted receptors within the DC subset should also be considered. Here, we review the mouse and human receptors studied as target for therapeutic vaccines, focusing on antibody and ligand conjugates and how their targeting affects antigen presentation. We aim to delineate how targeting distinct receptors affects antigen presentation and vaccine efficacy, which will guide target selection for future therapeutic vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zacharias Wijfjes
- Chemical
Immunology group, Department of Medical BioSciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Chemical Immunology, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Floris J. van Dalen
- Chemical
Immunology group, Department of Medical BioSciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Chemical Immunology, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Camille M. Le Gall
- Chemical
Immunology group, Department of Medical BioSciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Chemical Immunology, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn Verdoes
- Chemical
Immunology group, Department of Medical BioSciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Chemical Immunology, Geert Grooteplein Zuid 28, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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7
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Zahedipour F, Jamialahmadi K, Zamani P, Reza Jaafari M. Improving the efficacy of peptide vaccines in cancer immunotherapy. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 123:110721. [PMID: 37543011 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Peptide vaccines have shown great potential in cancer immunotherapy by targeting tumor antigens and activating the patient's immune system to mount a specific response against cancer cells. However, the efficacy of peptide vaccines in inducing a sustained immune response and achieving clinical benefit remains a major challenge. In this review, we discuss the current status of peptide vaccines in cancer immunotherapy and strategies to improve their efficacy. We summarize the recent advancements in the development of peptide vaccines in pre-clinical and clinical settings, including the use of novel adjuvants, neoantigens, nano-delivery systems, and combination therapies. We also highlight the importance of personalized cancer vaccines, which consider the unique genetic and immunological profiles of individual patients. We also discuss the strategies to enhance the immunogenicity of peptide vaccines such as multivalent peptides, conjugated peptides, fusion proteins, and self-assembled peptides. Although, peptide vaccines alone are weak immunogens, combining peptide vaccines with other immunotherapeutic approaches and developing novel approaches such as personalized vaccines can be promising methods to significantly enhance their efficacy and improve the clinical outcomes for cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Zahedipour
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Khadijeh Jamialahmadi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Parvin Zamani
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Reza Jaafari
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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Silva AJD, de Moura IA, da Gama MATM, Leal LRS, de Pinho SS, Espinoza BCF, dos Santos DL, Santos VEP, Sena MGAMD, Invenção MDCV, de Macêdo LS, de França Neto PL, de Freitas AC. Advancing Immunotherapies for HPV-Related Cancers: Exploring Novel Vaccine Strategies and the Influence of Tumor Microenvironment. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1354. [PMID: 37631922 PMCID: PMC10458729 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11081354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The understanding of the relationship between immunological responses and cancers, especially those related to HPV, has allowed for the study and development of therapeutic vaccines against these neoplasias. There is a growing number of studies about the composition and influence of the tumor microenvironment (TME) in the progression or establishment of the most varied types of cancer. Hence, it has been possible to structure immunotherapy approaches based on therapeutic vaccines that are even more specific and directed to components of TME and the immune response associated with tumors. Among these components are dendritic cells (DCs), which are the main professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) already studied in therapy strategies for HPV-related cancers. On the other hand, tumor-associated macrophages are also potential targets since the profile present in tumor infiltrates, M1 or M2, influences the prognosis of some types of cancer. These two cell types can be targets for therapy or immunomodulation. In this context, our review aims to provide an overview of immunotherapy strategies for HPV-positive tumors, such as cervical and head and neck cancers, pointing to TME immune cells as promising targets for these approaches. This review also explores the potential of immunotherapy in cancer treatment, including checkpoint inhibitors, cytokine immunotherapies, immunotherapy vaccines, and cell therapies. Furthermore, it highlights the importance of understanding the TME and its effect on the design and achievement of immunotherapeutic methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Antonio Carlos de Freitas
- Laboratory of Molecular Studies and Experimental Therapy—LEMTE, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife 50670-901, Brazil; (A.J.D.S.); (I.A.d.M.); (M.A.T.M.d.G.); (L.R.S.L.); (S.S.d.P.); (B.C.F.E.); (D.L.d.S.); (V.E.P.S.); (M.G.A.M.D.S.); (M.D.C.V.I.); (L.S.d.M.); (P.L.d.F.N.)
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9
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Nagy NA, Lozano Vigario F, Sparrius R, van Capel TMM, van Ree R, Tas SW, de Vries IJM, Geijtenbeek TBH, Slütter B, de Jong EC. Liposomes loaded with vitamin D3 induce regulatory circuits in human dendritic cells. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1137538. [PMID: 37359530 PMCID: PMC10288978 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1137538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Nanomedicine provides a promising platform for manipulating dendritic cells (DCs) and the ensuing adaptive immune response. For the induction of regulatory responses, DCs can be targeted in vivo with nanoparticles incorporating tolerogenic adjuvants and auto-antigens or allergens. Methods Here, we investigated the tolerogenic effect of different liposome formulations loaded with vitamin D3 (VD3). We extensively phenotyped monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) and skin DCs and assessed DC-induced regulatory CD4+ T cells in coculture. Results Liposomal VD3 primed-moDCs induced the development of regulatory CD4+ T cells (Tregs) that inhibited bystander memory T cell proliferation. Induced Tregs were of the FoxP3+ CD127low phenotype, also expressing TIGIT. Additionally, liposome-VD3 primed moDCs inhibited the development of T helper 1 (Th1) and T helper 17 (Th17) cells. Skin injection of VD3 liposomes selectively stimulated the migration of CD14+ skin DCs. Discussion These results suggest that nanoparticulate VD3 is a tolerogenic tool for DC-mediated induction of regulatory T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémi Anna Nagy
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Rinske Sparrius
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Toni M. M. van Capel
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ronald van Ree
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sander W. Tas
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - I. Jolanda M. de Vries
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Teunis B. H. Geijtenbeek
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Bram Slütter
- Division of BioTherapeutics, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Esther C. de Jong
- Amsterdam Universitair Medische Centra (UMC), Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Brezgin S, Parodi A, Kostyusheva A, Ponomareva N, Lukashev A, Sokolova D, Pokrovsky VS, Slatinskaya O, Maksimov G, Zamyatnin AA, Chulanov V, Kostyushev D. Technological aspects of manufacturing and analytical control of biological nanoparticles. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 64:108122. [PMID: 36813011 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived biological nanoparticles that gained great interest for drug delivery. EVs have numerous advantages compared to synthetic nanoparticles, such as ideal biocompatibility, safety, ability to cross biological barriers and surface modification via genetic or chemical methods. On the other hand, the translation and the study of these carriers resulted difficult, mostly because of significant issues in up-scaling, synthesis and impractical methods of quality control. However, current manufacturing advances enable EV packaging with any therapeutic cargo, including DNA, RNA (for RNA vaccines and RNA therapeutics), proteins, peptides, RNA-protein complexes (including gene-editing complexes) and small molecules drugs. To date, an array of new and upgraded technologies have been introduced, substantially improving EV production, isolation, characterization and standardization. The used-to-be "gold standards" of EV manufacturing are now outdated, and the state-of-art requires extensive revision. This review re-evaluates the pipeline for EV industrial production and provides a critical overview of the modern technologies required for their synthesis and characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Brezgin
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector-Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow 119048, Russia; Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi 354340, Russia
| | | | - Anastasiya Kostyusheva
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector-Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow 119048, Russia
| | - Natalia Ponomareva
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector-Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow 119048, Russia; Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi 354340, Russia
| | - Alexander Lukashev
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector-Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow 119048, Russia
| | - Darina Sokolova
- Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi 354340, Russia; Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology, Moscow 115478, Russia; People's Friendship University, Moscow 117198, Russia
| | - Vadim S Pokrovsky
- Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi 354340, Russia; Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology, Moscow 115478, Russia; People's Friendship University, Moscow 117198, Russia
| | - Olga Slatinskaya
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Biology, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Georgy Maksimov
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, Faculty of Biology, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Andrey A Zamyatnin
- Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi 354340, Russia; Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia; Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7X, UK
| | - Vladimir Chulanov
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector-Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow 119048, Russia; Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi 354340, Russia; Department of Infectious Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow 119048, Russia; National Medical Research Center for Tuberculosis and Infectious Diseases, Moscow 127994, Russia
| | - Dmitry Kostyushev
- Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector-Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow 119048, Russia; Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi 354340, Russia.
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Hausladen F, Kruse P, Hessenberger F, Stegmayer T, Kao YT, Seelert W, Preyer R, Springer M, Stock K, Wittig R. Molecule transfer into mammalian cells by single sub-nanosecond laser pulses. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2023; 16:e202200327. [PMID: 36633379 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202200327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
A rapid, precise, and viability-retaining method for cytoplasmic molecule delivery is highly desired for cell engineering. Routine methods suffer from low throughput, lack of selectivity, requirement of helper compounds, predominant endosomal delivery, and/or are restricted to specific molecule classes. Photonic cell manipulation bears the potential to overcome these drawbacks. Here we investigated mammalian cell manipulation by single sub-nanosecond laser pulses. Axial beam waist positioning close to a cell monolayer induced culture vessel damage and zones of cell ablation. Cells at margins of ablation zones exhibited uptake of membrane-impermeant fluorophores and GFP expression plasmids. Increasing Rayleigh-length and beam waist diameter reduced the sensitivity to axial defocusing and resulted in robust molecule transfer. Serial application of single pulses focused over a moving cell monolayer yielded quantitative molecule transfer to cells at rates up to 40%. Our results could be basic to spatially and temporally controlled single laser pulse-mediated marker-free high throughput cell manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Hausladen
- Devices Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Petra Kruse
- Biology Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Felicia Hessenberger
- Devices Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
- Biology Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Thomas Stegmayer
- Devices Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Yu-Ting Kao
- Devices Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
- Biology Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
- IMTEK - Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, Georges-Koehler-Allee 103, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Wolf Seelert
- Coherent Laser Systems GmbH, Estlandring 6, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Rosemarie Preyer
- Genome Identification Diagnostics GmbH (GenID), Straßberg, Germany
| | - Marco Springer
- Genome Identification Diagnostics GmbH (GenID), Straßberg, Germany
| | - Karl Stock
- Devices Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Rainer Wittig
- Biology Group, Medical Systems, Institute for Laser Technologies in Medicine & Metrology (ILM) at Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
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12
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Meng L, Teng Z, Yang S, Wang N, Guan Y, Chen X, Liu Y. Biomimetic nanoparticles for DC vaccination: a versatile approach to boost cancer immunotherapy. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:6432-6455. [PMID: 36916703 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr07071e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy, which harnesses the immune system to fight cancer, has begun to make a breakthrough in clinical applications. Dendritic cells (DCs) are the bridge linking innate and adaptive immunity and the trigger of tumor immune response. Considering the cumbersome process and poor efficacy of classic DC vaccines, there has been interest in transferring the field of in vitro-generated DC vaccines to nanovaccines. Conventional nanoparticles have insufficient targeting ability and are easily cleared by the reticuloendothelial system. Biological components have evolved very specific functions, which are difficult to fully reproduce with synthetic materials, making people interested in using the further understanding of biological systems to prepare nanoparticles with new and enhanced functions. Biomimetic nanoparticles are semi-biological or nature-derived delivery systems comprising one or more natural materials, which have a long circulation time in vivo and excellent performance of targeting DCs, and can mimic the antigen-presenting behavior of DCs. In this review, we introduce the classification, design, preparation, and challenges of different biomimetic nanoparticles, and discuss their application in activating DCs in vivo and stimulating T cell antitumor immunity. Incorporating biomimetic nanoparticles into cancer immunotherapy has shown outstanding advantages in precisely coaxing the immune system against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyang Meng
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, P.R. China.
| | - Zhuang Teng
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, P.R. China.
| | - Shuang Yang
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, P.R. China.
| | - Na Wang
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, P.R. China.
| | - YingHua Guan
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, P.R. China.
| | - Xiguang Chen
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, P.R. China.
- Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266000, P.R. China
| | - Ya Liu
- College of Marine Life Science, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, P.R. China.
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13
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Liposomal Formulations of a Polyleucine-Antigen Conjugate as Therapeutic Vaccines against Cervical Cancer. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020602. [PMID: 36839923 PMCID: PMC9965676 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Human papilloma virus (HPV) is responsible for all cases of cervical cancer. While prophylactic vaccines are available, the development of peptide-based vaccines as a therapeutic strategy is still under investigation. In comparison with the traditional and currently used treatment strategies of chemotherapy and surgery, vaccination against HPV is a promising therapeutic option with fewer side effects. A peptide derived from the HPV-16 E7 protein, called 8Qm, in combination with adjuvants showed promise as a therapeutic vaccine. Here, the ability of polymerized natural amino acids to act as a self-adjuvating delivery system as a therapeutic vaccine was investigated for the first time. Thus, 8Qm was conjugated to polyleucine by standard solid-phase peptide synthesis and self-assembled into nanoparticles or incorporated in liposomes. The liposome bearing the 8Qm conjugate significantly increased mice survival and decreased tumor growth after a single immunization. Further, these liposomes eradicated seven-day-old well-established tumors in mice. Dendritic cell (DC)-targeting moieties were introduced to further enhance vaccine efficacy, and the newly designed liposomal vaccine was tested in mice bearing 11-day-old tumors. Interestingly, these DCs-targeting moieties did not significantly improve vaccine efficacy, whereas the simple liposomal formulation of 8Qm-polyleucine conjugate was still effective in tumor eradication. In summary, a peptide-based anticancer vaccine was developed that stimulated strong cellular immune responses without the help of a classical adjuvant.
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14
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Xie YJ, Liu WQ, Li D, Hou JC, Coghi PS, Fan XX. Overcoming Suppressive Tumor Microenvironment by Vaccines in Solid Tumor. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11020394. [PMID: 36851271 PMCID: PMC9964970 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11020394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Conventional vaccines are widely used to boost human natural ability to defend against foreign invaders, such as bacteria and viruses. Recently, therapeutic cancer vaccines attracted the most attention for anti-cancer therapy. According to the main components, it can be divided into five types: cell, DNA, RNA, peptide, and virus-based vaccines. They mainly perform through two rationales: (1) it trains the host immune system to protect itself and effectively eradicate cancer cells; (2) these vaccines expose the immune system to molecules associated with cancer that enable the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells. In this review, we thoroughly summarized the potential strategies and technologies for developing cancer vaccines, which may provide critical achievements for overcoming the suppressive tumor microenvironment through vaccines in solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Jia Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
| | - Wen-Qian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
| | - Dan Li
- Beijing Wante’er Biological Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., No. 32 yard, East 2nd Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou District, Beijing 101400, China
| | - Jin-Cai Hou
- Beijing Wante’er Biological Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., No. 32 yard, East 2nd Road, Yanqi Economic Development Zone, Huairou District, Beijing 101400, China
| | - Paolo Saul Coghi
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
- Correspondence: (P.S.C.); (X.-X.F.)
| | - Xing-Xing Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
- Correspondence: (P.S.C.); (X.-X.F.)
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15
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Maruszewska-Cheruiyot M, Machcińska M, Kierasińska M, Donskow-Lysoniewska K. Heterogeneity of adherent and non‑adherent JAWS II dendritic cells. Oncol Lett 2023; 25:93. [PMID: 36817038 PMCID: PMC9932576 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2023.13680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are crucial in the development of immune responses. DC JAWS II is a murine cell line frequently used in DC studies. These cells are grown in two cell fractions: Adherent and non-adherent. The present study aimed to compare these two fractions in both immature and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated JAWS II cells. The present study analysed the condition, phenotype, antigen uptake capability, signalling properties and the influence on the activity of T cells using flow cytometry, mixed cell reaction and ELISA methods. Adherent immature JAWS II cells exhibited increased endocytosis and decreased activation of the Pi3K signalling pathway. After LPS activation, adherent JAWS II cells exhibited increased expression levels of CD80 and CD86 costimulatory molecules, increased endocytosis and an elevated ability to induce T cell proliferation, compared with non-adherent cells. These results demonstrated that the two fractions of JAWS II adherent and non-adherent cells exhibited different properties and this should be taken into account in the planning of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Maruszewska-Cheruiyot
- Department of Experimental Immunotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Lazarski University, 02-662 Warsaw, Poland,Correspondence to: Dr Marta Maruszewska-Cheruiyot, Department of Experimental Immunotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Lazarski University, 43 Świeradowska Street, 02-662 Warsaw, Poland, E-mail:
| | - Maja Machcińska
- Department of Experimental Immunotherapy, Faculty of Medicine, Lazarski University, 02-662 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Kierasińska
- Laboratory of Parasitology, General Karol Kaczkowski Military Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, 01-163 Warsaw, Poland
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16
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Thone MN, Chung JY, Ingato D, Lugin ML, Kwon YJ. Cell-free, Dendritic Cell-mimicking Extracellular Blebs for Molecularly Controlled Vaccination. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2023; 6:2200125. [PMID: 36733607 PMCID: PMC9888466 DOI: 10.1002/adtp.202200125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are prime targets for vaccination and immunotherapy. However, limited control over antigen presentation at a desired maturation status in these plastic materials remains a fundamental challenge in efficiently orchestrating a controlled immune response. DC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) can overcome some of these issues, but have significant production challenges. Herein, we employ a unique chemically-induced method for production of DC-derived extracellular blebs (DC-EBs) that overcome the barriers of DC and DC-derived EV vaccines. DC-EBs are molecular snapshots of DCs in time, cell-like particles with fixed stimulatory profiles for controlled immune signalling. DC-EBs were produced an order of magnitude more quickly and efficiently than conventional EVs and displayed stable structural integrity and antigen presentation compared to live DCs. Multi-omic analysis confirmed DC-EBs are majorly pure plasma membrane vesicles that are homogeneous at the single-vesicle level, critical for safe and effective vaccination. Immature vs. mature molecular profiles on DC-EBs exhibited molecularly modulated immune responses compared to live DCs, improving remission and survival of tumor-challenged mice via generation of antigen-specific T cells. For the first time, DC-EBs make their case for use in vaccines and for their potential in modulating other immune responses, potentially in combination with other immunotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa N. Thone
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Jee Young Chung
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Dominique Ingato
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Margaret L. Lugin
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
| | - Young Jik Kwon
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, United States
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17
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Zhou J, Li L, Jia M, Liao Q, Peng G, Luo G, Zhou Y. Dendritic cell vaccines improve the glioma microenvironment: Influence, challenges, and future directions. Cancer Med 2022; 12:7207-7221. [PMID: 36464889 PMCID: PMC10067114 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.5511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Gliomas, especially the glioblastomas, are one of the most aggressive intracranial tumors with poor prognosis. This might be explained by the heterogeneity of tumor cells and the inhibitory immunological microenvironment. Dendritic cells (DCs), as the most potent in vivo functional antigen-presenting cells, link innate immunity with adaptive immunity. However, their function is suppressed in gliomas. Therefore, overcoming the dysfunction of DCs in the TME might be critical to treat gliomas. METHOD In this paper we proposed the specificity of the glioma microenvironment, analyzed the pathways leading to the dysfunction of DCs in tumor microenvironment of patients with glioma, summarized influence of DC-based immunotherapy on the tumor microenvironment and proposed new development directions and possible challenges of DC vaccines. RESULT DC vaccines can improve the immunosuppressive microenvironment of glioma patients. It will bring good treatment prospects to patients. We also proposed new development directions and possible challenges of DC vaccines, thus providing an integrated understanding of efficacy on DC vaccines for glioma treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhou
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
- Cancer Research Institute, Basic School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Cancer Metabolism, Hunan Cancer Hospital and the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Luohong Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
- Cancer Research Institute, Basic School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Cancer Metabolism, Hunan Cancer Hospital and the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Minqi Jia
- Department of Radiation Oncology Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute Beijing China
| | - Qianjin Liao
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Cancer Metabolism, Hunan Cancer Hospital and the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Guiping Peng
- Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha China
| | - Gengqiu Luo
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, Basic School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
| | - Yanhong Zhou
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis, Hunan Cancer Hospital and The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
- Cancer Research Institute, Basic School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Cancer Metabolism, Hunan Cancer Hospital and the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine Central South University Changsha Hunan China
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18
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Stoitzner P, Romani N, Rademacher C, Probst HC, Mahnke K. Antigen targeting to dendritic cells: Still a place in future immunotherapy? Eur J Immunol 2022; 52:1909-1924. [PMID: 35598160 PMCID: PMC10084009 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202149515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The hallmark of DCs is their potent and outstanding capacity to activate naive resting T cells. As such, DCs are the sentinels of the immune system and instrumental for the induction of immune responses. This is one of the reasons, why DCs became the focus of immunotherapeutical strategies to fight infections, cancer, and autoimmunity. Besides the exploration of adoptive DC-therapy for which DCs are generated from monocytes or purified in large numbers from the blood, alternative approaches were developed such as antigen targeting of DCs. The idea behind this strategy is that DCs resident in patients' lymphoid organs or peripheral tissues can be directly loaded with antigens in situ. The proof of principle came from mouse models; subsequent translational studies confirmed the potential of this therapy. The first clinical trials demonstrated feasibility and the induction of T-cell immunity in patients. This review will cover: (i) the historical aspects of antigen targeting, (ii) briefly summarize the biology of DCs and the immunological functions upon which this concept rests, (iii) give an overview on attempts to target DC receptors with antibodies or (glycosylated) ligands, and finally, (iv) discuss the translation of antigen targeting into clinical therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Stoitzner
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Nikolaus Romani
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology, and Allergology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christoph Rademacher
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Genetics, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Institute of Immunology, University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Hans Christian Probst
- Research Center for Immunotherapy (FZI), University Medical Center Mainz, Mainz, Germany.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Karsten Mahnke
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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19
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Sánchez-León ML, Jiménez-Cortegana C, Cabrera G, Vermeulen EM, de la Cruz-Merino L, Sánchez-Margalet V. The effects of dendritic cell-based vaccines in the tumor microenvironment: Impact on myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1050484. [PMID: 36458011 PMCID: PMC9706090 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1050484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are a heterogenous population of professional antigen presenting cells whose main role is diminished in a variety of malignancies, including cancer, leading to ineffective immune responses. Those mechanisms are inhibited due to the immunosuppressive conditions found in the tumor microenvironment (TME), where myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), a heterogeneous population of immature myeloid cells known to play a key role in tumor immunoevasion by inhibiting T-cell responses, are extremely accumulated. In addition, it has been demonstrated that MDSCs not only suppress DC functions, but also their maturation and development within the myeloid linage. Considering that an increased number of DCs as well as the improvement in their functions boost antitumor immunity, DC-based vaccines were developed two decades ago, and promising results have been obtained throughout these years. Therefore, the remodeling of the TME promoted by DC vaccination has also been explored. Here, we aim to review the effectiveness of different DCs-based vaccines in murine models and cancer patients, either alone or synergistically combined with other treatments, being especially focused on their effect on the MDSC population.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Luisa Sánchez-León
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
- Medical Oncology Service, Virgen Macarena University Hospital, Seville, Spain
| | - Carlos Jiménez-Cortegana
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Virgen Macarena University Hospital, Seville, Spain
| | - Gabriel Cabrera
- Laboratorio de Tecnología Inmunológica, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe capital, Argentina
| | - Elba Mónica Vermeulen
- Laboratorio de Células Presentadoras de Antígeno y Respuesta Inflamatoria, Instituto de Medicina Experimental (IMEX) - CONICET, Academia Nacional de Medicina, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Victor Sánchez-Margalet
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Virgen Macarena University Hospital, Seville, Spain
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20
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Chou PY, Lin SY, Wu YN, Shen CY, Sheu MT, Ho HO. Glycosylation of OVA antigen-loaded PLGA nanoparticles enhances DC-targeting for cancer vaccination. J Control Release 2022; 351:970-988. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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21
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Fu C, Ma T, Zhou L, Mi QS, Jiang A. Dendritic Cell-Based Vaccines Against Cancer: Challenges, Advances and Future Opportunities. Immunol Invest 2022; 51:2133-2158. [PMID: 35946383 DOI: 10.1080/08820139.2022.2109486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
As the most potent professional antigen presenting cells, dendritic cells (DCs) have the ability to activate both naive CD4 and CD8 T cells. Recognized for their exceptional ability to cross-present exogenous antigens to prime naive antigen-specific CD8 T cells, DCs play a critical role in generating CD8 T cell immunity, as well as mediating CD8 T cell tolerance to tumor antigens. Despite the ability to potentiate host CD8 T cell-mediated anti-tumor immunity, current DC-based cancer vaccines have not yet achieved the promised success clinically with the exception of FDA-approved Provenge. Interestingly, recent studies have shown that type 1 conventional DCs (cDC1s) play a critical role in cross-priming tumor-specific CD8 T cells and determining the anti-tumor efficacy of cancer immunotherapies including immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). Together with promising clinical results in neoantigen-based cancer vaccines, there is a great need for DC-based vaccines to be further developed and refined either as monotherapies or in combination with other immunotherapies. In this review, we will present a brief review of DC development and function, discuss recent progress, and provide a perspective on future directions to realize the promising potential of DC-based cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmei Fu
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Tianle Ma
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, School of Engineering and Computer Science, Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan, USA
| | - Li Zhou
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Qing-Sheng Mi
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Aimin Jiang
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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22
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Jugniot N, Dahl JJ, Paulmurugan R. Immunotheranostic microbubbles (iMBs) - a modular platform for dendritic cell vaccine delivery applied to breast cancer immunotherapy. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2022; 41:299. [PMID: 36224614 PMCID: PMC9555090 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-022-02501-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Therapeutic strategies engaging the immune system against malignant cells have revolutionized the field of oncology. Proficiency of dendritic cells (DCs) for antigen presentation and immune response has spurred interest on DC-based vaccines for anti-cancer therapy. However, despite favorable safety profiles in patients, current DC-vaccines have not yet presented significant outcome due to technical barriers in active DC delivery, tumor progression, and immune dysfunction. To maximize the therapeutic response, we present here a unique cell-free DC-based vaccine capable of lymphoid organ targeting and eliciting T-cell-mediated anti-tumor effect. METHODS We developed this novel immunotheranostic platform using plasma membranes derived from activated DCs incorporated into ultrasound contrast microbubbles (MBs), thereby offering real-time visualization of MBs' trafficking and homing in vivo. Human PBMC-derived DCs were cultured ex vivo for controlled maturation and activation using cell membrane antigens from breast cancer cells. Following DC membrane isolation, immunotheranostic microbubbles, called DC-iMBs, were formed for triple negative breast cancer treatment in a mouse model harboring a human reconstituted immune system. RESULTS Our results demonstrated that DC-iMBs can accumulate in lymphoid organs and induce anti-tumor immune response, which significantly reduced tumor growth via apoptosis while increasing survival length of the treated animals. The phenotypic changes in immune cell populations upon DC-iMBs delivery further confirmed the T-cell-mediated anti-tumor effect. CONCLUSION These early findings strongly support the potential of DC-iMBs as a novel immunotherapeutic cell-free vaccine for anti-cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natacha Jugniot
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA USA ,grid.168010.e0000000419368956Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304 USA
| | - Jeremy J. Dahl
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA USA
| | - Ramasamy Paulmurugan
- grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA USA ,grid.168010.e0000000419368956Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford (MIPS), Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304 USA
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23
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Immunotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Exp Med 2022:10.1007/s10238-022-00874-5. [PMID: 36001163 DOI: 10.1007/s10238-022-00874-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a primary malignancy of the liver, is a threat to the health of all humans as a prevalent malignancy and is the sixth most common cancer worldwide. It is difficult to diagnose because symptoms do not show up until late in the disease, and patients often progress to the point where transplantation, resection, or even local treatment cannot be performed. The progression of HCC is regulated by the immune system, and immunotherapy enables the body's immune system's defenses to target liver cancer cells; therefore, immunotherapy has brought a new hope for the treatment of HCC. Currently, the main types of immunotherapies for liver cancer are: immune checkpoint inhibitors, liver cancer vaccines and cellular therapies. In this review, the progress of immunotherapy for the treatment of HCC is summarized.
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Caro AA, Deschoemaeker S, Allonsius L, Coosemans A, Laoui D. Dendritic Cell Vaccines: A Promising Approach in the Fight against Ovarian Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14164037. [PMID: 36011029 PMCID: PMC9406463 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14164037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary With an overall 5-year survival of only 20% for advanced-stage ovarian cancer patients, enduring and effective therapies are a highly unmet clinical need. Current standard-of-care therapies are able to improve progression-free survival; however, patients still relapse. Moreover, immunotherapy has not resulted in clear patient benefits so far. In this situation, dendritic cell vaccines can serve as a potential therapeutic addition against ovarian cancer. In the current review, we provide an overview of the different dendritic cell subsets and the roles they play in ovarian cancer. We focus on the advancements in dendritic cell vaccination against ovarian cancer and highlight the key outcomes and pitfalls associated with currently used strategies. Finally, we address future directions that could be taken to improve the dendritic cell vaccination outcomes in ovarian cancer. Abstract Ovarian cancer (OC) is the deadliest gynecological malignancy in developed countries and is the seventh-highest cause of death in women diagnosed with cancer worldwide. Currently, several therapies are in use against OC, including debulking surgery, chemotherapy, as well as targeted therapies. Even though the current standard-of-care therapies improve survival, a vast majority of OC patients relapse. Additionally, immunotherapies have only resulted in meager patient outcomes, potentially owing to the intricate immunosuppressive nexus within the tumor microenvironment. In this scenario, dendritic cell (DC) vaccination could serve as a potential addition to the therapeutic options available against OC. In this review, we provide an overview of current therapies in OC, focusing on immunotherapies. Next, we highlight the potential of using DC vaccines in OC by underscoring the different DC subsets and their functions in OC. Finally, we provide an overview of the advances and pitfalls of current DC vaccine strategies in OC while providing future perspectives that could improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarushi Audhut Caro
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sofie Deschoemaeker
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Lize Allonsius
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - An Coosemans
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Oncology, Leuven Cancer Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Damya Laoui
- Laboratory of Myeloid Cell Immunology, VIB Center for Inflammation Research, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +32-2-6291969
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Tumor-originated pH-responsive nanovaccine mixture to treat heterogeneous tumors. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-022-00585-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Zhang J, Tavakoli H, Ma L, Li X, Han L, Li X. Immunotherapy discovery on tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms that recapitulate the tumor microenvironment. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 187:114365. [PMID: 35667465 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has achieved remarkable success over the past decade by modulating patients' own immune systems and unleashing pre-existing immunity. However, only a minority of cancer patients across different cancer types are able to benefit from immunotherapy treatment; moreover, among those small portions of patients with response, intrinsic and acquired resistance remains a persistent challenge. Because the tumor microenvironment (TME) is well recognized to play a critical role in tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, and the suppression of the immune system and responses to immunotherapy, understanding the interactions between the TME and the immune system is a pivotal step in developing novel and efficient cancer immunotherapies. With unique features such as low reagent consumption, dynamic and precise fluid control, versatile structures and function designs, and 3D cell co-culture, microfluidic tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms that recapitulate key factors of the TME and the immune contexture have emerged as innovative reliable tools to investigate how tumors regulate their TME to counteract antitumor immunity and the mechanism of tumor resistance to immunotherapy. In this comprehensive review, we focus on recent advances in tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms for studying the interaction between the TME and the immune system. We first review different factors of the TME that recent microfluidic in vitro systems reproduce to generate advanced tools to imitate the crosstalk between the TME and the immune system. Then, we discuss their applications in the assessment of different immunotherapies' efficacy using tumor organoid-on-a-chip platforms. Finally, we present an overview and the outlook of engineered microfluidic platforms in investigating the interactions between cancer and immune systems, and the adoption of patient-on-a-chip models in clinical applications toward personalized immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Hamed Tavakoli
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Lei Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Xiaochun Li
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
| | - Lichun Han
- Xi'an Daxing Hospital, Xi'an 710016, China
| | - XiuJun Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 W University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA; Border Biomedical Research Center, Forensic Science, & Environmental Science and Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso, 500 West University Ave., El Paso, TX 79968, USA.
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Shimizu T, Kawaguchi Y, Ando H, Ishima Y, Ishida T. Development of an Antigen Delivery System for a B Cell-Targeted Vaccine as an Alternative to Dendritic Cell-Targeted Vaccines. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2022; 70:341-350. [DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c22-00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Taro Shimizu
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University
| | - Yoshino Kawaguchi
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University
| | - Hidenori Ando
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University
| | - Yu Ishima
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University
| | - Tatsuhiro Ishida
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University
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The Beneficial Effect of IL-12 and IL-18 Transduced Dendritic Cells Stimulated with Tumor Antigens on Generation of an Antitumor Response in a Mouse Colon Carcinoma Model. J Immunol Res 2022; 2022:7508928. [PMID: 35372586 PMCID: PMC8975686 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7508928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The main purpose of our study was to determine the effect of dendritic cell (DC) transduction with lentiviral vectors carrying sequences of il18 and/or il12 genes on the level of antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo. We examined the ability of DCs to migrate to the tumor-draining lymph nodes and infiltrate tumor tissue and to activate the local and systemic antitumor response. On the 15th day, DCs genetically modified for production of IL-12 and/or IL-18 were administered peritumorally to C57BL/6 female mice with established MC38 tumors. Lymphoid organs and tumor tissue were collected from mice on the 3rd, 5th, and 7th days after a single administration of DCs for further analysis. Administration of DCs transduced for production of IL-12 alone and in combination with IL-18 increased the inflow and activity of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the tumor microenvironment and tumor-draining lymph nodes. We also found that even a single administration of such modified DCs could trigger a systemic antitumor response as well as inhibit tumor growth. Application of the developed DC-based vaccines may exert a favorable impact on stimulation of an antitumor immune response, especially if these DC vaccines are administered repeatedly.
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Espinar-Buitrago M, Muñoz-Fernández MA. New Approaches to Dendritic Cell-Based Therapeutic Vaccines Against HIV-1 Infection. Front Immunol 2022; 12:719664. [PMID: 35058917 PMCID: PMC8763680 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.719664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the success of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) in recent years, the pathological outcome of Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection has improved substantially, achieving undetectable viral loads in most cases. Nevertheless, the presence of a viral reservoir formed by latently infected cells results in patients having to maintain treatment for life. In the absence of effective eradication strategies against HIV-1, research efforts are focused on obtaining a cure. One of these approaches is the creation of therapeutic vaccines. In this sense, the most promising one up to now is based on the establishing of the immunological synapse between dendritic cells (DCs) and T lymphocytes (TL). DCs are one of the first cells of the immune system to encounter HIV-1 by acting as antigen presenting cells, bringing about the interaction between innate and adaptive immune responses mediated by TL. Furthermore, TL are the end effector, and their response capacity is essential in the adaptive elimination of cells infected by pathogens. In this review, we summarize the knowledge of the interaction between DCs with TL, as well as the characterization of the specific T-cell response against HIV-1 infection. The use of nanotechnology in the design and improvement of vaccines based on DCs has been researched and presented here with a special emphasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisierra Espinar-Buitrago
- Section Head Immunology, Laboratorio InmunoBiología Molecular, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ma Angeles Muñoz-Fernández
- Section Head Immunology, Laboratorio InmunoBiología Molecular, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain.,Spanish Human Immunodeficiency Virus- Hospital Gregorio Marañón (HIV-HGM) BioBank, Madrid, Spain.,Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
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Zhu G, Yang YG, Sun T. Engineering Optimal Vaccination Strategies: Effects of Physical Properties of the Delivery System on Functions. Biomater Sci 2022; 10:1408-1422. [PMID: 35137771 DOI: 10.1039/d2bm00011c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
With rapid developments in medical science and technology, vaccinations have become the key to solving public health problems. Various diseases can be prevented by vaccinations, which mimic a disease by...
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of Ministry of Education, Institute of Immunology, The First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China.
- National-local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Animal Models for Human Diseases, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Yong-Guang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of Ministry of Education, Institute of Immunology, The First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China.
- National-local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Animal Models for Human Diseases, Changchun, Jilin, China
- International Center of Future Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Tianmeng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of Ministry of Education, Institute of Immunology, The First Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China.
- National-local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Animal Models for Human Diseases, Changchun, Jilin, China
- International Center of Future Science, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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Nagy NA, Castenmiller C, Vigario FL, Sparrius R, van Capel TM, de Haas AM, van Kooyk Y, van Ree R, Tas SW, Geijtenbeek TB, Jiskoot W, Slütter B, de Jong EC. Uptake Kinetics of Liposomal Formulations of Differing Charge Influences Development of In Vivo Dendritic Cell Immunotherapy. J Pharm Sci 2022; 111:1081-1091. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2022.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Choudhury SM, Ma X, Dang W, Li Y, Zheng H. Recent Development of Ruminant Vaccine Against Viral Diseases. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:697194. [PMID: 34805327 PMCID: PMC8595237 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.697194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogens of viral origin produce a large variety of infectious diseases in livestock. It is essential to establish the best practices in animal care and an efficient way to stop and prevent infectious diseases that impact animal husbandry. So far, the greatest way to combat the disease is to adopt a vaccine policy. In the fight against infectious diseases, vaccines are very popular. Vaccination's fundamental concept is to utilize particular antigens, either endogenous or exogenous to induce immunity against the antigens or cells. In light of how past emerging and reemerging infectious diseases and pandemics were handled, examining the vaccination methods and technological platforms utilized for the animals may provide some useful insights. New vaccine manufacturing methods have evolved because of developments in technology and medicine and our broad knowledge of immunology, molecular biology, microbiology, and biochemistry, among other basic science disciplines. Genetic engineering, proteomics, and other advanced technologies have aided in implementing novel vaccine theories, resulting in the discovery of new ruminant vaccines and the improvement of existing ones. Subunit vaccines, recombinant vaccines, DNA vaccines, and vectored vaccines are increasingly gaining scientific and public attention as the next generation of vaccines and are being seen as viable replacements to conventional vaccines. The current review looks at the effects and implications of recent ruminant vaccine advances in terms of evolving microbiology, immunology, and molecular biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sk Mohiuddin Choudhury
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - XuSheng Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Wen Dang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - YuanYuan Li
- Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - HaiXue Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, National Foot and Mouth Disease Reference Laboratory, Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
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Bidram M, Zhao Y, Shebardina NG, Baldin AV, Bazhin AV, Ganjalikhany MR, Zamyatnin AA, Ganjalikhani-hakemi M. mRNA-Based Cancer Vaccines: A Therapeutic Strategy for the Treatment of Melanoma Patients. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:1060. [PMID: 34696168 PMCID: PMC8540049 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9101060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Malignant melanoma is one of the most aggressive forms of cancer and the leading cause of death from skin tumors. Given the increased incidence of melanoma diagnoses in recent years, it is essential to develop effective treatments to control this disease. In this regard, the use of cancer vaccines to enhance cell-mediated immunity is considered to be one of the most modern immunotherapy options for cancer treatment. The most recent cancer vaccine options are mRNA vaccines, with a focus on their usage as modern treatments. Advantages of mRNA cancer vaccines include their rapid production and low manufacturing costs. mRNA-based vaccines are also able to induce both humoral and cellular immune responses. In addition to the many advantages of mRNA vaccines for the treatment of cancer, their use is associated with a number of challenges. For this reason, before mRNA vaccines can be used for the treatment of cancer, comprehensive information about them is required and a large number of trials need to be conducted. Here, we reviewed the general features of mRNA vaccines, including their basis, stabilization, and delivery methods. We also covered clinical trials involving the use of mRNA vaccines in melanoma cancer and the challenges involved with this type of treatment. This review also emphasized the combination of treatment with mRNA vaccines with the use of immune-checkpoint blockers to enhance cell-mediated immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Bidram
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan 8174673441, Iran; (M.B.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Yue Zhao
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplant Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany; (Y.Z.); (A.V.B.)
| | - Natalia G. Shebardina
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Alexey V. Baldin
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia;
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexandr V. Bazhin
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplant Surgery, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany; (Y.Z.); (A.V.B.)
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Munich, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Mohamad Reza Ganjalikhany
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan 8174673441, Iran; (M.B.); (M.R.G.)
| | - Andrey A. Zamyatnin
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia;
- Department of Biotechnology, Sirius University of Science and Technology, 1 Olympic Ave, 354340 Sochi, Russia
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7X, UK
| | - Mazdak Ganjalikhani-hakemi
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 8174673441, Iran
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A Functional GM-CSF Receptor on Dendritic Cells Is Required for Efficient Protective Anti-Tumor Immunity. IMMUNO 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/immuno1030016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) play a major role during the priming phase of anti-tumor immunization, as they are required for an efficient tumor-associated antigens presentation. At least one dendritic cell-based therapy has already been successfully approved by regulators for clinical application in prostate cancer patients. Moreover, DC development is dependent on the granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), a cytokine that has been successfully used as a potent inducer of anti-tumoral immunity. To better understand the relation between DC and GM-CSF in anti-tumor immunity, we studied the DC function in mice lacking the cytokine receptor common subunit beta (βc-/-) for GM-CSF, IL-3 and IL-5 and immunized with irradiated tumor cells. Such immunization induces a protective, specific tumor immunization in wild-type mice, while βc-/- mice failed to mount an immune response. Upon in vitro stimulation, DC from βc-/- mice (DCβc-/-) are unable to undergo a full maturation level. In vivo experiments show that they lack the ability to prevent tumor growth, in contrast to DCWT. Moreover, matured DCWT rescued immunization in βc-/- mice. DC maturation is dependent on a functional pathway involving GM-CSF signaling through a biologically functional receptor. These findings may contribute to new strategies for efficient anti-tumor immunotherapies.
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Yazdani M, Nikpoor AR, Gholizadeh Z, Mohamadian Roshan N, Seifalian A, Jaafari MR, Badiee A. Comparison of two routes of administration of a cationic liposome formulation for a prophylactic DC vaccination in a murine melanoma model. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 98:107833. [PMID: 34352472 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cell (DC) vaccination can be achieved via straight loading of vaccine into DCs ex vivo or administration to DCs in vivo. However, there is no certain consensus on which approach is preferable, and each strategy has its advantages and disadvantages, which affect the efficacy and safety of vaccines. It will also be more complicated when a vaccine delivery system is included. In this study, the efficacy of ex vivo pulsed DC-based vaccine compared with in vivo subcutaneous administration of a cationic liposomes (CLs) formulation containing gp100 antigen (gp100-CLs) was evaluated in a murine melanoma model. In combination with an anti-PD-1 antibody, the ex vivo approach of gp100-CLs yielded a significant (P < 0.01) increase in the number of antigen-specific tumors infiltrated lymphocytes (TILs) with a significant upregulation of IFN-γ (P < 0.0001) and PD-1 (P < 0.0001) expression level. They also dampened the function of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs) via significant downregulation of IL-10 and TGF-β (P < 0.0001) expression level compared to in vivo approach in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, prophylactic immunization with gp100-CLs pulsed DCs ex vivo delayed tumor growth and induced the survival benefit over in vivo immunization. Collectively, the ex vivo DC-based vaccination pulsed with gp100 encapsulated in liposomes synergizes with anti-PD-1 antibody and represents a preferable approach against melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Yazdani
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Amin Reza Nikpoor
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Hormozgan Health Institute, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran; Immunogenetic and Cell Culture Department, Immunology Research Center, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Zahra Gholizadeh
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Nema Mohamadian Roshan
- Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Alexander Seifalian
- Nanotechnology & Regenerative Medicine Commercialization Centre (Ltd), London BioScience Innovation Centre, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mahmoud Reza Jaafari
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ali Badiee
- Nanotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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Recent Progress in Dendritic Cell-Based Cancer Immunotherapy. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13102495. [PMID: 34065346 PMCID: PMC8161242 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13102495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cancer immunotherapy has now attracted much attention because of the recent success of immune checkpoint inhibitors. However, they are only beneficial in a limited fraction of patients most probably due to lack of sufficient CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes against tumor antigens in the host. In this regard, dendritic cells are useful tools to induce host immune responses against exogenous antigens. In particular, recently characterized cross-presenting dendritic cells are capable of inducing CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes against exogenous antigens such as tumor antigens and uniquely express the chemokine receptor XCR1. Here we focus on the recent progress in DC-based cancer vaccines and especially the use of the XCR1 and its ligand XCL1 axis for the targeted delivery of cancer vaccines to cross-presenting dendritic cells. Abstract Cancer immunotherapy aims to treat cancer by enhancing cancer-specific host immune responses. Recently, cancer immunotherapy has been attracting much attention because of the successful clinical application of immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting the CTLA-4 and PD-1/PD-L1 pathways. However, although highly effective in some patients, immune checkpoint inhibitors are beneficial only in a limited fraction of patients, possibly because of the lack of enough cancer-specific immune cells, especially CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs), in the host. On the other hand, studies on cancer vaccines, especially DC-based ones, have made significant progress in recent years. In particular, the identification and characterization of cross-presenting DCs have greatly advanced the strategy for the development of effective DC-based vaccines. In this review, we first summarize the surface markers and functional properties of the five major DC subsets. We then describe new approaches to induce antigen-specific CTLs by targeted delivery of antigens to cross-presenting DCs. In this context, the chemokine receptor XCR1 and its ligand XCL1, being selectively expressed by cross-presenting DCs and mainly produced by activated CD8+ T cells, respectively, provide highly promising molecular tools for this purpose. In the near future, CTL-inducing DC-based cancer vaccines may provide a new breakthrough in cancer immunotherapy alone or in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors.
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Nagy NA, de Haas AM, Geijtenbeek TBH, van Ree R, Tas SW, van Kooyk Y, de Jong EC. Therapeutic Liposomal Vaccines for Dendritic Cell Activation or Tolerance. Front Immunol 2021; 12:674048. [PMID: 34054859 PMCID: PMC8155586 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.674048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are paramount in initiating and guiding immunity towards a state of activation or tolerance. This bidirectional capacity of DCs sets them at the center stage for treatment of cancer and autoimmune or allergic conditions. Accordingly, many clinical studies use ex vivo DC vaccination as a strategy to boost anti-tumor immunity or to suppress immunity by including vitamin D3, NF-κB inhibitors or retinoic acid to create tolerogenic DCs. As harvesting DCs from patients and differentiating these cells in vitro is a costly and cumbersome process, in vivo targeting of DCs has huge potential as nanoparticulate platforms equipped with activating or tolerogenic adjuvants can modulate DCs in their natural environment. There is a rapid expansion of the choices of nanoparticles and activation- or tolerance-promoting adjuvants for a therapeutic vaccine platform. In this review we highlight the most recent nanomedical approaches aimed at inducing immune activation or tolerance via targeting DCs, together with novel fundamental insights into the mechanisms inherent to fostering anti-tumor or tolerogenic immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémi Anna Nagy
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Aram M de Haas
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Teunis B H Geijtenbeek
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ronald van Ree
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sander W Tas
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Rheumatology and Immunology Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Yvette van Kooyk
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Esther C de Jong
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Preclinical models and technologies to advance nanovaccine development. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 172:148-182. [PMID: 33711401 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The remarkable success of targeted immunotherapies is revolutionizing cancer treatment. However, tumor heterogeneity and low immunogenicity, in addition to several tumor-associated immunosuppression mechanisms are among the major factors that have precluded the success of cancer vaccines as targeted cancer immunotherapies. The exciting outcomes obtained in patients upon the injection of tumor-specific antigens and adjuvants intratumorally, reinvigorated interest in the use of nanotechnology to foster the delivery of vaccines to address cancer unmet needs. Thus, bridging nano-based vaccine platform development and predicted clinical outcomes the selection of the proper preclinical model will be fundamental. Preclinical models have revealed promising outcomes for cancer vaccines. However, only few cases were associated with clinical responses. This review addresses the major challenges related to the translation of cancer nano-based vaccines to the clinic, discussing the requirements for ex vivo and in vivo models of cancer to ensure the translation of preclinical success to patients.
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Cancer Vaccines: Antigen Selection Strategy. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9020085. [PMID: 33503926 PMCID: PMC7911511 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9020085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Unlike traditional cancer therapies, cancer vaccines (CVs) harness a high specificity of the host’s immunity to kill tumor cells. CVs can train and bolster the patient’s immune system to recognize and eliminate malignant cells by enhancing immune cells’ identification of antigens expressed on cancer cells. Various features of antigens like immunogenicity and avidity influence the efficacy of CVs. Therefore, the choice and application of antigens play a critical role in establishing and developing CVs. Tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), a group of proteins expressed at elevated levels in tumor cells but lower levels in healthy normal cells, have been well-studied and developed in CVs. However, immunological tolerance, HLA restriction, and adverse events are major obstacles that threaten TAA-based CVs’ efficacy due to the “self-protein” characteristic of TAAs. As “abnormal proteins” that are completely absent from normal cells, tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) can trigger a robust immune response against tumor cells with high specificity and without going through central tolerance, contributing to cancer vaccine development feasibility. In this review, we focus on the unique features of TAAs and TSAs and their application in vaccines, summarizing their performance in preclinical and clinical trials.
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Parlato S, Grisanti G, Sinibaldi G, Peruzzi G, Casciola CM, Gabriele L. Tumor-on-a-chip platforms to study cancer-immune system crosstalk in the era of immunotherapy. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:234-253. [PMID: 33315027 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00799d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Immunotherapy is a powerful therapeutic approach able to re-educate the immune system to fight cancer. A key player in this process is the tumor microenvironment (TME), which is a dynamic entity characterized by a complex array of tumor and stromal cells as well as immune cell populations trafficking to the tumor site through the endothelial barrier. Recapitulating these multifaceted dynamics is critical for studying the intimate interactions between cancer and the immune system and to assess the efficacy of emerging immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and adoptive cell-based products. Microfluidic devices offer a unique technological approach to build tumor-on-a-chip reproducing the multiple layers of complexity of cancer-immune system crosstalk. Here, we seek to review the most important biological and engineering developments of microfluidic platforms for studying cancer-immune system interactions, in both solid and hematological tumors, highlighting the role of the vascular component in immune trafficking. Emphasis is given to image processing and related algorithms for real-time monitoring and quantitative evaluation of the cellular response to microenvironmental dynamic changes. The described approaches represent a valuable tool for preclinical evaluation of immunotherapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Parlato
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, Italy.
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Fu C, Zhou L, Mi QS, Jiang A. DC-Based Vaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8040706. [PMID: 33255895 PMCID: PMC7712957 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8040706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
As the sentinels of the immune system, dendritic cells (DCs) play a critical role in initiating and regulating antigen-specific immune responses. Cross-priming, a process that DCs activate CD8 T cells by cross-presenting exogenous antigens onto their MHCI (Major Histocompatibility Complex class I), plays a critical role in mediating CD8 T cell immunity as well as tolerance. Current DC vaccines have remained largely unsuccessful despite their ability to potentiate both effector and memory CD8 T cell responses. There are two major hurdles for the success of DC-based vaccines: tumor-mediated immunosuppression and the functional limitation of the commonly used monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MoDCs). Due to their resistance to tumor-mediated suppression as inert vesicles, DC-derived exosomes (DCexos) have garnered much interest as cell-free therapeutic agents. However, current DCexo clinical trials have shown limited clinical benefits and failed to generate antigen-specific T cell responses. Another exciting development is the use of naturally circulating DCs instead of in vitro cultured DCs, as clinical trials with both human blood cDC2s (type 2 conventional DCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) have shown promising results. pDC vaccines were particularly encouraging, especially in light of promising data from a recent clinical trial using a human pDC cell line, despite pDCs being considered tolerogenic and playing a suppressive role in tumors. However, how pDCs generate anti-tumor CD8 T cell immunity remains poorly understood, thus hindering their clinical advance. Using a pDC-targeted vaccine model, we have recently reported that while pDC-targeted vaccines led to strong cross-priming and durable CD8 T cell immunity, cross-presenting pDCs required cDCs to achieve cross-priming in vivo by transferring antigens to cDCs. Antigen transfer from pDCs to bystander cDCs was mediated by pDC-derived exosomes (pDCexos), which similarly required cDCs for cross-priming of antigen-specific CD8 T cells. pDCexos thus represent a new addition in our arsenal of DC-based cancer vaccines that would potentially combine the advantage of pDCs and DCexos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunmei Fu
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA; (C.F.); (L.Z.); (Q.-S.M.)
| | - Li Zhou
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA; (C.F.); (L.Z.); (Q.-S.M.)
- Immunology Program, Henry Ford Cancer Institute, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Qing-Sheng Mi
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA; (C.F.); (L.Z.); (Q.-S.M.)
- Immunology Program, Henry Ford Cancer Institute, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Aimin Jiang
- Center for Cutaneous Biology and Immunology, Department of Dermatology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA; (C.F.); (L.Z.); (Q.-S.M.)
- Immunology Program, Henry Ford Cancer Institute, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-716-400-2536
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Optimization of Liposomes for Antigen Targeting to Splenic CD169 + Macrophages. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12121138. [PMID: 33255564 PMCID: PMC7760819 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12121138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite promising progress in cancer vaccination, therapeutic effectiveness is often insufficient. Cancer vaccine effectiveness could be enhanced by targeting vaccine antigens to antigen-presenting cells, thereby increasing T-cell activation. CD169-expressing splenic macrophages efficiently capture particulate antigens from the blood and transfer these antigens to dendritic cells for the activation of CD8+ T cells. In this study, we incorporated a physiological ligand for CD169, the ganglioside GM3, into liposomes to enhance liposome uptake by CD169+ macrophages. We assessed how variation in the amount of GM3, surface-attached PEG and liposomal size affected the binding to, and uptake by, CD169+ macrophages in vitro and in vivo. As a proof of concept, we prepared GM3-targeted liposomes containing a long synthetic ovalbumin peptide and tested the capacity of these liposomes to induce CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell responses compared to control liposomes or soluble peptide. The data indicate that the delivery of liposomes to splenic CD169+ macrophages can be optimized by the selection of liposomal constituents and liposomal size. Moreover, optimized GM3-mediated liposomal targeting to CD169+ macrophages induces potent immune responses and therefore presents as an interesting delivery strategy for cancer vaccination.
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Abstract
Cancer gene therapy emerged as a promising treatment modality 3 decades ago. However, the failure of the first gene therapy trials in cancer treatment has decreased its popularity. Likewise, immunotherapy has followed a similar course. While it was a popular and promising treatment with IL-2 and interferon and cancer vaccines in the 1980s, it later lost its popularity. Immunotherapy became one of the main options for cancer treatment with the successful use of immune checkpoint inhibitors in clinics approximately 10 years ago. The success of immunotherapy has increased even more with the introduction of cancer gene therapy methods in this area. With the identification of the oncolytic herpes simplex virus and Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells, immune gene therapy has become an essential modality in cancer treatments such as surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hakan Akbulut
- Department of Basic Oncology, Ankara University Cancer Research Institute, Ankara, Turkey,Department of Medical Oncology, Ankara University School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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Moku G, Vangala S, Gulla SK, Yakati V. In vivo Targeting of DNA Vaccines to Dendritic Cells via the Mannose Receptor Induces Long-Lasting Immunity against Melanoma. Chembiochem 2020; 22:523-531. [PMID: 32909670 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report effective, C-type lectin mannose receptor (MR)-selective, in vivo dendritic cell (DC)-targeting lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) of a novel lipid-containing mannose-mimicking di-shikimoyl- and guanidine head group and two n-hexadecyl hydrophobic tails (DSG). Subcutaneous administration of LNPs of the DSG/p-CMV-GFP complex showed a significant expression of green fluorescence protein in the CD11c+ DCs of the neighboring lymph nodes compared to the control LNPs of the BBG/p-CMV-GFP complex. Mannose receptor-facilitated in vivo DC-targeted vaccination (s.c.) with the electrostatic complex of LNPs of DSG/pCMV-MART1 stimulated long-lasting (270 days post B16F10 tumor challenge) antimelanoma immunity under prophylactic conditions. Remarkably, under therapeutic settings, vaccination (s.c.) with LNPs of the DSG/pCMV-MART1 complex significantly delayed melanoma growth and improved the survival of mice with melanoma. These findings demonstrate that this nonviral delivery system offers a resilient and potential approach to deliver DNA vaccines encoding tumor antigens to DCs in vivo with high efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gopikrishna Moku
- Applied Biology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT) Tarnaka, Uppal Road, Hyderabad, 500 007, India.,Present address: Department of Physical Sciences, Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Science, Yerragattu Gutta, Warangal, 506 015, Telangana, India
| | - Swathi Vangala
- Applied Biology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT) Tarnaka, Uppal Road, Hyderabad, 500 007, India.,Present address: Telangana Social Welfare Residential Degree College for Women, Bhupalapally 506 168, Telangana, India
| | - Suresh Kumar Gulla
- Applied Biology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT) Tarnaka, Uppal Road, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
| | - Venu Yakati
- Applied Biology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT) Tarnaka, Uppal Road, Hyderabad, 500 007, India
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Guevara ML, Persano F, Persano S. Advances in Lipid Nanoparticles for mRNA-Based Cancer Immunotherapy. Front Chem 2020; 8:589959. [PMID: 33195094 PMCID: PMC7645050 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.589959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, messenger RNA (mRNA) has emerged as potent and flexible platform for the development of novel effective cancer immunotherapies. Advances in non-viral gene delivery technologies, especially the tremendous progress in lipid nanoparticles' manufacturing, have made possible the implementation of mRNA-based antitumor treatments. Several mRNA-based immunotherapies have demonstrated antitumor effect in preclinical and clinical studies, and marked successes have been achieved most notably by its implementation in therapeutic vaccines, cytokines therapies, checkpoint blockade and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) cell therapy. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the development of lipid nanoparticles for mRNA-based immunotherapies and their applications in cancer treatment. Finally, we also highlight the variety of immunotherapeutic approaches through mRNA delivery and discuss the main factors affecting transfection efficiency and tropism of mRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria L Guevara
- Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Persano
- Department Matematica e Fisica 'Ennio De Giorgi', Università del Salento, Lecce, Italy
| | - Stefano Persano
- Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Genova, Italy
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Kan S, Bito T, Shimabuku M, Taguchi J, Ohkusa T, Shimodaira S, Sugiyama H, Koido S. Impact of mature dendritic cells pulsed with a novel WT1 helper peptide on the induction of HLA‑A2‑restricted WT1‑reactive CD8+ T cells. Int J Oncol 2020; 57:1047-1056. [PMID: 32945369 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2020.5110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The proliferation and activation of CD4+ T helper 1 (Th1) cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) that produce interferon‑γ (IFN‑γ) is an essential action of effective cancer vaccines. Recently, a novel Wilms' tumor 1 (WT1) helper peptide (WT1 HP34‑51; amino acid sequence, WAPVLDFAPPGASAYGSL) applicable for various human leukocyte antigen (HLA) subtypes (HLA‑DR, HLA‑DP and HLA‑DQ) was reported to increase peptide immunogenicity; however, the function of WT1 HP34‑51 remains unclear. In the present study, mature dendritic cells (mDCs) pulsed with WT1 HP34‑51 (mDC/WT1 HP34‑51) activated not only WT1‑specific CD4+ T cells but also CD8+ T cells that produced IFN‑γ following stimulation with immature dendritic cells (imDCs) pulsed with WT1 killer peptide (imDC/WT1 KP37‑45) in an HLA‑A*02:01‑ or HLA‑A*02:06‑restricted manner. Furthermore, the activated WT1‑reactive CD4+ Th1 cells were predominantly effector memory (EM) T cells. In 5 of 12 (41.7%) patients with cancer carrying the HLA‑A*02:01 or HLA‑A*02:06 allele, WT1‑reactive CD8+ T cells stimulated with mDC/WT1 HP34‑51 enhanced their levels of WT1 KP37‑45‑specific IFN‑γ production, with an increase >10%. Simultaneous activation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells occurred more often when stimulation with mDC/WT1 HP34‑51 was combined with imDC/WT1 KP37‑45 restimulation. These results indicated that the novel mDC/WT1 HP34‑51 combination induced responses by WT1‑specific EM CD4+ Th1 cells and HLA‑A*02:01‑ or HLA‑A*02:06‑restricted CD8+ CTLs, suggesting its potential as a WT1‑targeting cancer vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Kan
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Kashiwa Hospital, Kashiwa, Chiba 277‑8567, Japan
| | - Tsuuse Bito
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Kashiwa Hospital, Kashiwa, Chiba 277‑8567, Japan
| | - Masamori Shimabuku
- Tokyo Midtown Center for Advanced Medical Science and Technology, Tokyo 107‑6206, Japan
| | - Junichi Taguchi
- Tokyo Midtown Center for Advanced Medical Science and Technology, Tokyo 107‑6206, Japan
| | - Toshifumi Ohkusa
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Kashiwa Hospital, Kashiwa, Chiba 277‑8567, Japan
| | - Shigetaka Shimodaira
- Department of Regenerative Medicine, Kanazawa Medical University, Ishikawa 920‑0293, Japan
| | - Haruo Sugiyama
- Department of Functional Diagnostic Science, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka 565‑0871, Japan
| | - Shigeo Koido
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Kashiwa Hospital, Kashiwa, Chiba 277‑8567, Japan
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Faghfuri E, Pourfarzi F, Faghfouri AH, Abdoli Shadbad M, Hajiasgharzadeh K, Baradaran B. Recent developments of RNA-based vaccines in cancer immunotherapy. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2020; 21:201-218. [PMID: 32842798 DOI: 10.1080/14712598.2020.1815704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cancer immunotherapy is more dependent on monoclonal antibodies, proteins, and cells, as therapeutic agents, to attain prominent outcomes. However, cancer immunotherapy's clinical benefits need to be enhanced, as many patients still do not respond well to existing treatments, or their diseases may relapse after temporary control. RNA-based approaches have provided new options for advancing cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, considerable efforts have been made to utilize RNA for vaccine production. RNA vaccines, which encode tumor-associated or specific epitopes, stimulate adaptive immunity. This adaptive immune response is capable of elimination or reduction of tumor burden. It is crucial to develop effective RNA transfer technologies that penetrate the lipid bilayer to reach the cytoplasm for translation into functional proteins. Two important delivery methods include the loading of mRNA into dendritic cells ex vivo; and direct injection of naked RNA with or without a carrier. AREAS COVERED The latest results of pre-clinical and clinical studies with RNA vaccines in cancer immunotherapy are summarized in this review. EXPERT OPINION RNA vaccines are now in early clinical development with promising safety and efficacy outcomes. Also, the translation capacity and durability of these vaccines can be increased with chemical modifications and sequence engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elnaz Faghfuri
- Digestive Disease Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences , Ardabil, Iran
| | - Farhad Pourfarzi
- Digestive Disease Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences , Ardabil, Iran
| | - Amir Hossein Faghfouri
- Student's Research Committee, Department of Nutrition, Tabriz University of Medical Science , Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mahdi Abdoli Shadbad
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences , Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Behzad Baradaran
- Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences , Tabriz, Iran
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Venetis K, Invernizzi M, Sajjadi E, Curigliano G, Fusco N. Cellular immunotherapy in breast cancer: The quest for consistent biomarkers. Cancer Treat Rev 2020; 90:102089. [PMID: 32889360 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2020.102089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women worldwide, with a relatively high proportion of patients experiencing resistance to standard treatments. Cellular immunotherapy (CI), which is based on the extraction, modification, and re-infusion of the patient's immune cells, is showing promising results in these patients. Among CI possible approaches, adoptive cell therapy (ACT) and dendritic cell (DC) vaccination are the most comprehensively explored in both primary/translational research studies and clinical trials. ACT may include the use of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), T cell receptor (TCR)-, or chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-engineered T-cells. There are indications suggesting that a biomarker-based approach might be beneficial in effectively selecting breast cancer patients for CI. Here, we sought to provide the current knowledge of CI in breast cancer, focusing on candidate biomarkers, ongoing clinical trials, limitations, and immediate future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Venetis
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy; Ph.D. Program in Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Invernizzi
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Piedmont, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Elham Sajjadi
- Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Curigliano
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy; Division of Early Drug Development for Innovative Therapies, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy.
| | - Nicola Fusco
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy; Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy.
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Advances in Anti-Cancer Immunotherapy: Car-T Cell, Checkpoint Inhibitors, Dendritic Cell Vaccines, and Oncolytic Viruses, and Emerging Cellular and Molecular Targets. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12071826. [PMID: 32645977 PMCID: PMC7408985 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12071826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Unlike traditional cancer therapies, such as surgery, radiation and chemotherapy that are typically non-specific, cancer immunotherapy harnesses the high specificity of a patient’s own immune system to selectively kill cancer cells. The immune system is the body’s main cancer surveillance system, but cancers may evade destruction thanks to various immune-suppressing mechanisms. We therefore need to deploy various immunotherapy-based strategies to help bolster the anti-tumour immune responses. These include engineering T cells to express chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) to specifically recognise tumour neoantigens, inactivating immune checkpoints, oncolytic viruses and dendritic cell (DC) vaccines, which have all shown clinical benefit in certain cancers. However, treatment efficacy remains poor due to drug-induced adverse events and immunosuppressive tendencies of the tumour microenvironment. Recent preclinical studies have unveiled novel therapies such as anti-cathepsin antibodies, galectin-1 blockade and anti-OX40 agonistic antibodies, which may be utilised as adjuvant therapies to modulate the tumour microenvironment and permit more ferocious anti-tumour immune response.
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